ATOMIC & NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Thomsons Atomic Model

According to this model
1. An atom is a solid sphere in which entire positive charge and its mass is uniformly distributed
and in which negative charge (i.e., electrons) are embedded like seeds in watermelon.
2. This model explained successfully the phenomenon of thermionic emission, photoelectric
emission and ionization.
3. This model fails to explain the scattering of -particles, and the origin of spectral lines
observed in the spectrum of hydrogen and other atoms.

-Scattering Experiment
Rutherford in 1911 performed an experiment which led to the downfall of Thomson's model. The
experiment involved the bombardment of a thin sheet of gold (thickness 4 * 10-5 cm) by -particles.
These particles were obtained in the form of a narrow beam by passing through a slit. A circular screen
coated with ZnS was placed around the foil to detect the deflection suffered by -particles (whenever,
an -particle struck the screen, tiny flashes of light known as Scintillations are produced at that point).

ATOMIC & NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Geiger and Marsden studied the scattering of -particles by gold foil on the advice of Rutherford and
made the following observations:
1. Most of the -particles pass through the foil straight away undeflected.
2. Some of them are deflected through small angles.
3. Few -particles (1 in 1000) are deflected through the angle more than 90.
4. A few -particles return back, i.e., deflected by 180.
5. Number of scattered particles:

1
4
sin ( )
2

6. If t is the thickness of the foil and N is the number of -particles scattered in a particular
N t
N
=constant 1 = 1
direction, it was observed that
t
N2 t2
7. Distance of closest approach (Nuclear dimension): The minimum distance from the nucleus
up to which the -particle approach is called the distance of closest approach (r0). At this
distance the entire initial kinetic energy is converted into electrostatic potential energy, so
2

( Ze ) 2 e
1
1
Ze
4 kZ 2e
1
2
mv =
.
r 0=
=
( k=
)
2
2
2
4 0
r0
4 0
m v 0
mv

8. Impact parameter (b): The perpendicular distance of the velocity vector ( v ) of the particle from the centre of the nucleus when it is far away from the nucleus is known as impact
parameter. It is given as
2
/

2
/

2
Z e cot
b=
For large b, -particles will go undeviated and for small b the -particle will suffer large
scattering.

Rutherfords Atomic Model

ATOMIC & NUCLEAR PHYSICS

After -particles scattering experiment, following conclusions were made by Rutherford about atomic
structure:
1. Most of the mass (at least 99.95%) and all of the charge of an atom is concentrated in a very
small region called atomic nucleus.
2. Nucleus is positively charged and its size is of the order 10-15 m 1 fermi. The nucleus
occupies only about 10-12 of the total volume of the atom or less.
3. In an atom there is maximum empty space and the electrons revolve around the nucleus in the
same way as the planets revolve around the sun.
Failure of Rutherfords Model
1. Stability of atom: It could not explain stability of atom because according to classical
electrodynamics theory an accelerated charged particle should continuously radiate energy.
Thus an electron moving in a circular path around the nucleus should also radiate energy. As a
result the electron should move into orbits of gradually decreasing radius and should ultimately
fall into nucleus.
2. According to this model the spectrum of atom must be continuous whereas practically it is a
line spectrum.
3. It did not explain the distribution of electrons outside the nucleus.
Bohrs Atomic Model
Bohr proposed a model for hydrogen atom which is also applicable for some lighter atoms in which a
single electron revolves around a stationary nucleus of positive charge Ze. Postulates of Bohrs Model:
1. He postulated that an electron in an atom can move around the nucleus in certain circular stable
orbits without emitting radiations.
2. Bohr found that the magnitude of the electrons angular momentum is quantized, i.e.,
L=m v n r n=n

( 2h )

where n = 1, 2, 3.and each value of n corresponds to a permitted

value of the orbit radius.

rn = radius of nth orbit, vn = corresponding speed
3. The radiation of energy occurs only when an electron jumps from one permitted orbit to
another. When an electron jumps from higher energy orbit (E2) to lower energy orbit (E1) then
difference of energies of these orbits, i.e., E2 E1 emits in the form of photon. But if electron
goes from E1 to E2 it absorbs the same amount of energy.
Drawbacks of Bohrs Atomic Model
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

It is valid only for one electron atoms, e.g. : H, He+, Li+2 etc.
Orbits were taken as circular but according to Sommerfield these are elliptical.
Intensity of spectral lines could not be explained.
Nucleus was taken as stationary but it also rotates on its own axis.
It could not explain the fine structure in spectrum line.
It does not explain the doublets in the spectrum of some of the atoms like sodium (5890 &
5896)

ATOMIC & NUCLEAR PHYSICS

7. It does not explain the Zeeman effect (splitting up of spectral lines in magnetic field) and Stark
effect (splitting up in electric field).
Bohrs Orbits (for Hydrogen and H-like atoms)
1. Radius of orbit : For an electron around a stationary nucleus the electrostatic force of attraction
provides the necessary centripetal force
1 ( Ze ) e m v 2
=
i.e.,
..(i)
4 0 r2
r
nh
also mvr=
.....(ii)
2
From equation (i) and (ii) radius of nth orbit
n2 h2 0
n2 h2
n2
1
r n= 2
=
=0.53
k=
2
2
Z
4 0
4 kZm e mZ e
2
n
rn
Z
2. Speed of electron: From the above relations, speed of electron in nth orbit can be calculated as

From equation (i) we have,

kZ e 2 m v2
=
2
r
r
v n=

kZ e 2
=
m rn

kZ e 2
4 2 k 2 Z 2 e 4 2 kZ e2
Z e2
c Z
z
=
=
=
=
=2.2 106 m/ s
2 2
2 2
nh
2 0 nh 137 n
n
n h
n h
m
2
2
4 kZm e

( )

Energy
(1) Potential Energy: An electron possesses some potential energy because it is found in the
field of nucleus. Potential energy of electron in nth orbit of radius rn is given by
(Ze)(e) kZ e 2
U=k .
=
rn
rn
(2) Kinetic Energy: An electron possesses kinetic energy because of its motion. Closer orbits
have greater kinetic energy than outer ones.
mv 2 k . ( Ze ) .(e) 1
kZ e2
2
=

m
v
=
As we know
2
rn
2
2r n
rn
2
kZ e |U|
=
Kinetic energy K=
2 rn
2
(3) Total Energy: Total energy is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy, i.e., E=K+U
kZ e 2 kZ e 2

E=
2 rn
rn
2 2
2
n h 0
kZ e

also r n=
2
2 rn
mZ e

ATOMIC & NUCLEAR PHYSICS

me 4 Z 2
m e4
Z2
Z2
Z2
=
ch
=Rch
=13.6
eV
8 20 h 2 n2
8 20 c h3
n2
n2
n2

( ) (

Hence E=

me
'
7
=Rydberg s constant=1.09 10 per m
2
3
8 0 c h
(4) Ionization energy and potential: The energy required to ionize an atom is called
ionization energy. It is the energy required to make the electron jump from the present orbit
to the infinite orbit.
Z2 +13.6 Z 2
E
=E
E
=0
13.6
=
eV
Hence
ionization

n
n2
n2
The potential through which an electron needs to be accelerated so that it acquires energy
equal to the ionization energy is called ionization potential.
E
V ionization = ionization
e
(5) Excitation energy and potential: When energy is given to an electron from external
source, it jumps to higher energy level. This phenomenon is called excitation.
The minimum energy required to excite an atom is called excitation energy of the particular
excited state and corresponding potential is called excitation potential.
E
Eexcitation=E finalE initialV excitation= excitation
e
where R=

Spectral series of hydrogen atom:

From Bohrs theory, the energy of an electron in the nth
orbit of hydrogen atom is given by
2

En=Rch

Z
2
n

According to Bohrs frequency condition, whenever an

electron makes a transition from a higher energy level n2
to lower energy level n1, the difference of energy appears
in the form of a photon. The frequency of the emitted
photon is given by
2

Z
Z
1 1
h=E n En =Rch 2 Rch 2 =Rch Z 2 2 2
n2
n1
n1 n2
2

=Rc

1 1

for H atom Z =1
n21 n 22

As c = ,therefore wave number , which is the reciprocal of wavelength , is given by

ATOMIC & NUCLEAR PHYSICS

1
1 1
= = =R 2 2
c
n1 n 2

When hydrogen atom is excited, it returns to its normal unexcited state by emitting the energy it had
absorbed earlier. This energy is given out by the atom in the form of radiations of different
wavelengths as the electron jumps down from a higher to a lower orbit. Transition from different orbits
cause different wavelengths, these constitute spectral series which are characteristic of the atom
emitting them. When observed through a spectroscope, these radiations are imaged as sharp and
straight vertical lines of a single color.
The spectral lines arising from the transition of electron forms a spectra series.
Mainly there are five series and each series is named after its discoverer.

ATOMIC & NUCLEAR PHYSICS

(i)

Lyman
series: If an
electron
jumps from
any higher
energy level
n2 = 2, 3, 4
to a lower
energy level
n1 = 1, we get
a set of
spectral lines
called lyman
series which
belong to the
ultraviolet
region of the

electromagnetic spectrum. This series is given by

1
1 1
= =R 2 2 ,n 2=2,3, 4

1 n2

(ii)

Balmer series: The spectral series corresponding to the transitions n2 = 3, 4, 5 to n1 = 2,

lies in the visible region and is called balmer series. For this series
1
1 1
= =R 2 2 ,n 2=3, 4,5

2 n2

(iii)

Paschen series: If n2 = 4, 5, 6 and n1 = 3, we get a spectral series in the infrared region

which is called paschen series.

ATOMIC & NUCLEAR PHYSICS

(iv)

(v)

1
1 1
= =R 2 2 , n2=4,5, 6

3 n2
Brackett series: If n2 = 5, 6, 7 and n1 = 4, we get a spectral series in the infrared region
which is called brackett series.
1
1 1
= =R 2 2 ,n 2=5, 6,7

4 n2
Pfund series: If n2 = 6, 7, 8 and n1 = 5, we get a spectral series in the infrared region
which is called pfund series.
1
1 1
= =R 2 2 , n2=6, 7,8

5 n2

Energy level diagram for hydrogen:

The diagrammatic description of the energy of the electron in different orbits around the nucleus is
called energy level diagram.

Bohrs quantization condition of angular momentum:

Consider the motion of an electron in a circular orbit of radius r around the nucleus of the atom.
According to de Broglie hypothesis, this electron is also associated with wave character. Hence a
circular orbit can be taken to be stationary energy state only if it contains an integral number of deBroglie wavelengths, i.e., we must have 2r = n
But de Broglie wavelength,
2 r=

h
mv

nh
mv

The angular momentum L of the electron must be

ATOMIC & NUCLEAR PHYSICS

L=mvr =

nh
, n=1, 2, 3 .
2

This is the famous Bohrs quantization condition for angular momentum.