Guide: writing category

Paper:Chicago style
Purpose and objetive
Research papers are the very heart and soul of the academic community at all levels.
They are the means by which scholars of all persuasions communicate the results of
their hard work to their peers. In its most basic form, a research paper identifies a
research question, outlines the chosen methodology, presents the subsequent data, and
assesses that data in relation to the research question. Although it is true that all scholars
write differently, you can be sure that their research papers will always follow the
aforementioned structure with only some minor variations.
In a classroom setting, a research paper provides you with the perfect opportunity to
demonstrate your ability to think logically, organize yourself, put forward an argument,
and be analytical. The skills you will develop in the process of writing your papers will
be with you for your entire lifetime. At the end of the day, youre not only learning
about your substantive topic (American politics or globalization etc.), youre also
learning how to communicate effectively.

Your research topic

Closed topic
If youre a student in high-school, college, or university, it is likely that your research
topic will be either partially or fully identified from the very outset. Sometimes these
are called closed topics.
If your topic area has been partially established for you, it is likely that your teacher
or professor has given you a general area within which to conduct your research (e.g.,
Please write a paper about democracy in the West.). However, if your topic has been
fully identified (e.g. Please write a paper on the origins of American democracy.), then
youre in a position to jump right into more focused research. Either way, be sure to
clarify the boundaries of your assignment with your instructor before you begin.
Whatever your situation, begin by exploring what has already been written on the
topic so as to familiarize yourself with the academic terrain. Consult books, journal
articles, popular media, government documents, and whatever else you can get your
hands on (see your Scholar Word tutorials for more information on library research). Do
your best to identify the following: (1) which scholars have made noteworthy
contributions to your area of research, (2) what the most important debates are, and (3)
whether or not scholars are divided into particular camps with respect to their points
of view (e.g., conservative, liberal, Marxist, postmodernist). Once you feel comfortable
with the literature, youre ready to move on to the next step -- identifying your research
question -- which, in the context of a closed topic situation, is relatively straight
forward.

Open topic
In the latter years of ones academic career, open topics are assigned more
frequently; often because students are assumed to have developed the necessary critical

thinking and research skills needed to identify their own area of research. If you have
been given full discretion with respect to your topic, consider the following suggestions.
First, spend time thinking about what really interests you. If youre going to spend
endless hours working on your paper, it is vital that your topic area be of considerable
interest. There is nothing worse than realizing youre no longer interested in your
research topic when the deadline for the paper is only a few days away!
Once you establish an area of interest, begin reviewing the existing literature in order
to familiarize yourself with whats already been written (for additional tips, see the
Literature Review writing guide). Consult books, journal articles, popular media,
government documents, and whatever else you can get your hands on. Do your best to
identify, (1) which scholars have made noteworthy contributions, (2) what the most
important debates are and (3) whether or not scholars are divided into particular
camps. Once you are confident that you have a general grasp on the literature, youre
ready to proceed onto the next step - identifying your research question!

Your research question

Your research question is, quite simply, the question you are going to answer. That
being the case, it will guide you over the course of your research. If you were assigned a
closed topic by your instructor, your research question is likely provided for you (e.g.,
what are the origins of democracy in America?). If thats the case, youre ready to begin
researching.
However, if you chose your own topic area, its now time to identify your research
question. When creating your research question, there are a number of things you might
want to consider. First, avoid asking dead-end questions that can be answered with
either a yes or no. Instead, ask a question that leaves considerable room for
discussion. For example, consider questions starting with, What are the factors or
To what extent does . Second, be sure that your research question can be answered
in a several different ways. If more than one answer is available, it will allow you to
address different points of view in your paper. Finally, be sure that your research
question can be answered given the resources currently made available to you. If your
paper is due in three weeks, dont ask a research question that requires six months of
complicated data collection. If youre unsure, have your instructor look at your question
before you begin.
Below are examples of some simple research questions:
1. What were the most important causes of the Russian revolution?
2. How feasible is interplanetary space travel?
3. What are the social causes of family violence?
4. How did Tolstoys childhood influence his writing?

Data collection
Overview
The phrase data collection may seem overly scientific for some students. However,
whether youre studying history, sociology, or biology, part of the research process
involves collecting data of particular kinds - whether it be qualitative (e.g., conducting
interviews or reviewing newspapers, or collecting archival material) or quantitative
(e.g., measuring rates of acceleration or changes in temperature). The data you collect

will become the basis upon which you form your argument. In a sense, it is the raw
material you need to answer your research question.

Methodology
Of course, how you collect your data will depend on your discipline and/or the
assignment guidelines you have been given. Given there are so many different ways to
collect data, not all of them can be explored here. However, a review of the more
common methodologies might be helpful.

Experimental
Although perhaps more common in the physical sciences, experimental research is
conducted in the social sciences as well (e.g., psychology and sociology, for example).
Experimental methodologies involve a controlled environment within which the
researcher administers a particular treatment to the subject(s) or conditions under
investigation. Through careful observation, the researcher then records his or her data.
By controlling the conditions under which the experiment takes place, the researcher is
able to assume (in an ideal situation) that the changes he or she observed were the result
of the applied treatment and not something else.

Field research
The term field research is most often associated with sociology. However, many
scholars in the biological sciences conduct field research as well. Generally, field
research involves the researcher visiting a particular site of interest - whether it be a
public gathering (for the sociologist) or the habitat of a particular species (for the
biologist) - in order to make detailed observations about a phenomenon in its own,
natural environment. This methodology is about extracting data from a source (or
sources) in its own element.

Program evaluations
Program evaluation actually involves a combination of numerous methodological
approaches so as to evaluate the effectiveness of a particular program or organization.
Most often attributed to the social sciences (especially social work), this methodological
technique is complex and generally requires a seasoned researcher to coordinate the
various approaches. A single program evaluation project might include the following
research methodologies: survey research, interviews, field research, and/or data
analysis.

Interviews
Interviews are used in a variety of disciplines, including history, social work,
womens studies, sociology, anthropology, health sciences, and economics.
Traditionally, interviews are recorded by the researcher using a digital or analogue
recording device and later transcribed verbatim for future reference. Interviews are
generally broken down into two categories: semi-structured and structured.

Semi-strutured
In a semi-structured interview the researcher maintains partial control over the
interviews direction by asking pre-established questions. However, the interviewee is
permitted to take the discussion in any number of directions so long as the discussion

remains relevant. The semi-structured interview is, therefore, both exploratory and
structured at the same time.

Structured
Unlike a semi-structured interview, structured interviews involve asking a preestablished set of questions. However, the interviewee is generally not permitted to take
the discussion outside the framework established by the researcher. The advantage of a
structured interview is that the researcher can be assured (or, reasonably so) that each
interviewee will have answered the same questions, thereby making comparisons across
interview transcripts easier.

Survey research
Conducting survey research is often a long and laborious process. Nevertheless, it
remains popular in a variety of disciplines, especially now that the Internet has made
on-line surveys a more efficient option for those looking to procure data. Traditionally
researchers spend considerable time designing their survey questions and organizing the
logistics of the surveys distribution. When the surveys are returned, the content is
typically coded so that data analysis using a computer can begin.

Archival research
Although traditionally the historians territory, archival research is frequently used
across the social sciences and humanities. Generally, archival research involves a
careful exploration of historical documents - including photographs, diaries, state
documents, reports, maps, and other materials - in specialized research archives that are
typically managed by universities, state governments, and under some circumstances,
federal governments as well. Because of the rarity of the materials they contain, most
archives have strict rules governing access to materials. If youre interested in using
your local archive, be sure to contact them directly to learn about their various rules and
regulations. Be sure to ask about:
(1) The hours of operation.
(2) The regulations concerning photo copies, digital imaging, or other reproduction
technologies.
(3) Access regulations.
(4) Whether or not they have the materials youre looking for.
(5) Regulations about what can or cannot be brought into the archive.

Data analysis
After you have generated your data, its time to analyze it. In a sense, at this point in
the research process you are converting data into information - youre rendering your
data meaningful. It is not possible here to outline how to analyze your data. However,
there are a number of things to keep in mind: (1) Stay organized by ensuring that your
collected materials are well sorted, or in the case of computerized data sets, backed up
for safe keeping, (2) take your time when assessing your data, (3) dont hesitate to ask
for another persons opinion on what they see in your data.

Structure
Abstract
A paper abstract is generally not required in high school or in university
undergraduate courses. However, in graduate school and in professional academia, the
inclusion of an abstract is a must. A good abstract provides a summary of the research
paper in several concise sentences. It should identify the research topic, why its
important, the authors thesis, the research methodology, and a review of the findings.
Does that sound like a lot to establish in a few short sentences? If it does, remember that
you dont need to provide intricate detail. Instead, be brief and to the point. For
example:
That fact that new developments in information and communications technologies
have revolutionized the workplace is now taken for granted. However, their impact on
the nature of family relations has received considerably less attention. This paper
assesses how North American family relations have changed as a result of
technological development. Using a combination of semi-structured interviews with 45
families and documentary evidence, I suggest that the distinction between the public
and private sphere is now vanishing such that new familial roles are emerging.

Introduction
The introductory paragraph of your research paper should establish a number of
important things. First, it should clearly identify what your paper is about without going
into too much detail (save that for later). In fact, in many professional journals, authors
will begin with a rather straightforward statement such as, This paper will explore the
relationship between or, This paper compares and contrasts the .. Although
somewhat abrupt, statements like these are very effective. Secondly, the introduction
must contain your thesis statement; the argument that you will be putting forward in the
subsequent pages. Remember, sometimes you will not have a thesis statement until you
have spent hours reviewing your data. Although it is often tempting to do so, try to
avoid establishing a thesis statement (i.e., the answer to your research question) before
you begin researching!
When crafting your thesis statement, be sure to keep it as clear and as concise as
possible. Generally, if you cant compose your thesis in a few sentences, you are likely
not ready to write and may want to consider revisiting your data. Remember, your thesis
doesnt have to change how the world thinks about your topic. In fact, there is nothing
wrong with making a more modest claim that you can address comfortably and
effectively. While writing your thesis, consider the following:
Is your thesis statement clear and concise? Did you avoid vague language or clichs?
Does your thesis statement accurately reflect your position on the subject matter?
Could it be misinterpreted?
Does your thesis statement identify a position that you can reasonably defend given
the limits you face?
Remember, there is nothing easy about writing a good thesis statement, especially
when the research paper is long. Dont be discouraged if you have to write several
versions of your thesis and/or the introduction. After all, good writing takes time and
patience. Good luck!

Paper outline
Following your introduction and thesis statement, you will have to provide your
reader with a map of your papers contents. Specifically, you need to clearly (although
briefly) identify the individual steps you will be taking in order to present your
argument. When doing so, dont hesitate to be forthright about your intentions. Many
authors use statements such as, First, I will explore the social, political and economic
context of followed by, Second, I will move on to discuss the methodology I used to
.. Although the prose is somewhat abrupt, it gives the reader a clear indication as to
where the paper will start and where it will finish. If your research paper is somewhat
short, you might be able to incorporate the outline in your introductory paragraph. On
the other hand, if your paper is rather long it is always best to outline your paper in a
few separate paragraphs. Not only does the outline help your reader, but it will help you
stay on track as well. Once it is complete, print it out and keep it by your side while you
write your research paper.

Literature review
Your literature review is where you provide your reader with a succinct, yet
thorough, review of the material that has already been published in your area of interest.
Whether youre a professional scholar or an aspiring student, the literature review is
meant to accomplish the following: (1) it should provide your reader with the necessary
background they will require to fully understand your paper and its findings, (2) it
should identify and explain the most important debates and/or findings in the field, and
(3) it should clearly identify where, in that body of research, your contribution will be
made. Implicitly, however, it allows you to demonstrate to your instructor/reader that
you have become sufficiently familiar with the literature such that you are in a position
to make a well informed argument.
There is no set length to a literature review. Although, one thing is for certain, it
should not comprise the bulk of your paper given that your reader is ultimately
interested in what you have to say, not what others have said before you. In many
scholarly journals, the literature review is typically a few pages long when the entire
article is about 30 pages. Always use your best judgment. For more information on
writing a literature review, consult your Scholar Word writing guides.

Methodology
Depending on your discipline, you may have to include a methodology section in
your paper. In professional journals relating to the social and physical sciences, a
methods section is essential. In this section of your paper you must provide a clear
description of the methodological steps you took to collect your data. Tell your reader
which methodology you chose and why; how you put that methodology into action; and
what, if any, concerns you may have had about your approach to collecting data. It is
very important to include enough information such that future researchers could
replicate your study if need be.

Your findings
Following your methodology section, you should begin the process of outlining what
you discovered. In the physical sciences, and sometimes in the social sciences when
statistical research has been conducted, this section entails a review of the findings only
- not an interpretation of what was found. Thus, present your data to the reader in a clear
and concise fashion. For example, statisticians will provide figures and charts which

display the numerical results of their research. However, an interpretation of those

results is usually provided in the Discussion section.
However, quite often researchers will present their findings and interpret them at the
same time. Thus, excerpts from interview transcripts will be included and then followed
by a brief analysis. The choice is up to you (or your instructor). Whatever the case may
be, you might want to consult a professional journal article in order to get a sense of
how it is done in different disciplines.

Discussion
Its time to make your findings meaningful! In your discussion section you will
review your findings and explain to the reader what they mean. Here, you demonstrate
your analytical skills by making a clear and concise argument using what you have
discovered during the research process. In a sense, you are answering the so what?
question. When writing up your discussion, consider the following: (1) concentrate on
writing material that flows as logically as possible, (2) always complete your thoughts
such that your reader is able to follow your line of reasoning from the beginning to the
end and, (3) avoid drawing conclusions which are not substantiated by your data.
Remember, this is where you have to shine intellectually. Take your time when piecing
this section together, have others read it and ask them whether or not your argument
makes sense, and perhaps most importantly, always be willing to write several drafts of
this section until such time as you are completely satisfied with what you have written.

Conclusion
Your conclusion must accomplish several different things. First, although there are
no rules when it comes to writing a conclusion, it is generally a good idea to revisit your
thesis and to review the major points you put forward in your paper. Think of it this
way: Your task is to remind readers who have poor memories what theyve just read.
However, do not cut and paste material from your introduction or body paragraphs to
save time! Instead, reword your argument in a thoughtful and reflective fashion. In
addition, always avoid raising new ideas or arguments in your conclusion, this section is
for wrapping things up, not starting new lines of thought. Leave your reader with a well
written sentence or two that gives him or her food for thought without being overly
abstract or clich. And remember, if you have difficulty recapping your thesis and/or
general argument, it might be time to reread your paper. If you, as the author, are unable
to articulate the meaning of the paper, you can bet your reader will have the same
problem.

Format
Font
Although font requirements may be different from one school to another, your paper
should follow the standard guidelines for any academic paper. Use a 12 pt font that is
easy to read (consider Times New Roman or Arial) and never use any color other than
black. Fancy, colorful fonts only distract the reader from what is most important - your
writing.

Title page
According to the Chicago/Turabian manuals of style, students are encouraged to use
the title page specifications recommended by their school. However, if none are
provided, a widely accepted title page format includes the following information: The
full name of your college or university (at the top or bottom of the page), the full title of
your paper, the course for which the paper has been written (including its name and
course code), the date you completed the paper, and your name. Technically the title
page counts as page i, although the number is not shown on the page. For an example,
see the Scholar Word Title Page module.

Margins
Your paper should have 1 inch margins on all four sides. However, if you are
preparing a thesis or dissertation for publication, it is very likely that your left margin
will have to be 1 1/2 inches to accommodate the binding process - be sure to verify all
binding requirements before submitting the final draft.

Spacing
All academic papers should be double spaced and printed on one side of the page
only (unless otherwise specified by your instructor). Double spacing provides extra
room for instructor comments and suggestions and makes the paper easier to read.

Justification
Generally speaking, academic research papers written for in-class assignments are to
be fully justified. However, many academic journals request that manuscripts be left
justified - sometimes called ragged right justification.

Page numbers
As per the Chicago/Turabian manuals, every page included in a paper or manuscript
should be assigned a number. However, page numbers should not appear on every page.
Thus, do not include a visible page number of your title page, dedication page (if
included), epigraph, or copyright page.
All preliminary pages, however, are to be numbered with lowercase roman numerals
(iii, iv, v, etc.) which are centered at the bottom of the page. Remember, although not
shown, your title page counts as page i.
The remaining pages, including all text, illustrations, notes, bibliography, and
appendices should be numbered with Arabic numbers located in the top-center or topright corner of the page. However, if you are preparing a thesis or dissertation where the
first page of each chapter contains a major heading, place the page number at the

bottom-center of the page and then continue with standard pagination on subsequent
pages.

Block quotations
If intend to quote two or more sentences that run eight lines of text or more, your
quotation should be set off from the rest of the text using single-spacing. Your quotation
should also be indented, in its entirety, by four spaces from the left margin. If, in its
original form, your quotation entails the start of a new paragraph, your block quotation
should begin with an indentation of four spaces and the entire block quotation is
indented eight space from the left margin (see below). Remember, if more than one
paragraph is included in your block quotation, maintain single spacing between your
paragraphs.
(indent 4 spaces) The victory of the hero, then, is only ostensibly a moral one. To be
sure, vestiges of older moralities hang on, often as conventions enforced by censorship
of the fear of it. But morality is the sense of a literary characters development, rather
than morality in the sense of on the right side, is not depicted. Consequently, morality
is an inference from winning. Just as in a whodunit all appear guilty until they are
retroactively cleared by finding the real killer, so the victory of the hero retroactively
justified his deeds and misdeeds. Winner take all becomes a tautology. (Reisman 1952:
107)
Note: When your block quotation includes quotation marks in the original, change
them to single quotation marks. If your single quotation marks have quotation marks
within them, change back to double etc. See the block quotation from David Riesmans
(1952) The Lonely Crowd above.

Headings
When writing research papers, it often seems so much easier to simply insert
headings and subheadings in order to organize your paper. Should you decide to use
headings, and should your instructor approve of their use, there are a number of things
to keep in mind. Dont overuse them. Sometimes too many headings gives the
impression that the author was unable to organize his or her thoughts using words
and/or proper structure. In addition, first-level headings must always stand out more
than second and third-level headings. To accomplish this, consider bolding, underlining,
italicizing, or centering your first-level headings. In the end, it is up to you when it
comes to formatting your headings; just make sure there is a clear descending order to
their visual intensity.
Example:
Preventing Crime in Urban Areas (first level)
Securing Retail Spaces (second level)

Notes
Your notes should be placed in numerical order at the bottom of your page (foot)
below what is commonly called a separator or, in the case of endnotes, at the end of
the paper. When using footnotes, it is best that each note appear on the page where it
was originally cited. However, when notes are lengthy, your computer will likely
continue the note onto the next page; this is acceptable. Your notes should be single
spaced and should have one blank like between them. If you have several footnotes on

one page, you can save space by putting them all into one footnote using a single
number to reference all of them.
If you are writing a paper that contains chapter divisions, the Chicago/Turabian style
requires your footnotes to start over from 1 with each new chapter. If you are using
endnotes, it is common for each chapter to have its own list of endnotes starting at 1.
Use your Xumbrus Citation Module to insert notes and citations automatically.

Bibliography / work cited

If you are using the Chicago/Turabian author-date (in-text) citation format (with or
without additional notes), you will be required to create a Bibliography (or Work
Cited) page. However, if you are not using the author-date style, and have chosen to
include complete citation information in either endnotes or footnotes, then a
bibliography or work cited page is not necessary (all the necessary information will be
in your notes!)
Your bibliography should be single spaced with a single line between each entry.
Your title (in this case Bibliography or Work Cited) should be centered at the top of
the page. All entries are to be listed alphabetically by the authors family name. If
family names are the same, alphabetize by the authors given names. Moreover, if you
have several works by the same author, they should be listed in descending,
chronological order based on the publication date.
If you feel that it is absolutely necessary to divide up the bibliography using
categories, then do so. However, be sure to consult your instructor to determine whether
or not it is acceptable. Your Scholar Word Citation Module will help you generate your
bibliography with ease!