Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. Circulatory system
- distribute oxygen & nutrient
- remove waste product
- protect body from disease
Cardiovascular system
Leucocytes
platelets
- colourless, irregular
shape
- lifespan 7 days
- irregular shape
- produce in
bone marrow
- destory by
liver & spleen
erythrocytes
- lifespan 120 days
- produce in bone marrow
Granulocytes
Agranulocytes
- granulor
- non-agranular cytoplasm
Basophils
Eosinophils
Neutrophils
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
- S-shape nucleus
- double-lobed nucleus
- rounded nucleus
-bean-shaped nuclues
- cure inflammation
& allergic reaction
- phagcytosis of bacteria
- produce antibodies
- phagocytosis of
bacteria
Plasma
- contain salts, digested food, vitamin, proteins (albumin- osmotic balance), enzyme & hormones
- Haemolymph (invertebrates) transport water & insoluble salts through haemocytes
Hearts
- contract to pumps blood & relax to receive blood
1. Oxygenated blood enter left atrium via pulmonary veins, Deoxygenated blood enter right atrium via
vena cava. Both atria contract & push blood to ventricles through tricuspid (right) & bicuspid (left) valve.
2. Ventricles contract & pump oxygenated blood to aorta & deoxygenated blood to pulmonary arteries
blood through semi-lunar valve
Left ventricle thicker than right to pump blood the every body parts
Valve to prevent backflow of blood & to allow blood flow in a direction
Pressure gradient (produce when)
- right ventricle pumps blood to lungs while left ventricle pumps to the aorta
- Contraction of skeletal muscle cause vein to contract
Semilunar valves in vein - ( return blood to heart & prevent backflow of blood)
Blood pressure
A force of blood exerted on the wall of arteries
-Systolic pressure (120 mmHg) when ventricles contract
- Diastolic pressure (80 mmHg) when ventricle relax
Importance
1. Prevent excessive blood loss
2. Prevent microorganism entering
3. Maintain blood pressure & circulation of blood in a closed circulatory system
Haemophilia
- Lack of clotting factor that cause excessive bleeding
- caused vy recessive gene in X chromosome
Thrombosis
- Blood clot (thrombus)within blood vessel
- lead to stroke( in brain) & heat attack (in heart), Deep vein thrombosis (in legs )
Lymphatic system (single way & closed system)
- to fight against disease
- to produce electrolyte balance
- to transport lipid from digestive system
1. Lymph / Interstitial fluid
- squeezed from blood plasma into intercellular spaces by high pressure of arterial end
- consists water, dissolved nutrient & gases, hormones, proteins & waste product
- flowing supported by interstinal movements, single-way valves, contraction of skeletal muscle & blood
pressure change during respiration .
Lymph form intercellular space flow into lymphatic capillaries which merge into lymphatic vessel
(lymphatics), then into right lymphatic duct to right subclavian vein & thoracic duct to left subclavian
vein.
2. Lymph nodes
- In neck, groin & abdomen
Functions:
1. produce & store lymphocytes
2. Protect body against infection (swollen when infected)
3. Oedema ( excessive accumulation of lymph in intercellular space)
-cause by blocking of lymphatic vessel
Blood Plasma
- in blood vessel
- contain most protein
- Red & white blood cell & platelets
- Low lipid content
Interstitial fluid
- in intercellular spaces
- contain less protein
- leucocytes
- Low lipid content
Lymph
- in blood vessel
- contain more protein
- leucocytes
- high lipid content
First line
of
defence
- non-specific
-prevent
pathogen
entering the
body
Second
line of
defence
- non-specific
- phagocytes
(neutrophil &
monocyte)
- specific
defence
Third
line of
defence
Mucous membrane
- traps pathogen in air
- secretes mucus with lysozyme to kill pathogen
Skin (Tough)
- secrete sebum to form protective film & inhibits pathogen growth
- sweat contain lysozyme to kill pathogen
Hydrochloride acid in stomach - to kill pathogen
Tears & saliva contain lysozyme to prevent pathogen invasion
Phagocyte attracted to chemical released by pathogen, then engulf & ingest it
with pseudopodia. Lysosome release lysozyme to digest pathogen & the
digested product is release from the cell.
Antigens
- a protein that immune system recognize as foreign
- stimulate specific lymphocytes to produce antibody (destroy by lysozyme)
- binding site highly specific
Lysis lysin bind & disintegrate pathogen
Opsonisation
opsonin bind pathogen & act as marker for phagocyte to recognized & engulf it
Agglutination agglutinin bind & clump pathogen so it cannot reproduce &
capture by phagocytes easily
Neutralisation
antitoxins neutralizes toxin molecule & prevent from attaching to body cell
AIDS
- cause by HIV virus that destroy lymphocytes
- bind, insert its viral DNA, so that host cell produce new viruses that released into bloodstream
- cause immunity weak & vulnerable to disease
- transmitted by sexual intercourse, blood products, shared syringe needles, pregnancy & breastfeeding
Cardiovascular disease
1. cause by dysfunctional heart condition & blood vessel
2. Atherosclerosis
- fatty plaque( cholesterol) form & harden on arteries inner surface.
- cause arteries not elastic & narrow
- Heart attack when coronary arteries clot & stroke when cerebal arteries clot
Proper Nutrition
Healthy lifestyle
- Avoids high fats & cholesterol food
- Dont smoke ( improve heart functioning &
- eat more soluble-fibre food (lower cholesterol level) lower cholesterol level
- eat more furit & vegetable( promote healthy blood
- Often exercise
circulation)
- Maintain balance diet
Xylem
Phloem
Translocation
(Importance)
Transpiration
(Importance)
- transport water & dissolved mineral salts (continuous from root to leaves)
1. ligninfied wall- support plant, increase water adhesion
2. perforated pits allow water & mineral salts pass sideways
3. Tracheids smaller & longer vessels than xylem
- transport organic substances
1. Sieve tubes - transport organic substances through translocation
2. Companion cells provide nutrient & ATP to sieve tube
3. Parenchyma - store food substances
Transport of organic substances in phloem ( to growing & storage region)
- ensure plant survival
- To store & convert sucrose into other sugar
Water vapour lost through in plant. (Site: Stomata, Cuticle & Lenticels)
1. Sun heat up water & evaporate into spaces in between mesophyll cell & diffuse out
through stomata to less saturated atmosphere air
2. Osmosis between mesophyll cell cause water flow from xylem to outermost cells
- keep plant cool
- prevent plant witting by maintaining cell turgidity
- help to supply water
- help to transport & absorb water & mineral salts
Monocotyledons stem
Dicotyledons stem
Parenchyma store food substances Epidermis maintain plant shape & secrete waterproof cuticle
Monocotyledons root
Dicotyledons root
Parenchyma store food substances Sclerenchyma in pericycle support the root
Potometer measure water uptake rate
Bubble photometer- measure water loss during transpiration
Factors affect transpiration rate
temperature
high - increase water evaporation rate
light intensity
high- stimulate stomata opening & photosynthesis rate
relative humidity
low - increase water evaporation rate
(difference of water concentration between sub-atomal spaces & atmosphere)
air movement
fast- remove water vapours fast
Guttation
Root pressure
Cohesion
Adhesion
Transport mechanism
First
1. Root hairs absorb water through osmosis as it is
hypertonic to soil water.
2. Water dilute cell sap & become hypotonic.
3. Water then passes from cell to endodermis
1. Endodermis secrete mineral ions into xylem &
create water potential gradient & root pressure to
flow water through osmosis
Second
1. Water evaporate during transpiration create
transpirational pull from root
2. Forces of cohesion & adhesion of water help
water draw up to leave
1. Guard cell turgid when stomata open & flaccid
when stomata close, which response to light
intensity & carbon dioxide level.
Guard cell
- control transpiration rate & regulate gaseous exchange
Opening of stomata
Closing of stomata
Guard cell potassium ions & glucose level increase, Guard cell potassium ions & glucose level decrease,
became hypotonic & water potential decrease,
became hypertonic & water potential increase,
water move in through osmosis, became turgid.
water move out through osmosis, became flaccid.
Brain
Spinal Cord
- Primary
integration
organ
- control
reflex action
- connect
brain & PNS
- conduct
impulses to
& from the
brain
Human Brain
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland
Medulla Oblongata
Spinal Cord
Central Canal
Grey Matter
White Matter
Ventral root
Dorsal root
Spinal nerve
Sympathetic System
Parasympathetic System
( Spinal Nerve)
- control voluntary action, memory & intelligence ( action, hearing & tasting)
- left side control right body movement & vise-versa
- control body balance & movement
- give awareness of touch, pain & temperature (sense)
- control homeostasis, blood pressure, body temperature, sleep & thirst
- Produce hormones & control growth, reproduction & osmoregulation
- control involuntary action, act as reflex centre
Neurons
Dendron / Dendrites
- conduct impulses
- provide large surface area to receive information
- integrate electrical signals & coordinate metabolic activities
- transmits impulses from cell body to synaptic terminal
- transmits impulses from neurons to effector or other neurons
- speed up the impulses transmission & protect axons
Cell body
Axon
Synaptic terminal
Myelin sheath
Impulses
Cell Body
Location
Afferent neurons
- from receptor to CNS
- Dorsal root ganglion
- whole body
Interneurons
- from afferent to efferent neurons
- Grey matter
- CNS ( not myelinated)
Efferent neurons
-from CNS to effector
- Grey matter
- whole body
Function of synapse
1. control & integrate impulses
2. ensure impulses transmission in one direction
Characteristic
CNS
Reaction
Awareness
Effector
Voluntary action
under control of will
Cerebral cortex of cerebrum
Fast or Slow
aware action is taken
Skeletal muscles
Involuntary action
Not under control of will
Medulla Oblongata & hypothalamus
Fast
unaware action is taken
Skeletal muscles & Gland
Reflexes
- involuntary response to stimulus (rapid & automatic)
Importance :
1. Protect body from danger
2. Coordinate muscular function
3. Act as automatic response
4. Provide response before feeling pain
Reflex Arc
- nerve pathway that
produce reflex action
Burns cause receptors to send impulses along afferent neurons to spinal cord
for analysis, then relayed to interneurons & sent along efferent neurons to
effector. Cause triceps relax & biceps contracts to pull hand away.
Parkinsons Disease
1. Accelerating disorder of CNS due to low level of dopamine (neurotransmitter)
Alzheimers Disease
1. Neurological disorder that cause increasing loss of memory ( forgetful, confused, cant read & write )
controls
signals
conveyed via
reaction
effect of action
Nervous system
voluntary & involuntary action
electrical signal
neurons
fast
reversible
Endocrine system
involuntary action
chemical signal
bloodstream
slow
irreversible
Transmission of Hormones
Stimulus affects endocrine secretes hormones into bloodstream to target organ, then bring response.
Hormones : chemical produced that conveyed thought out organism & produce response in target cell
Chapter 3
Growth : irreversible process with increase in mass, sixe & number of cells
Development: Change in shape, function & complexity
Growth Stages
Cell Division
2n, n : number of mitosis
Cell enlargement
Cell elongation : vacuolation in plants ( intake water to increase size & volume)
assimilation in animal ( intake of amino acid)
Cell differentiation Differs from each other with specific function
Dry mass: water content removed ( heating above 100oC until the mass is constant)
Growth curve in insects (egg > instar > Imago)
- discontinuous growth (ecdysis during instar)
- old exoskeleton shed, new exoskeleton grows meanwhile enlarge body volume. When exoskeleton
hardens, ecdysis stop
Primary growth in plants ( cell elongation of root & shoot)
1. Meristem cell undergoes mitosis (cell division)
- replace worn out root cap (root)
- give rise to leaf primordial which grow into leaves (shoot)
2. Cell elongation through vacuolation
3. Cell differentiation to give rises to phloem, xylem, epidermis & sclerenchyma
Plants
Sixe
Vascular Cambium
cork cambium
Stem
Lifespan
Law of Segregation
-Allele in pairs determine organism characteristic. One pair of allele can be carried in a single gamete
Importance
1. Meiosis produce gametes with one of each pair of genes
2. Meiosis I
- cross over occur to form chiasmata ( gene are swapped)
- homologous chromosome pair separated
3. Meiosis II
- chromatids separated
- gamete with unique individual chromosomes formed
Law of Independent Assortment
- Allele pair may combined with any other pair ( 4 possible allele combinations)
Blood groups
Blood Group
Antibodies in serum
Donate blood to
O
A
B
AB
A
B
A&B
A, AB, B & O
A & AB
B & AB
AB
O
A&O
B&O
A, B, AB & O
Rhesus system
1. When rhesus negative (Rh-) is exposed to rhesus positive (Rh+), the body produce antibodies in
plasma, and cause hemolysis
2. Rh- can receive Rh- only , but Rh+ can receive Rh+ & Rh- blood
3. Blood pass from foetus (Rh+) to mother(Rh-)due to leaky placenta, causes mother to produce
antibodies that harm the foetus . Prevented by injecting drug that inhibits the antibodies production.
Human karyotypes
- human have 22 pairs identical autosome & a pair of sex chromosome
Sex-linked inheritance
ainheritance genes on sex chromosomes
Haemophilia
Lack of ability to clot, due to deficiency of clotting factor
Colour-blindness cannot distinguish colours
Thalassemia
Abnormal & lack of haemoglobin due to defective gene.
-Treated by blood transfusion & bone marrow transplant
DNA
Long
polynucleotide condensation
chain
Nucleotides subunits of
Pentose
sugar
Importance of genetics
1. Improve human lives
2. Improve quality of crops
3. Control genetic codes to create new organism
4. Identify the mechanism of genetic disease
Nitrogenous
base
DNA fingerprinting
1. Distinguish individual of same species using DNA
(through different number of microsatellites at a locus)
2. 5% code for protein, 95% non-coding( microsatellites)
Human Genome Project ( study to map all human genes)
1. Determine gene that cause disease
2. Manufacture human protein
3. Treat common disease
DNA
Genetic Engineering
- modification of organism characteristic by manipulating DNA
a) Gene therapy
Insertion of genes to treat hereditary disease ( sickle cell anaemia )
1. Normal gene inserted into genome to replace non-functional cell
2. Homologous recombination occurs (normal swapped abnormal gene) & return normal gene function\
b) Genetically modified organism
- organism with genetic codes altered
i) genetically modified food
- improve crop with pest resistance & herbicide tolerance
- Insulin extracted from animal pancreas to treat diabetic
Manufacture of insulin
1. Plasmid is removed from bacteria & cut with restriction enzyme
2. mRNA extracted from pancreatic cell & reverse transcript to cDNA
3. cDNA is inserted into plasmid & introduced to plasmid free-bacteria
4. Bacteria divide during fermentation & human insulin is separated & purified.
Advantage
1. Produce more & different types of product
2. Develops new crop & livestock
3. Overcome food shortage
4. Food available at cheaper cost
5. Cope with environment problem
Chapter 6 Variation
Difference in traits between individuals of the same species
Continuous variation
Discontinuous variation
- variation with no distinct categories that can be
-variation with distinct categories that can be
replaced
replaced
- characteristic different from others
- characteristic distinct & invariable from others
- quantitative in nature
- qualitative in nature
- influenced by environment
- not influenced by environment
- caused by genetic & environment factors
- caused by genetic factors
- 2 or more gene control a character
- 1 gene control 1 character
-Cannot be inherited
- can be inherited
- normal distribution graph
- discrete distribution graph
- height, weight & skin colour
- blood group, fingerprint & ability to roll tongue
Variation in Sexual Reproduction
1. Crossing over
- exchange of genes between homologous chromosome during prophase I
- form chiasmata (mix of paternal & maternal allele)
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2. Independent of assortment
-Chromosomes can line up in any orientation
Importance of variation
1. Increase survival & success rate in reproduction
2. Resistant to pests & diseases
3. Withstand severe weather
3. Random fertilization
- numerous male gametes fuse with any female gamete to form a unique zygote
Mutation in Genetic Variation
- spontaneous change of DNA
- irreversible & permanent
a) Mutagens
Physical mutagens
1. radiation ionises DNA bases & do not form complementary
base pairs. (Ultraviolet, gamma & X-rays)
Chemical mutagens
Damage DNA
(Asbestos, Benzene & Pesticides)
b) Chromosomal mutation
- sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis (anaphase)& form monosomy & trisomy gametes
Deletion
Chromosome segment breaks off & the 2 ends rejoins
Duplication
Chromosome segment copied twice
Inversion
Chromosome segment breaks off & & reversed middle piece is reinserted
Translocation
Chromosome breaks off & attached to another chromosome
1. Non-disjunction chromosome fail to separate during meiosis
Downs Syndrome
(Trisomy 21)
Turners Syndrome
(Monosomy)
Klinefelters
Syndrome (Trisomy)
Form 4
Chapter 1
Homeostasis (maintenance of internal environment for cells function optimally)
1. Regulating the internal environment
- Physical factors : temperature, blood pressure, osmotic pressure
- Chemical factors: salt content, sugar content, pH value
Regulation of body temperature:
1. Nervous system, circulatory system, muscular system, endocrine system
When Temperature raise, skin detect & send impulses to hypothalamus that send impulses to effectors
1. Blood vessel dilate to increase heat loss
2. Sweat gland secrete more sweat to cool body through evaporation
3. Hair erector muscle relax to reduce insulation (hair flatten)
4. Thyroid gland less stimulated (lower metabolic rate )
Regulation of blood glucose level (endocrine, circulatory & digestive system)
1. When glucose level high, pancreas secrete insulin & send to liver through circulatory system
2. insulin converts glucose into glycogen & blood glucose level decrease
3. When glucose level low, pancreas secrete glucagon & send to liver through circulatory system
4. Glucagon converts glycogen into glucose & blood glucose level increase
Regulation of blood pH level ( excretory, circulatory & respiratory system)
1. Kidney regulate hydrogen ions, hydroxyl ions & hydrogen carbonate ions content
Amoeba sp
Paramecium sp
Irregular shape
Fixed shape
one nucleus
two nucleus (mirco- & marco-)
Locomotion & Feeding using pseudopodium
Locomotion & Feeding using cilia
( cytoplasmic projection )
( rotate & spin along its axis)
Using pseudopodium engulf & enclose foods
The beating of cilia create water current that
through phagocytosis. Food package in food
carries food into cytostome. Form food vacuole &
vacuole & digested by lysozyme. Nutrient is
digested by hydrolytic enzyme. Waste is
absorbed & waste is egested
eliminated through anal pore
Binary Fission & Spore Formation ( Unfavorable)
Binary Fission & Conjugation ( Sexual)
Osmoregulation. Water diffuse in through osmosis, Water diffuse in through osmosis, contractile
vacuole expand, diffuse out when vacuole is full.
vacuole expand, & expel water when reached
Hence the vacuole shrink
plasma membrane by contraction
- Both live in pond & lake, eat algae & bacteria
- Both respiration through simple diffusion across plasma membrane
- bigger body build, high metabolic rate, more body cells, more energy used
Gender
Age
Occupation
Climate
Male need more energy for body development- high metabolic rate, more active
Children need more energy for growth- high metabolic rate, more active
Person does heavy work needs more energy- more active
Colder place need more energy to maintain body tempPregnant mother need more energy to supply energy to foetus - high metabolic rate
Breast-feeding mother need more energy to produce milk
Low level of thyroxine- low metabolic rate, High level of thyroxine- high metabolic rate
Roughage/ fiber
o Higher water holding capacity
o Help peristalsis / bowel movement
o Prevent from constipation
o Lower the cholesterol
o Reduce the risk of heart disease
Mineral salts:
- inorganic substances
- small amount needed
Macronutrient - required in large amount
Micronutrient - required in small amount
Iron - Formation of heamoglobin, prevent anaemia
Magnesium - Bone formation, impulses transmission,
energy metabolism
Phosphorus Formation of bone & ATP
Zinc - growth
Water
Medium for biochemical reactions
Medium for transportation of respiratory
gases
Regulates body temp.
Removes excretory waste
Maintain osmotic pressure
Aids peristaltic movement
Hydrolyse some food substances
Dissolve most chemical substances
Function:
- coenzyme for carbohydrates, protein & fats metabolism
- red blood cell formation
Deficiency disease: Anaemia & Diarrhoea
Vitamin B12
Function: tissue & red blood cell formation
Deficiency disease: Anaemia
Vitamin C
Function: Healthy skin & healing of wounds, as antioxidant
Deficiency disease: Scurvy
Vitamin D/ Calcium/ flourine
Function: Strong bones & teeth.
Deficiency disease: Rickets (Soft / deformed bones)
Vitamin E
Function:
- tissue & red blood cell formation,
- as antioxidant
- prevent sterility
Vitamin K
Function: Help in blood clotting
Deficiency disease: Anaemia
MALNUTRITION
-unbalanced diet due to wrong proportions of nutrition for a long term
Anorexia Nervosa
believe themselves to be fat, extremlely thin, dont want to eat.
Bulimia
Over concern with body weight, eat a lot and force themselves to
vomit
Overweight/ Obesity
high risk of diabetes,hypertension, heart attack
Over consumption of cholesterol &
arthrosclerosis (build up fatty deposits in the coronary arteries/
saturated fat:
blood vessels
Constipation
lack of dietary fiber.
High blood Pressure
Diabetes Mellitus
Osteoporosis
Digestion
Break down of complex food into simple form for body absorption
Physical Digestion
- breaking food into smaller pieces mechanically
- Mouth chewing & slicing action
Mouth
Chemical Digestion
- Enzyme hydrolyse complex food into simoke
soluble food
Ruminanats
Herbivores & Omnivores
Single stomach chamber
Small caecum
No protozoa
no chewing cud & regurgitate food
does no re-ingest faeces
Rodents
Herbivores
Four Small caecum stomach
chamber
Big & not well-developed caecum
Protozoa in rumen
have chewing cud& regurgitate
food no re-ingest faeces
does
Formation of gallstone
(blocked bile duct)
- eat too much fatty food
- obesity
Glucose
- excess converted into glycogen
& stored in liver
-shortage glycogen converted
back into glucose
- used in cellular respiration
Function of liver
- maintain blood glucose level by secretion of insulin & glucagon
- maintain body temperature
- manufacture bile, plasma protein (fibrinogen & prothrombin )& haemoglobin
- store vitamin fat soluble vitamin & nutrient
- detoxification of poisonous substances
- deamination of amino acid
- synthesis of vitamin A for blood clotting
Formation of Faeces
- water, vitamin & salt from undigested food are absorbed by colon
- mucus to lubricates movement of faeces along colon
- Beneficial synthesis vitamin K & B12, produce antibiotic to kill pathogenic & digest nutrient fragments
Constipation
Colon Cancer
Haemorrhoids
faeces hard & slow in passing due
cause by prolonged constipation & Veins around anus inflamed &
too large amount water loss
toxic accumulated in colon
swollen
Prevented by eat more roughage & drink more water & often exercise
Defecation
Discharging of faeces from large intestine through anus
Importance
1. Excrete waste & toxic substances
2. Avoid toxicity & poisoning in body
Gastritis
Inflammation of
stomach lining
Irregular meal time, too
much alcohol & smoking
Pain in abdomen
Obesity
Excessive body fats
above than a normal
weight
Eat too much fatty food
Lack of exercise
Anorexia Nervosa
Eating disorder by
consuming food
minimally
Low self-esteem
Bulimia Nervosa
Eating disorder by
consuming food
excessively
Depression,
misuse of laxatives
believe themselves to be
fat, extremely thin, dont
want to eat.
Plants
in large amount
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sulphur
Magnesium
Overcoming with
practicing balanced diet
Macronutrient - required
-stem & leaf growth
-increase seed & fruit yeild
- help in protein & ATP synthesis
- help in photosynthesis &
fertilization
- help in protein & ATP synthesis
- help in chlorophyll formation
- help in protein synthesis
- promotes fruit development
- help in chlorophyll synthesis
Micronutrient - required
in small amount
Boron
- help in cell wall formation
- promotes fruit development
Manganese
- help in photosynthesis &
fertilization
Copper
Zinc
Ferum
Importance :
1. Maintain oxygen & carbon dioxides
level in environment
2. Supplies food directly to green plant &
indirectly to animal
Submerged plant
1. Air sacs in aerenchyma tissue to support plant
2. Many small leaves increase absorption of sunlight
Photosynthesis
Chlorophyll in granum capture sunlight & used to split water into hydrogen & oxygen
Carbon dioxide diffuse into stomata & oxygen released out of stomata
Hydrogen react with carbon dioxide to form glucose that store in starch grains.
Light reaction
require light energy
grana
photolysis of water
Form ATP
Produce water & oxygen
presence of light
Dark reaction
does not require light energy
stroma
Reduction carbon dioxide
Use ATP
produce glucose & water
after light reaction
Similarities
1. Occur in chloroplast & during the day
Light Intensity
Photosynthesis rate is increase as
light intensity increase to a certain
point where carbon dioxide &
temperature became the limiting
factors
Temperature
Photosynthesis dark reaction is
catalysed by photosynthetic
enzyme
Optimum temperature 25-300C
the Temperature too high destroy
the enzyme and photosynthesis
stops.
Hydroponics
Aeroponics
Breeding
Tissue Culture
Genetic
Engineering
Soil
management
Biological
control
Insect
1. Abdominal relax & contract to change abdomen volume pressure.
2. Spiracles have valves which allow air, go in and out of tracheae which
reinforced with chitin rings to prevent them from collapsing
3. Trachea split into large number of tracheoles provides large surface
area & thin moist wall to maximise gaseous exchange
4. Air sacs to speed up gaseous exchange
Amphibians
Adaptation of skin
a) thin & moist ( secretion of mucus)
- allow fast & effective gaseous exchange
b) blood capillaries network under the skin
maximise gaseous exchange
Adaptation of lungs
a) numerous inner partition
large surface area-maximise gaseous
exchange
b) Covered with blood capillaries network
maximise gaseous exchange
c)thin and moist membrane
allow fast & effective gaseous exchange
Fish
Adaptation of gills:
a) Thin lamella membrane
- allow fast & effective gaseous exchange
b) Rich of blood capillaries
maximise gaseous exchange
c) Surrounded by water
enable respiratory gases to be dissolve
d) Large surface area of filaments & lamellae
maximise gaseous exchange
Breathing mechanism
1. Buccal cavity lowered to decrease buccal cavity
pressure
2. Water drawn flow into mouth & through
lamellae.
3. Oxygen diffuse from water to lamellae & carbon
dioxide diffuse from lamellae to water.
3. Mouth closed & buccal cavity raised to increase
buccal cavity pressure causing operculum to open &
water to flow out.
Countercurrent mechanism
1. Deoxygenated blood flows in opposite direction of
water current through blood capillaries in the
lamellae,
encounters higher O2 content water, concentration
gradient allows the O2 diffuse into the blood
2. When CO2 concemtration in blood is higher than in
water, CO2 diffused from blood into water
Adaptation of Alveoli
1. large number of alveoli
- increase surface area for gaseous exchange
2. One cell thick walls
fast & effective gaseous exchange
3. Moist ( wall secrete moisture)
fast & effective gaseous exchange
4. Surrounded by blood capillaries network
maximise gaseous exchange
Inhalation
External intercostal muscles contract
Internal intercostal muscles relax
Rib cage move upwards and outwards
Diaphragm contracts and flattens
Volume of thoracic cavity increase resulting in low
air pressure in thoracic air cavity
Higher atmospheric pressure causes air to flow in
Transport of Oxygen
Partial oxygen pressure in alveoli higher than
in blood capillary, oxygen diffuses into blood
capillary.
Oxygen combine with heamoglobin to form
oxyheamoglobin
Partial oxygen pressure in blood capillary
higher than in body tissue. Oxyheamoglobin
release oxygen that difuses into body tissue
Exhalation
External intercostal muscles relax
Internal intercostal muscles contract
Rib cage move downwards and inwards
Diaphragm relaxes and returns to dome-shaped
Volume of thoracic cavity decrease resulting in highair
pressure in thoracic air cavity
Low atmospheric pressure causes internal air to flow
out
Respiration
chemical to light energy
glucose & oxygen is used, CO2 & H2O is formed
Glucose decomposed
All condition
Used glucose
Involve mitochondrion
Chlorophyll pigment not needed
In all organism
store water
absorbs water vapour from air
prevent tissue from drying out
reduce water loss due to evaporation
b) Epizoics
- barnacles on crab & remora fish on sharks ( free ride & food)
2. Mutualism
- both species of organisms benefit
1. Legumious plant provide food while rhizobium sp convert nitrogen gas into organic compound for
plant growth
2. Alga provide food while fungus prevent alga from drying out
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2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose
3. Parasitism
- one organism benefits from the host
a) Ectoparasites feed on the surface of the host(e.g. ticks and fleas)
b) Endoparasites shelter & feed on tissue in the host (e.g. tapeworms)
Prey-predator
An animal is haunted & eaten by a stronger animal
- regulate both organisms populations
Saprophytism
An organism lives and feeds on decaying organic matter.
Saprophytes (plant)
- mushrooms, bread mould and bracket fungus.
Saprozoites (bacteria)
- paramecium sp & amoeba sp
Competition
- two organisms to obtain limited basic needs of life
living space, water, minerals, sunlight, food and mates.
a) Intraspecific completion ( between same species)
b) Interspecific competition (between different species )
colonization a process where life take place & form a colony in a newly formed area
succession - a process where dominant plant replaced by another plant in a habitat (slow & continuous)
1) pioneer species
dense root systems- to survive on dry & nutrient-poor soil.
change habitat into more suitable habitat for another species to live.
2) dominant species
- Grow faster to out-compete pioneers
- occurs in stages until stable & matured community equilibrium with environment is formed. (climax community)
Colonisation and Succession in a Mangrove Swamp
Environmental conditions :
a) Soft muddy soil
b) Waterlogged soil which lacks oxygen
c) Seawater with high salinity (high salt content)
d) Strong sunlight & extreme heat.
a) Avicennia sp. (open area)& Sonneratia sp.(shaddy area) - pioneer species
- pneumatophores (Breathing roots with spongy tissue) - enable respiration of roots & provide support
- viviparous seedlings geminate while attached to mother plant, float on water & ensure species survival
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2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose
Bacteria
Amoeba & Paramecium
saprophytes
Plant
Animals
Microorganism
- microscopic organisms that cannot be seen by naked eye.
Protozoa sexual & asexual reproduction through cell division, have cilia, pseudopodium & flagella
Fungi
visible to naked eye, sexual & asexual reproduction through spore formation & budding
Bacteria
asexual reproduction through binary fission & spore formation, visible under light microscope
Algae
have cell wall made of cellulose, have chlorophyll, reproduce through fermentation & spore
(Protista) formation,
Virus
smallest microorganism, visible under electron microscope, infest on living cell for nutrition &
(Monera) respiration & reproduction. Have protein coat & form spore
Nitrogen cycle
To maintain balance of nitrogen content in the water, soil & atmosphere.
a) Nitrogen fixation( conversion of atmospheric nitrogen is to nitrogen compounds required for growth)
Nitrogen fixing bacteria (Nostoe sp & Rhizobium sp) in root nodules convert atmospheric nitrogen into
ammonium compounds that converted into plant protein, become animal protein when eaten by animal
b) Decomposition, Nitrification &Denitrification
1. When the animals and plants die, nitrifying bacteria, convert dead organism & waste matter into
nitrites(Nitrosomonas sp.) & nitrates(by Nitrobacter sp.).
2. Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates into atmospheric nitrogen & complete the nitrogen cycle
Lightning energy causes oxygen combine with nitrogen to form nitrogen oxide. Combine with rain drops
to form nitric acid, then combines with the soil minerals to form nitrates & nitrites.
Decomposition
Saprophytes (putrefying bacteria & fungi) digest protein in dead organism into ammonium compounds.
& nutrient released in the soil
Alimentary canal of termites
Protozoa (Trichonympha sp). in alimentary canals termites secretes the cellulase & enables termite
digest cellulose in wood
Digestive system in humans
a) Symbiotic bacteria in colon (caecum) synthesis vitamin B12 (anaemia) and vitamin K. (blot clotting)
Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose
- Effect: global warming, melting of polar caps & raising sea level, deteriorate health
Factors : increasing concentration of carbon dioxide
a) Burning of fuels in factories
b) Forest fires
c) Deforestation
d) Open burning of rubbish
e) Motor vehicles
2. Thinning of the ozone layer
- located at the stratosphere
- absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays from reaching the Earths surface.
- ozone hole - area with low ozone concentration
Factors: increasing levels of chlorofluorocarbon(CFC)
a) Coolants in air conditioners and refrigerators,
b) propellants in aerosol cans
Effect :
1. Increase world temperature
2. Change climate & weather patterns, wind direction
3. Destroy stomata and chlorophyll in the leaves, Rate of photosynthesis decreases
4. Destroy aquatic organisms, disturbs ecological balance.
5. Causes skin cancer, cataract, weakens immune system
CLC form chlorine atom under UV rays that react with ozone to form chlorine monoxide & oxygen gas.
Chlorine monoxide react oxygen in atmosphere to form oxygen gas & chlorine atom
3. Eutrophication
Factors : Excess fertilizers in lakes, pond or rivers.
1. high concentration of nitrates & phosphates promote algae bloom, increase algae population
- cover up lake surface, prevents sunlight from reaching submerged plants
- aerobic bacteria decompose more dead plants & reduces oxygen concentration in water
- increase biochemical oxygen demand(B.O.D) & cause death of aquatic organisms.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (B.O.D)
- amount of oxygen taken up to decompose organic waste matter in water.
measure amount of organic pollutant & water pollutions level
more microorganisms, oxygen content decrease, B.O.D increase, pollution level increases,
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2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose
Air pollution condition where pollutant enter air from various source
- cause haze (decrease light penetration, affect photosynthesis)
- cause acid rain corrodes buildings, soil & water acidity increase, leeching of soil nutrient, affect plant
growth & cause health problems
Water pollution condition where pollutant enter water from various source
Thermal pollution increasing environmental temperature due to excess heat release
Noise pollution unwanted man-made sound disrupts environment & people health & welfare
- factors : aeroplanes, machinery vehicles, factories machines, piling & drilling in construction area
- cause deafness, high blood pressure & headache
A) Biological control
Method where predator is used to control the population of that pest in an area.
use prey-predator interaction.
a) Does not pollute environment (stop use of pesticides.)
b) Does not kill other organisms
c) Is cheap and safe to use
B) Enforcement of Environment Quality Act
- prevent environmental pollution by control licensing & examines disposal of waste & smoke in industry
C) Education
- raise awareness & importance of protect healthy environment for society , recycle & less polluting
D) Preservation & Conservation of ecosystem
- replant trees after deforestation, restore mining land for agricultural, river cleaning, treat toxic & waste
before disposal, use unleaded petrol,
E) Use of renewable energy
Joshua Chong Kah Leong
2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpose