Recycling of the #5 Polymer

Marino Xanthos
Science 337, 700 (2012);
DOI: 10.1126/science.1221806

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consumer recyclates appear to be steadily growing. Driving forces include legislated minimum
recycledcontent mandates, procurement policies, expanded waste collection networks, and
improvements in recycling technology.

PERSPECTIVE

Recycling of the #5 Polymer

Marino Xanthos
Polypropylene (PP) is a widely used plastic with consumer applications ranging from food
packaging to automotive parts, including car battery casings. To differentiate it from other
recyclable plastics, it is designated as #5. Here, the factors contributing to PP recycling rates
are briefly reviewed. Considerations include collection and separation efficiency, processing
chemistry, and market dynamics for the products derived from recyclates.

n 1970, recycling of plastics from the municipal solid waste (MSW) stream was virtually
nonexistent. By 1994, the recycling rate of
different types of plastics found in the United
States MSW (containers and packaging, durable
goods, and nondurable goods) increased to 4.7%
(1), and it reached 8% in 2010 (2). Similar growth
can also be found in the plastics recycling rates
of many Western European countriesand
also in Japan since the introduction of government legislation in 1995. The low levels of
what is known as mechanical recycling (the
term excludes incineration with or without energy recovery or conversion into chemical feedstock) reflect the complexity of discarded and
used materials and the corresponding issues with
their effective separation and cleaning. However,
the recycling rate for some individual plastics
is much higher. Sorting of commodity thermoplastics used in packaging (e.g., containers and
films) is facilitated by using a number identification code from 1 to 7. This is a voluntary system introduced by the Society of Plastics Industry
in 1988 with the goal of helping consumers to
determine whether certain types of plastics are
collected for recycling in their area (2). The
system is also in use in countries other than the
United States (e.g., Canada and Switzerland). In
North America, successful recycling operations
mostly deal with #1 and #2 packaging plastics
[polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and highdensity polyethylene (HDPE), respectively], for
which large-scale collection infrastructures exist and commercial applications for the recyclates
have existed for some time. For example, in 2010,
28% of HDPE bottles and 29% of PET bottles
and jars were recycled (2).

Polypropylene Recycling Overview

Polypropylene (PP), designated as #5, is among
the commodity thermoplastics found in the
MSW. Its recycling is technically possible and
has been practiced for certain single-industrial
products and industrial scrap for more than three
Department of Chemical, Biological and Pharmaceutical
Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark,
NJ 07102, USA. E-mail: xanthos@njit.edu

700

decades. Recycling of PP bottles, although increased in 2010 to 35.4 million pounds, is still
lower than either PET or HDPE (3). In addition
to the need for adequate collection means, the
challenge for postconsumer packaging is in
separating it from other plasticsincluding its
own many variationsonce it arrives at the
waste station and beyond. For PP, recyclability
is also related to a certain extent to its structural
instability during melt reprocessing. PP may be
found in other mixed waste streams, such as wire
and cable coverings, discarded electronics, automotive shredder residue, and carpets (4). Here, I
refer to recycling of PP items in general and not
only to the ones that may appear in the MSW.
Polypropylene has several attributes (low
density, thermal and chemical stability, stiffness,
and low cost) that make it quite appealing for use
in food packaging, including microwave-safe
containers. These same properties have made
PP an excellent choice in a variety of automotive and other industrial contexts. Specifically,
it is used in the manufacture of carpets, ropes,
automotive parts, car batteries, containers, crates,
piping, furniture, consumer electronics, bottle
tops, living hinges, laboratory equipment, storage
boxes, buckets, medicine packaging, and even
banknotes (Fig. 1). Recycled PP products may
be the same as the original (e.g., auto parts, pallets, and storage bins) or repurposed to applications with less stringent performance requirements
(e.g., bike racks, brooms, ice scrapers, buckets,
and consumer items) (5). For example, PP banknotes, when withdrawn from circulation, are
granulated and then recycled in household and
industrial products such as wheelbarrows, compost bins, and plumbing fittings (6). So far, recycling of food containers to food-contact-grade
packaging has not been possible given the stringent quality checks that recycled plastics need to
meet under government standards; substantial
efforts, however, are still in progress in the United
Kingdom (7).
Recycling of industrial scrap from extrusion
or injection molding has been a common practice
over the years. Recycled PP products may include high-value or lower-value items, as discussed
earlier. In general, demand and markets for post-

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Restabilization of PP
In general, recycled plastics are less costly than
the original materials, unless separation and cleaning (beneficiation) costs were excessive; many
recycled plastic items are considered to be useful
only for low-value applications. It is common for
quality and appearance to degrade with each
reprocessing cycle. This is particularly true for
polypropylene items, which, due to the presence
of tertiary carbon atoms in the polymer backbone, are susceptible to pronounced thermooxidative degradation during melt processing
and/or during use, as well as photo-oxidative
degradation during use.
Plastics usually contain stabilizers that protect
the polymer from such degradation. These stabilizers are usually consumed during melt processing and/or leach out during exposure of
plastic parts and need to be replaced (through a
process termed restabilization) to enhance the
processing stability and increase the service
life of the recyclate. The molecular weight and/or
molecular-weight distribution of the initial polymer can change as a result of chain scission (typical for polypropylene) or cross-linking reactions
(typical for polyethylene). Both these types of reactions may lead to irreversible changes in mechanical and rheological properties (8).
In the case of virgin PP, melt processing is
only possible in the presence of combinations
of a processing stabilizer or a blend of processing
stabilizers with different, synergistic modes of
action. Typical compounds for this purpose include a combination of sterically hindered phenols with phosphite or phosphonite substituents
and an acid acceptor. Restabilization can substantially minimize further melt viscosity reduction that would correspond to an increase of the
melt flow rate (MFR) as a result of molecularweight reduction. Types of additives and their
associated concentrations for restabilization can
be screened by performing multiple extrusions,
which would simulate repeated processing, or
long-term exposure of the recyclate to elevated
temperatures. Depending on the extent of the
polymer degradation during use, different types
and levels of restabilization will be required that
may increase the overall materials cost of the
recyclate; it has been shown, however, that restabilization is the key for successfully recycling PP in a variety of items such as crates and
films (8).
Packaging
A few prominent food and beverage companies
in the United States are moving on their own to
recapture their packaging after its use by their

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SPECIALSECTION
customers. There is still little demand from recyclers for used PP cups, and many communities
and municipalities in the United States lack the
infrastructureand the capitalto collect #5
containers and reprocess them. Companies that
manufacture the packaging are logical candidates
to be part of the recycling scenario, as experience
has shown in Europe, Canada, and elsewhere
where such responsibility was imposed on packaged goods companies.
Through the initiative of a yogurt manufacturer (9), a deal was
struck with a major supermarket to
place collection bins in its stores
spread throughout most U.S. states.
Yogurt, one of the most widely sold
dairy products, is packaged in PP.
Customers return their #5 containers (not only yogurt), which are then
taken to a plant for cleaning, size
reduction, and further processing to
consumer items such as toothbrushes,
razors, and cutlery (10). This successful program is still based on the
initiative of individual companies;
however, it remains to be seen whether legislation that would mandate extended producer responsibility will
be introduced in different U.S. states.
Car Batteries
A successful collection infrastructure
for plastic waste from car batteries
also exists in the United States.
About 95% of used automotive batteries are recycled for their lead,
sulfuric acid, and polypropylene
content. The polypropylene in the
casings from end-of-life batteries
represents a centralized and relatively homogeneous source of polymer
and finds many markets, including
automotive products and the next
generation of batteries. The cost of
recycling car batteries is partly covered by advanced disposal fees and/or
take-back fees. This is acceptable to
ensure that the lead is properly managed, but it also helps to subsidize
the cost of the PP recycling. The PP Fig. 1. An
casing makes up about 7% of the
total battery and may be obtained
in quantities sufficient to warrant the operation of
a plastics recycling plant. Typical operations
involve crushing and separation of materials into
a heavy fraction (lead, metals, and ebonite) and a
light fraction (PP and impurities). Upgrading of
the light fractionthrough grinding, sedimentation, drying, and cyclone separationbrings the PP
regrinds purity to about 99.5% (11). The material is
then modified with additives by standard meltmixing operations to produce compounds suitable for injection molding.

Mixed Streams
PP may be present at different concentrations in a
variety of postindustrial or postconsumer waste
streams. Pressures on landfill capacity, as well
as impending legislation or regulations, have induced the plastics industry to pay much greater
attention to the recycling of heterogeneous plastic
waste. Standard sorting and cleaning beneficiation techniques may be used to increase the purity
of the polymer. In some cases, at low concen-

array of polypropylene products.

trations of impurities in the waste streams, reactive chemical modification can be carried out,
assuming that the contaminants will not affect
the course of the reaction (12). The goal here is
to modify the PP for new applications. For example, modification with maleic anhydride will
enhance adhesion through the introduction of
polar groups; peroxide reaction with or without
coagents will modify the PP rheological characteristics. It has been reported recently that a
high-performance grade of black PP derived from

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VOL 337

end-of-life vehicles can be potentially used in

new automotive-related products (13). Furthermore, molding compounds from multicomponent
recycled PP carpets have been evaluated (14).
In addition to separation and cleaning techniques, physical and chemical techniques have
been developed to improve the quality of mixed
plastics. For example, in carpets that may contain
PP fibers and PP backing in combination with
other fibers such as polyamides, near-infrared
(NIR) spectroscopic methods, among
others, can identify the types of
fibers present and contribute to the
advanced sorting of the face fiber.
In the case of waste streams containing polymers with different structures
such as polyamides, polyesters, EPDM
(ethylene propylene diene monomer),
or other commodity polymers, useful
compounds can be prepared by melt
mixing with suitable reactive or nonreactive compatibilizers (12). As an
example, attempts have been made
to compatibilize mixtures of polyamide and PP fibers found in abandoned fishnets and ropes, respectively,
collected from the sea (15).
Outlook
Recycling rates of PP found in U.S.
municipal waste streams will increase as consumers become aware
that items from this #5 plastic can
be easily identified and separated,
similarly to those made of PET and
HDPE, and successful sorting technologies are already in place. Legislation mandating extended producer
responsibility may contribute to an
acceleration of the recycling rates;
similarly, successes in the ongoing
efforts to create recyclates intended
to be used for food-contact applications will increase the volume
of recyclable PP. The issue of reduced properties as a result of the
inherent thermo-oxidative instability of PP upon reprocessing may
be addressed through the addition
of appropriate restabilization packages and additives, including fillers
and reinforcements.
Recycling rates of PP by melt reprocessing
will likely continue to be dictated by the availability of the recyclable resin, the cost of the virgin
resin, markets for the recyclates, and the overall
economics of the recycling process, because technological issues related to processability appear
to be easily addressed.
References
1. G. Akovali, C. A. Bernardo, J. Leidner, L. A. Utracki, M. Xanthos,
Eds., Frontiers in the Science and Technology of Polymer
Recycling, NATO Advanced Study Institute Series, Series E:

10 AUGUST 2012

701

2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.

Applied Sciences, Vol. 351 (Kluwer Academic Publishers,

Dordrecht, Netherlands, 1998), chap. 1.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Plastics,
http://www.epa.gov/osw/conserve/materials/plastics.htm.
PackagingLaw.com, US recycling rates for plastics bottles up
in 2010, www.packaginglaw.com/3232_.shtml.
A. L. Bisio, M. Xanthos, Eds., How to Manage Plastics
Waste: Technology and Market Opportunities
(Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich, New York, 1994),
chap. 10.
M. B. Priebe, Ecolife, www.ecolife.com/recycling/plastic/
how-to-recycle-pp-plastic-5.html.
S. Straus, Information on RM5 polymer bank note,
http://www.polymernotes.org.
M. Stones, Food-grade PP recycling moves closer, says
WRAP, www.foodproductiondaily.com/Packaging/Foodgrade-PP-recycling-moves-closer-says-WRAP.

8. G. Akovali, C. A. Bernardo, J. Leidner, L. A. Utracki,

M. Xanthos, Eds., Frontiers in the Science and Technology
of Polymer Recycling, NATO Advanced Study Institute
Series, Series E: Applied Sciences, Vol. 351 (Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 1998),
chaps. 2 and 3.
9. S. Strom, Rethinking recycling, New York Times, 24 March
2012, p. B1.
10. J. Berry, Plastic #5 recycling got you feeling blue?,
http://earth911.com/news/2009/02/03/plastic-5recycling-got-you-feeling-blue.
11. M. Chanda, S. K. Roy, Plastics Technology Handbook,
(CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, ed. 4., 2007), section
6-31.
12. A. L. Bisio, M. Xanthos, Eds., How to Manage Plastics
Waste: Technology and Market Opportunities (Carl Hanser
Verlag, Munich, New York, 1994), chap. 13.

PERSPECTIVE

The Challenges of Reusing Mining

and Mineral-Processing Wastes
Zhengfu Bian,1* Xiexing Miao,2 Shaogang Lei,3 Shen-en Chen,4
Wenfeng Wang,5 Sue Struthers6
Mining and mineral-processing wastes are one of the worlds largest chronic waste concerns.
Their reuse should be included in future sustainable development plans, but the potential
impacts on a number of environmental processes are highly variable and must be thoroughly
assessed. The chemical composition and geotechnical properties of the source rock determine
which uses are most appropriate and whether reuse is economically feasible. If properly evaluated,
mining waste can be reused to reextract minerals, provide additional fuel for power plants,
supply construction materials, and repair surface and subsurface land structures altered by mining
activities themselves.
ining and mineral-processing wastes
the solid and liquid materials generated after mining and ore processing at
or near mine sites (1)have no current economic
use. A number of environmental problems are associated with the disposal of this waste, including contamination of streams and lakes (2) and
pronounced landscape transformation (e.g., stockpiled waste rock and tailings, subsidence basins,
open pits, and removal of overburden rock and
topsoil) (Fig. 1). Despite several efforts to reduce
the amount of waste produced, solid mineral wastes
remain one of the worlds largest waste streams

1
Institute for Land Resources, China University of Mining and
Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province 221116, China. 2State Key
Laboratory for Geomechanics and Deep Underground Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu
Province 221116, China. 3Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Resources
and Environmental Information Engineering, China University
of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province 221116,
China. 4Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, NC 28223, USA. 5School of
Resource and Earth Science, China University of Mining and
Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province 221116, China. 6Skapa
Mining Services Ltd., Hillbanks, Burray, Orkney KW17 2SX, UK.

*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:

zfbian@cumt.edu.cn

702

(3). For example, North America produces more

than 10 times as much solid mine waste as municipal solid waste per capita (4). Because mineral production continues to be necessary for
economic development, the recycling and reuse
of mining and mineral-processing wastes are
important management strategies now and in the
future (5).
The origin of mining and mineral-processing
wastes is closely related to the formation of the
target resource or minerals. For example, many
coal deposits exist in subsided regions resulting
from mountain formation; hence, the overlays of
coal resources are generally not very thick and
consist of relatively inactive sedimentary rocks.
In 2010, worldwide total coal production was
about 7273.3 million tonnes (Mt), with an estimated waste of about 1454.7 Mt due to coal production (6). Of this waste, up to 100% (total waste
with no production of prospective minerals)
may be due to the mining or extraction method.
Wastes produced during coal preparation (removal of undesired materials from coal through coal
washing, crushing, screening, and dewatering)
may reach 10 to 30% of raw coal; most of these
wastes are in slurry form as a result of the washing
process. The final form of waste can be detrimen-

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13. New polymer offers closed loop recycling to automotive

industry, Waste Management World, 12 April 2012,
www.waste-management-world.com/index/display/articledisplay/2121000211/articles/waste-management-world/
recycling/2012/04/New_Polymer_Offers_Closed_Loop_
Recycling_to_Automotive_Industry.html.
14. Buildingtalk.com, Axion investigates carpet recycling
options, 15 January 2010, http://www.buildingtalk.com/
building-industry-news-/sustainability-and-energyefficiency-/axion-investigates-carpet-recycling-options/
364095.article.
15. M. Xanthos, in Mixing and Compounding of Polymers,
I. Manas-Zloczower, Ed. (Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich,
ed. 2, 2009), chap. 20, pp. 757766.

10.1126/science.1221806

tal to the feasibility of reuse and recycling because

it dictates the cost of further processing.
Mining and mineral-processing wastes consist of rocks, soils, oil sands, and loose sediments.
The mineralogical and chemical characterizations
of mining wastes are useful in forecasting geotechnical properties (particle size and structure,
plasticity, bulk density, dry density, shear strength)
of the waste and the leachability of potentially
harmful compounds. The mineralogical composition of the processing wastes can be heterogeneous because of the deposition of wastes from
the processing of different mine sources, yielding
a range of physical and chemical properties. For
example, the mineral composition of tailings from
metal and nonmetal mines in China is divided
into eight broad types (7).
The most important mineralogical considerations are those that influence mineral recovery,
decontamination, acid rock drainage, and processes that affect sediment strength and cohesion.
The concentrations of toxic elements and metalloids such as Cd, As, Hg, Cr, and Pb are highly
variable, but if present in sufficient quantities,
they may inhibit plant growth or degrade water
quality (8, 9). Methods such as mechanical separation, chemical carbonation, and hydrothermal
mineralization (10) can remove some of these
toxic elements, but may also in some cases mobilize metals in groundwater and surface waters
through oxidation.
The reuse of mining and mineral-processing
wastes may minimize the environmental impacts
related to disposal; however, some reuse and recycling measures may actually cause new and
serious environmental problems. The overall environmental costs can be determined by various approaches such as ecological risk assessment, life
cycle assessment, sustainability operations assessment, and ecological footprint estimates (3, 11, 12).
Economic cost-benefit analysis, however, is the
ultimate driver in terms of the feasibility of a specific reuse technology. If the costs of final target
material extraction or mine waste reuse method are
economically prohibitive, then even the most ecofriendly process methods will be difficult to implement without regulation or government subsidies.

www.sciencemag.org

Corrections & CLarifications

Erratum

Post date 2 November 2012

Perspectives: Recycling of the #5 polymer by M. Xanthos (special section on Working

with Waste, 10 August, p. 700). The figure credit was omitted. It should be the following:
Photo collage by L. Blizard; Thinkstock; iStockphoto; Shutterstock; Wikimedia Commons.
The credit is correct in the HTML version online.

www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE erratum post date 2 November 2012