MATH20101 Complex Analysis

6. Laurent series, singularities

6. Laurent series and singularities

We have already seen that a holomorphic function f can be expressed as a Taylor series:
i.e. if f is differentiable on a domain D and z0 D then we can write
f (z) =

an (z z0 )n

(6.0.1)

n=0

for suitable constants an , and this expression is valid for |z z0 | < R, for some R > 0.
The idea of Laurent series is to generalise (6.0.1) to allow negative powers of (z z0 ). This
turns out to be a remarkably useful tool.
6.1

Laurent series

Definition. A Laurent series is a series of the form

an (z z0 )n .

(6.1.1)

n=

As (6.1.1) is a doubly infinite sum, we need to take care as to what it means. We define
(6.1.1) to mean

X
X
an (z z0 )n = + + .
an (z z0 )n +
n=1

n=0

The first question to address is when does (6.1.1) converge? For this, we need both
and + to converge.
Now + converges for |z z0 | < R2 for some R2 0, where R2 is the radius of
convergence of + .
We can recognise as a power series in (z z0 )1 . This has a radius of convergence
equal to, say, R11 0. That is, converges when |(z z0 )1 | < R11 . In other words,
converges when |z z0 | > R1 .
Combining these, we see that if 0 R1 < R2 then (6.1.1) converges in the annulus
{z C | R1 < |z z0 | < R2 }.
See Figure 6.1.1.
The following theorem says that if we have a function f that is holomorphic on an
annulus then it can be expressed as a Laurent series. (Compare this with Taylors theorem:
if f is holomorphic on a disc then it can be expressed as a Taylor series.) Moreover, we can
obtain an expression for the constants an in terms of the function f .

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6. Laurent series, singularities

z0

R1

R2

Figure 6.1.1: An annulus in C with centre z0 and radii R1 < R2 .

Theorem 6.1.1 (Laurents theorem)
Suppose that f is holomorphic in the annulus {z C | R1 < |z z0 | < R2 }, where
0 R1 < R2 . Then we can write f as a Laurent series: for R1 < |z z0 | < R2 we
have

X
X
an (z z0 )n
(6.1.2)
an (z z0 )n +
f (z) =
n=1

n=0

Moreover, if Cr (t) = z0 + reit with R1 < r < R2 , 0 t 2 is a path around z0 contained

in this annulus then
Z
f (z)
1
dz
an =
2i Cr (z z0 )n+1
for n Z.
Remark. Note that in this case we cannot conclude that an = f (n) (z0 )/n! as we do not
know that f is differentiable at z0 (indeed, it may not even be defined at z0 ).
Remark. The proof is similar to the proof of Taylors theorem and can be found in
Stewart and Talls book.
We call the series (6.1.2) the Laurent series of f (z) about z0 or the Laurent expansion
of f (z).
We call
1
X
an (z z0 )n
n=

the principal part of the Laurent series. Thus the principal part of a Laurent series is the
part that contains all the negative powers of (z z0 ).
Example.
Let f (z) = ez + e1/z . Recall that ez =
P

e1/z = n=0 z n /n! for all z 6= 0. Hence

f (z) =

n=

58

cn z n

n=0 z

n /n!

for all z C. Hence

MATH20101 Complex Analysis

6. Laurent series, singularities

where

1
1
for n 1, c0 = 2, cn =
for n 1.
n!
n!
This expansion if valid for all z 6= 0, i.e. R1 = 0, R2 = .
cn =

Example. Let

1
1
+
z 1z
and let us calculate the Laurent series at z0 = 0.
Now 1/z is already a Laurent series at 0 (the only non-zero coefficient is c1 = 1). Note
that this converges if z 6= 0 (in this case, as there is only one term, checking convergence
just means checking when
formula makes sense!).
P this
n
Now 1/(1 z) = n=0 z (think about geometric progressions to see why!) and this
converges for |z| < 1.
Hence f (z) has Laurent series
f (z) =

f (z) =

X
1
zn
+ 1 + z + z2 + z3 + =
z
n=1

and this expression is valid in the annulus 0 < |z| < 1.

Example. Let

1
1

z1 z2
We will expand f as three different Laurent series about z0 = 0, valid in three different
annuli.
First note that we can write
f (z) =

X
1
1
zn
=
=
z1
1z
n=0

(6.1.3)

(summing a geometric progression) and that this is valid for |z| < 1. We can also write

1
1
1
1 X n X 1

=
=
z =
z1
z 1 z1
z n=0
zn
n=1

P
n = 1/(1 z 1 ) is the sum to infinity of a geometric progresby again noting that
n=0 z
sion with common ratio z 1 . This converges for |z 1 | < 1, i.e. |z| > 1. Hence

X 1
1
=
z1
zn

(6.1.4)

n=1

and this is valid for |z| > 1.

Similarly, we can write
1
1
1
=
=
z2
2z
2

1
1

z
2

1 X  z n
2
2

(6.1.5)

n=0

P
n
by noting that
n=0 (z/2) = 1/(1 z/2) is the sum of a geometric progression with
common ratio z/2. This expansion is valid when |z/2| < 1, i.e. when |z| < 2.
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6. Laurent series, singularities

We can also write

1
1
1
1 X  z n X 2n1

=
=
=
z2
z 1 z2
z
2
zn
n=1
n=0

(6.1.6)

by recognising the middle term as the sum of a geometric progression with common ratio
(z/2)1 . This converges when |(2/z)1 | < 1, i.e. when |z| > 2.
Using (6.1.3) and (6.1.5) we see that we can expand




1 X  z n X
1
z +
f (z) =
=
1 + n+1 z n
2
2
2
n=0
n=0
n=0
n

and this is valid in the annulus 0 |z| < 1.

Using (6.1.4) and (6.1.5) we can expand
f (z) =

X
1 X  z n
1
+
zn 2
2
n=0

n=1

z
1 1
zn
1
= + n + + + + 2 + + n+1 +
z
z 2 2
2
and this is valid in the annulus 1 < |z| < 2.
Using (6.1.4) and (6.1.6) we can expand

X
X
1
2n1
f (z) =

z n n=1 z n
n=1

X
1 2n1

zn

n=1

and this is valid in the annulus |z| > 2.

6.2

Singularities

Definition. A singularity of a function f (z) is a point z at which f (z) is not differentiable.

(Indeed, f may not even be defined at z.)
Example. If f (z) = 1/z then f is not defined at the origin (we are not allowed to divide
by 0). Hence f has a singularity at z = 0.
Suppose that f has a singularity at z0 .
Definition. If there exists a punctured disc 0 < |z z0 | < R such that f is differentiable
on this punctured disc then we say that z0 is an isolated singularity of f .
Example. In the above example, 0 is an isolated singularity of f (z) = 1/z.
In this course we will only be interested in isolated singularities. Suppose that f has
an isolated singularity at z0 . We expand f as a Laurent series around z0 to obtain
f (z) =

an (z z0 ) +

n=1

n=0

60

bn (z z0 )n ,

MATH20101 Complex Analysis

6. Laurent series, singularities

and this is valid for 0 < |z z0 | < R. Consider the principal part of the Laurent series

bn (z z0 )n .

(6.2.1)

n=1

There are three possibilities: the principal part of f may have

(i) no terms,
(ii) a finite number of terms,
(iii) an infinite number of terms.
6.2.1

Removable singularities

Suppose that f has an isolated singularity at z0 and that the principal part of the Laurent
series (6.2.1) has no terms in it. In this case, for 0 < |z z0 | < R we have that
f (z) = a0 + a1 (z z0 ) + + an (z z0 )n + .
The radius of convergence of this power series is at least R, and so f (z) extends to a function
that is differentiable at z0 .
Example. Let

sin z
z 6= 0.
z
Then f has an isolated singularity at 0 as f (z) is not defined at z = 0. However, we know
that
z2 z4
sin z
=1
+

z
3!
5!
for z 6= 0. Define f (0) = 1. Then f (z) is differentiable for all z C. Hence f has a
removable singularity at z = 0.
f (z) =

6.2.2

Poles

Suppose that f has an isolated singularity at z0 and that the principal part of the Laurent
series (6.2.1) has finitely many terms in it. In this case, for 0 < |z z0 | < R we can write

f (z) =

X
b1
bm
an (z z0 )n
+

+
+
(z z0 )m
z z0 n=0

where bm 6= 0. In this case, we say that f has a pole of order m at z0 .

Example. Let

sin z
, z 6= 0.
z4
Then f has an isolated singularity at z = 0. We can write
f (z) =

sin z
1
1
1
11
+ z z3 + .
= 3
z4
z
3! z 5!
7!
Hence f has a pole of order 3 at z = 0.
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6. Laurent series, singularities

We will often consider functions f : D C defined on a domain D that are differentiable

except at finitely many points in D and f has either removable singularities or poles at
these points.
Definition. Let D be a domain. A function f : D C is said to be meromorphic if f
is differentiable on D except at finitely many points, and these points are either removable
singularities or poles.
6.2.3

Isolated essential singularities

Suppose that f has an isolated singularity at z0 and that the principal part of the Laurent
series (6.2.1) has infinitely many terms in it. In this case we say that f has an isolated
essential singularity.
Isolated essential singularities are difficult to deal with and we will not consider them
in this course.
Example. Let f (z) = sin 1/z, z 6= 0. Then f has a singularity at z = 0 and
 
1
1
1
1
+
.
=
sin
3
z
z 3!z
5!z 5
Hence f has an isolated essential singularity at z = 0.
6.3

Exercises

Exercise 6.1
Find the Laurent expansions of the following around z = 0:
(i) (z 3)1 , valid for |z| > 3;
(ii) 1/(z(1 z)), valid for 0 < |z| < 1;
(iii) z 3 e1/z , valid for |z| > 0;
(iv) cos(1/z), valid for |z| > 0.
Exercise 6.2
Find Laurent expansions for the function
f (z) =

2(z 1)
z 2 2z 3

valid in the annuli

[(i)] 0 |z| < 1, [(ii)] 1 < |z| < 3, [(iii)] 3 < |z|.
Exercise 6.3
Find a Laurent expansion for the function f (z) = (1 z + z 2 )1 in powers of (z 1) valid
for 0 < |z 1| < 1. (Hint: introduce a new variable w = z 1.)
Exercise 6.4
Find the poles and their orders of the functions
(i)

z2

1
1
1
1
, (ii) 4
, (iii) 4
, (iv) 2
.
2
+1
z + 16
z + 2z + 1
z +z1
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MATH20101 Complex Analysis

6. Laurent series, singularities

Exercise 6.5
Describe the type of singularity at 0 of each of the following functions:
(i) sin(1/z) (z 6= 0), (ii) z 3 sin2 z, (iii)

63

cos z 1
.
z2