Uleiuri Vegetale 12

12
Margarine Processing
Plants and Equipment
Klaus A. Alexandersen
When designing margarine processing plants and choosing the equipment to be

installed, a wide range of considerations have to be made with regard to issues
like actual processing, hygiene, sanitation, and efficiency.
In margarine production, oils and fats usually are considered to be the most
important raw materials used, as oils and fats are significant in relation to
the characteristics of the finished margarine. The type of oils or fats used
has considerable influence on the crystallization characteristics during margarine processing, which has to be considered when choosing the equipment
involved in the margarine processing line. The criteria involved in choosing
this equipment are to a certain extent based on knowledge about product
characteristics, polymorphism, and crystal structure of margarine and related
products.
In this chapter, crystallization of oil and fat products, margarine processing
equipment and packaging methods, processing methods, and specific process flows
are discussed. Various oil types exhibiting interesting crystallization habits are
reviewed along with certain specialized margarine or fat products. Storage of
finished products as well as production quality control and hygiene will also be
covered.
Baileys Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Sixth Edition, Six Volume Set.
Edited by Fereidoon Shahidi. Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
459
460
MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT
1. CRYSTALLIZATION OF OIL AND FAT PRODUCTS

1.1. Product Characteristics
The rheological characteristics of finished margarines are expressed in terms such
as consistency, texture, plasticity, hardness, structure, and spreadability (1).
These characteristics are related to a number of variable factors. These are
temperature, concentration of the disperse phase or solid fat content, crystal size,
crystal size distribution, crystal shape, interparticle forces of van der Waals type
and mechanical treatment (2).
The two dominating factors are the amount of solid triglycerides (or solid fat
index) and the processing conditions during production (3). Formulation or choice
of oil blend allows control of the solid content, which, for identical processing
conditions, is directly related to the consistency and type of crystalline structure
formed (35). Processing conditions (rate and degree of cooling, mechanical
working, final product temperature, etc.) regulate the type of crystals formed and
the morphology and extent of intertwining of the solid structure that holds the
liquid oil (6).
The term morphology is used to denote the general relation of the physical
behavior and performance of fats and oils to their crystal structure and the molecular configuration of their triglyceride components (7).
The curve describing the relationship between the solid fat content of a fat and
its hardness is not a straight line. Hardness decreases sharply when solid fat content
goes below a certain value at which the material loses some of the characteristic
plastic properties (2). Haighton (3, 8) has reported the hardness of margarine in
terms of yield value to have a strong correlation to the solid content under constant
processing conditions, as shown in Figure 1.
1.2. Polymorphism and Crystal Structure

It has been reported extensively that fats solidify in more than one crystalline type
(223). Triglycerides exhibit three main crystal typesa; b0 , and bwith increasing degrees of stability and melting point. The molecular conformations and
packings in the crystal of each polymorph have been reported. In the a form, the
fatty acid chain axes of the triglyceride are randomly oriented and the a form
reveals a freedom of molecular motion with the most loosely packed hexagonal
subcell structure.
The b0 form and the b form are of an extended chain conformation with orthorhombic and triclinic subcell structures, respectively. In the b0 form alternating fatty
acid chain axes are oppositely oriented, whereas in the b form all fatty acid chain
axes are oriented in one way (9, 10).
Crystals of the a form are fragile, transparent platelets approximately 5 mm in
size. They are extremely transitory and require quite low temperatures to exist.
b0 crystals are tiny needles seldom more than 1 mm in length. b crystals are large
CRYSTALLIZATION OF OIL AND FAT PRODUCTS
461
Figure 1. Hardness of margarine vs. percentage solid in fat (3). Courtesy of J. Amer. Oil Chem.
Soc.
and coarse, approximately 2550 mm in length and can grow to over 100 mm during
extended periods of product storage. The b form is responsible for product quality
failure in sandy and grainy margarines (7). In severe cases this can lead to
separation of the oil usually described by the term oiling out. Storage temperature
that is too high, inadequate oil blend formulation, or process conditions promote
this product failure.
In the manufacture of margarine, the emulsion is processed in a scraped-surface
heat exchanger that must supercool the melted fat quickly in order to form as many
crystal nuclei as possible (11).
The fat is believed to first crystallize in the a form, which is transformed more or
less rapidly to the b0 form depending on the crystal habit of the fat, rate of cooling,
and the amount of mechanical work applied (5, 7, 12, 13).
b0 is the crystal form desired in margarines as it promotes plasticity (4, 5, 13).
The b0 crystal form tends to structure as a fine three-dimensional network capable
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of immobilizing a large amount of liquid oil (6). Large b crystals do not tend to
give a three-dimensional structure.
Both Wiedermann (4) and Thomas (5) have grouped various oils and fats according to their crystal habits. As an example, soybean, sunflower seed, corn, coconut,
and peanut oils show a b tendency. Cottonseed oil, palm oil, tallow, and butter oil
have a b0 tendency. Oil blend formulation has a significant influence on the crystal
form attained by a margarine or shortening. The suitability of a fat or oil for
margarine formulation is very much dependent on the crystal size present, amount,
and habit of these crystals (13). Incorporation of a higher melting b0 tending oil to a
basestock can induce the crystallization of the entire fat into a stable b0 form (5).
The effects of such formulation practice and processing conditions have been
studied extensively by Rivarola et al. (6) for blends of hydrogenated sunflower
seed oil and cottonseed oil. For strong b tending hydrogenated sunflower seed
oil, it was found that with increasing cooling rate, the tendency to crystallize in
the b0 form increased. For blends of hydrogenated sunflower seed oil and strong
b0 tending hydrogenated cottonseed oil it was concluded that even at quick cooling
rates, small quantities of the b form are formed.
In certain margarines formulated mainly on hydrogenated oils, such as sunflower
seed oil and canola oil, with very strong b tendency, the problem of sandiness can
be pronounced. Addition of crystal-modifying agents or crystal inhibitors to such
margarines can retard the development of sandiness by delaying the transformation
from the unstable a form to the stable b form. The addition of sorbitan esters
stabilizes the intermediate b0 form and helps prevent the formation of the b form
(15, 16). Sorbitan tristearate is effective as a crystal inhibitor in margarines. It is
assumed that sorbitan tristearate can be accommodated by the b0 crystal network
of the triglycerides and by stearic hindrance prevent the formation of the more
densely packed b crystal form (17, 18).
In margarine with a good consistency, the fat crystals have formed a threedimensional network consisting of primary and secondary bonds. The crystals may
vary in shape and appearance in the form of small needles or platelets with lengths
ranging from less then 0.1 to 20 mm or more (3, 6). They do not behave as individual particles and can grow together, forming a strong network (primary bonds).
They may also show a tendency to agglomerate, forming tiny porous crystal
clusters with considerable fewer contact points (secondary bonds) (3). As a result
of this and depending on the resulting crystal form obtained, branched and intertwining long chains are formed (6). These chains are responsible for forming
the three-dimensional network. The primary bonds are strong and are not readily
reestablished when broken by mechanical work. Secondary bonds are weak and
readily reestablished when broken by application of mechanical work. As mentioned earlier, processing conditions involving fast cooling rates and application
of a certain amount of mechanical work tend to produce margarines with a better
stability and consistency. It is generally accepted that a larger amount of primary
bonds are established if margarine is allowed to crystallize without sufficient degree
of mechanical work. This results in a product exhibiting excessive posthardening
and a hard and brittle texture (19). Due to this, it is advantageous to crystallize
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the product as much as possible in the scraped-surface heat exchanger to achieve

the desired spreadability or consistency.
1.3. Palm Oil
Crystallization and processing of palm oil with satisfactory results in a scrapedsurface heat exchanger line for margarine and shortening requires some attention
due to the slow crystallization phenomena observed in palm oil.
The polymorphism, crystallization, formulation, and processing of palm oil has
been commented upon and studied extensively (2025, 2634). The slow crystallization of palm oil and the subsequent posthardening phenomenon and product
graininess is a drawback in products formulated with high palm oil contents
and could be a limiting factor to its use (24, 25). It has been shown that the ratedetermining step in the crystal growth mechanism of triglycerides is the orientation
of molecules at the crystal faces (20). In palm oil the a-polymorph transformation
to the b0 (i.e., the a lifetime) is unusually long, which is apparently due to the
high level of diglycerides present (approximately 6%) (20, 21). The problem of
posthardening in product formulated with high palm oil contents can be influenced
by choice of proper processing conditions and storage time (2123).
Lefebvre (35) hypothesized that crystals, in general, are formed before or early
in the worker unit (B unit) (see Section 2.3), when a low flow rate is used in a
scraped-surface heat exchanger. The important slow processing of the product
leads to a fine crystallization and the destruction of the intercrystal bonds of the
primary type. With a higher flow rate, crystals appear late in the worker unit and
partially during packaging. Crystallization is then coarser and intercrystal bonds
are only slightly damaged, all of which is less favorable.
This hypothesis relates very well with the observations made by Oh et al. (22)
during pilot-plant-scale crystallization and processing of palm oil in a scrapedsurface heat exchanger line for margarine and shortening, as shown in Figure 2.
Palm oil from the same batch was processed with flow rates A and B of, respectively, 28 kg/h and 55 kg/h. Different flow rates result in different retention times
for products A and B in the coolers and the worker unit. Product outlet temperatures
from cooler II of, respectively, 12 C and 14 C (54 F and 57 F) were observed.
The outlet temperature from the worker unit were, respectively, 1920 C (66
68 F) and 2021 C (6870 F).
Refrigerant temperatures remained constant for both flow rates. Product A
was found to have sufficient time to be more uniformly stabilized before leaving
the process line. Product B was found to have attained insufficient time to be
uniformly stabilized and resulted in a finished product in the quasi-equilibrium
state. Crystal growth in product A was not substantial during 10 days storage at
20 C (68 F), whereas the crystal growth for product B was significant under
the same storage conditions. It was concluded that better processing conditions
may overcome the problem of slow crystallization of palm oil and also avoid the
effect of posthardening during storage. Different compositions of palm oil and palm
oil fractions give rise to different crystallization behaviors. Hydrogenated palm oil
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Figure 2. Schematic diagram of pilot plant (22). Courtesy of The Palm Oil Research Institute of
Malaysia.
has the highest stability in the b0 crystal form followed by palm oil and then palm
stearin.
The preceding observations relate well with observations in industrial-scale
scraped-surface heat exchanger processing lines.
In industrial-scale processing lines, it has been found to be advantageous to
process palm-oil-based industrial margarines with an additional worker unit
installed between the cooling cylinders as shown in Figure 3 (26). This increases
the products retention time in the processing line and allows a slight increase in the
flow rate without compromising the product quality.
Generally, the recommended flow rate for palm-oil-based industrial margarines
is approximately 60% of the nominal capacity of a scraped-surface heat exchanger
process line for industrial margarine (27); for example, a scraped-surface heat
exchanger with a nominal capacity of 3000 kg/h for oil blends based on oils such
as soybean oil or cottonseed oil will, for oil blends based on palm oil, have a
capacity of approximately 1800 kg/h.
In connection with crystallization of palm-oil-based products it should be noted
that the tempering practice for industrial margarines and shortening at 26.7 C
(80 F) was designed especially for hydrogenated oils. This tempering procedure
tends to generate lower solid fat content at temperatures below 26.7 C (80 F)
and raise it above 26.7 C (80 F). It is generally unsuitable for palm oil, palm-kernel
oil, and coconut oil (21).
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Figure 3. Schematic diagram of industrial source plant.
1.4. Canola Oil and Sunflower Seed Oil

We have noted earlier that the crystallization of strongly b tending sunflower seed
oil blends can be influenced favorably toward the b0 polymorph form by addition of
a high melting hardstock of the hydrogenated cottonseed oil (6) as well as by addition of sorbitan tristearate (17, 18). It should be noted for the formulation and crystallization of margarines based on sunflower seed oil blend that interesterification of
oil blends is a possible route to minimize posthardening. It is possible to produce
table margarine with good consistency and a linoleic acid content of 36% as well as
a trans-isomeric fatty acid content of less then 2% based on an oil blend prepared
by interesterification. Interesterification of a blend consisting of 60% sunflower
seed oil, 15% coconut oil, and 25% hydrogenated sunflower seed oil [melting point
70.7 C (159 F)] and an iodine value (IV) of 8.5 can achieve this.
Interesterification has been reported to change the crystallization tendencies of
oil blends in such a way that the crystal size in certain interesterified oil blends is
smaller than in the similar noninteresterified oil blends (3639). List et al. (40)
found that interesterification of oil blends made from fully hydrogenated soybean
oil and soybean oil affects the polymorphic transition from the undesirable b form
to the desirable b0 form thus avoiding graininess in finished margarine products.
Interesterification of blends of palm oil fractions is also a possibility in margarine
formulation producing margarines with very low or zero trans fatty acid contents
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(41, 42). With todays health conscious discussions in the media and the use of
transisomeric fatty acid content in margarines as a marketing parameter, the interesterification of oil blends may possibly gain some momentum in the future.
It is well documented that hydrogenated canola oil has a tendency to crystallize
in the b polymorphic form due to its triglyceride homogeneity (it has about 95%
of 18-carbon fatty acids) (43). Crystallization of b tending canola oil blends
(low-eururic-acid rapeseed oil) can be influenced by addition of an oil with b0
tending crystallization of different origin. When processing canola-oil-blend-based
margarines for tub or stick packaging, the industry follows a different formulation principle than for sunflower seed oil blends, which are usually used for soft
margarines with high linoleic acid contents. Canola oil constitutes approximately
42% of all vegetable oils consumed in the margarine production in Canada (44),
whereas soybean oil constitutes the majority of all oils supplied for the production
of margarine in the United States (45).
Canola oil contains 5% palmitic acid compared to 11% for soybean oil. Palm oil
contains high levels of palmitic acid, approximately 44%, and it has been found that
the addition of palm oil to canola-oil-based oil blends for margarine production has
a beneficial effect on their polymorphic stability (30). When palm oil is mixed with
canola oil, the homogeneity of the fatty acid chain length is reduced, which promotes b0 crystalline stability (43). Based on the solid fat content found in stick
margarine in North America, it is advantageous to manufacture margarine from
canola oil by incorporating palm oil at a level of at least 15%, after hydrogenation
of canola oil, or at a level of 10%, before hydrogenation of canola oil. This greatly
delays the polymorphic transition from the b0 to the b form (43, 46, 47). The
amount and point of addition can affect the transition to the b polymorph as hydrogenation changes the physical properties of an oil blend (46).
The high content of diglycerides (about 6%) in palm oil and the b0 stabilizing
effect of diglycerides probably do not have any significant influence on the polymorphic behavior of canola oil blends with palm oil levels as above. The diglyceride content in canola oil blends is only raised slightly by addition of palm oil in the
above levels (46).
It has been found that the b0 stabilizing effect increased with the level of added
palm oil and that this stabilizing effect is most likely due to the decrease in fatty
acid homogeneity and, thus, increased triglyceride diversity (43, 46). This is attributed to the increased range of fatty acid chain lengths, which in turn increases the
irregularity in the crystal network. Increased irregularity in the crystal network
increases the polymorphic stability (46).
A new type of canola oil containing high levels of palmitic acid possesses better
b0 stability in the hydrogenated form (30, 46). The stabilizing effect of palmitic
acid, mentioned by Wiedermann (4), is related to its level in the solid fat fraction,
which is increased by addition of palm oil or when the palm oil is partially hydrogenated (46). In general, the more diverse the triglyceride structure of the highest
melting portion of the fat, the lower the b forming tendency (48).
To illustrate this, the triglyceride composition of some fully hydrogenated oils
are indicated in Table 1.
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TABLE 1. Percent (%) Triglyceride Composition and Mono- and Diglyceride Content
of Fully Hydrogenated Oils (%).
Hard Fats
Carbon
Number
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
Monto
Di
Soybean
Beef Fata
Rapeseed
0.2
3.3
27.6
66.7
1.7
0.5
0.4
3.6
0.2
1.4
7.5
21.0
44.9
24.5
0.4
0.1
2.0
1.6
11.6
28.3
6.7
6.8
12.3
31.9
0.8
0.5
3.7
Rapeseed
Blend
0.1
3.4
8.8
15.2
25.9
6.2
7.2
9.0
23.6
0.8
0.5
4.4
Cottonseed
Palm
0.9
13.6
43.5
40.5
1.3
0.3
5.8
0.5
6.4
40.0
41.9
10.7
0.4
0.9
8.2
a
Glycerides contain odd-numbered and branched fatty acids.
Reprinted from Ref. 49, with permission.
In Table 1, the most b0 stable fat is palm oil hard fat. This may be explained by
its unique composition, and its balanced C48C54 triglyceride content with an
equally balanced C50C52 content (49).
In accordance with the above, it has been found that slightly hydrogenated palm
oil delayed polymorphic transition from b0 to b considerably, compared to no palm
oil addition (43).
Stick margarine of good quality and melting point, 35 C (95 F), based on a
canola oil blend with palm oil addition, can be produced in a scraped-surface heat
exchanger line for margarine, according to the flow outline in Figure 4. A reduced
flow rate of approximately 85%, compared to the nominal capacity of the scrapedsurface heat exchanger (A unit) (see Section 2.2), is recommended. It should also
be noted that the intermediate worker unit (B unit) (see Section 2.3), with variablespeed drive inserted between the cooling cylinders, should have a relative volume
of approximately one third of the volume of the intermediate worker unit indicated
in Figure 3, based on a given flow rate and heat exchange area (50).
1.5. Specific Heat and Heat of Fusion
In the solid state, the specific heat of oils and fats shows little change as molecular
weight varies. An increase in specific heat can be observed with increased unsaturation. In the liquid state, specific heat increases slightly with molecular weight but
decreases slightly with less unsaturation. In general, there is little variation among
natural oils and fats (21).
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Figure 4. Schematic diagram stick (table) margarine plant.
The specific heats of liquid oils and fats, including palm oil, palm kernel oil, and
coconut oil, may be taken as (21).
Cp kcal=kg 0:47 0:00073 T;
where T is temperature in C (1 Btu/lb 0.252 kcal/kg).
A specific heat of 0.514 kcal/kg/ C for the fat phase of a retail margarine with
82% fat content and 0.607 kcal/kg/ C for the same margarine has been reported (19).
It is difficult to determine the latent crystallization heat in oil blends for
margarine production due to their complexity.
The heat of fusion normally increases with bigger chain lengths and decreasing
unsaturation in the triglycerides. Blends of triglycerides have less latent heat of
crystallization than the similar nonblended triglycerides (19).
Timms (21) has heat of fusion to 17.722.3 kcal/kg for milkfat, 2431 kcal/kg
for fully hardened milkfat, 2629 kcal/kg for cocoa butter in the b0 polymorph,
22.6 kcal/kg for refined, bleached, and deodorized (RBD) palm oil, 29.7 kcal/kg
for RBD palm kernel oil, 26.0 kcal/kg for RBD coconut oil, 31.6 kcal/kg for
fully hardened palm kernel oil, and 31.2 kcal/kg for fully hardened coconut oil.
The heat of fusion is an empirical physical property dependent on the thermal
history or tempering of the oil.
Calvelo (19) has reported the total heat of crystallization (Jc ) for a specific retail
margarine with 82% fat content to be 33.4 kcal/kg.
PROCESSING EQUIPMENT FOR MARGARINE
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2. PROCESSING EQUIPMENT FOR MARGARINE

AND RELATED FAT PRODUCTS
Choice of equipment for the processing line is very important for the production of
margarines. For each piece of equipment in the production line, special design
features have to be considered for various margarine types to ensure that the
complete processing line has all the necessary capabilities.
Besides the necessary emulsion preparation equipment (see Sections 4.14.3)
such as process tanks, plate heat exchangers, and centrifugal pumps, the essential
equipment for production of margarines is discussed in the following sections.
2.1. High-Pressure Feed Pumps

The margarine emulsion is usually fed from a holding tank to the scraped-surface
heat exchanger (A unit) by a high-pressure positive-displacement pump of the
plunger or piston type with product contact parts in 316 stainless steel. Pumps
with ceramic pistons are available for special applications. Normally, pumps with
two or three plungers or pistons are standard in order to minimize discharge
pressure pulsations in the process line. A high-pressure piston pump for margarine
production is illustrated in Figure 5.
To further minimize possible pressure pulsation, the pumps can be installed
together with a pulsation dampener mounted at the discharge. Pulsation dampeners
are air pressurized or spring loaded to ensure a smoother product flow in the process
line. Slow rotational speed of the pumps crankshaft also helps to minimize pressure
pulsation.
The high-pressure pumps are normally supplied with a pressure relief valve and
associated product piping to protect the scraped-surface heat exchanger equipment
downstream and the pump itself, should a blockage of the production line occur.
A filter is normally installed in the suction line to the high-pressure pump to
protect the pump and the hard chromium-plated scraped-surface heat exchanger
cylinder from any foreign matter in the margarine emulsion.
Depending on the designed maximum product pressure of the downstream
scraped-surface heat exchanger and the various types of margarine produced,
high-pressure positive-displacement pumps with maximum discharge pressures of
40 bars (about 600 psi), 70 bars (about 1030 psi), or 120 bars (about 1800 psi) are
normally installed in the process line.
Production of industrial margarine for semiliquid filling does not normally
generate product line pressures as high as, for example, puff pastry margarine.
Gear pumps are normally installed as an alternative to high-pressure positivedisplacement pumps in the production of industrial margarine or shortening for
semiliquid filling (26, 51). Gear pumps for this application normally can deliver
a maximum discharge pressure of 2633 bars (about 390500 psi). The drawback
for the application of gear pumps in margarine processing is that this type of pump
tends to slip at higher discharge pressures (52).
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Figure 5. High-pressure piston pump for margarine production. Courtesy of Schroeder & Co.,
Luebeck, Germany.
2.2. High-Pressure Scraped-Surface Heat Exchanger

Scraped-surface heat exchanger equipment, specifically designed for margarine
production, is available from Cherry-Burrell Votator Division of Louisville,
Kentucky, United States, Crown Chemtech Ltd. of Reading, U.K., Gerstenberg &
Agger A/S of Copenhagen, Denmark, and Schroeder & Co. (Tetra-Laval owned) of
Luebeck, Germany, under the respective trademarks Votator, Chemetator, Perfector,
and Kombinator.
The scraped-surface heat exchanger (A unit) is the centerpiece of equipment of
the margarine processing line, where initial cooling, supercooling, and subsequent
induced nucleation and crystallization take place (3, 53). The A unit has to have a
high degree of flexibility with regard to variation of process conditions for different
product types and formulations (51, 53).
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The scraped-surface heat exchanger normally consists of one or more horizontal

heat transfer cylinder assemblies. The cooling cylinder of a cylinder assembly is
usually made from commercially pure nickel or steel, ensuring high heat transfer
coefficients. The cooling cylinder is surrounded by an insulated outer jacket containing refrigerant (normally ammonia or Freon 22). The inside hard chromiumplated surface of the cooling cylinder is continuously scraped clean during
operation by a rotating shaft mounted with free-floating blades. The blades are
thrust against the cylinder wall mainly by the centrifugal force resulting from the
high rotational speed of the shaft. The annular gap between the cylinder wall and
the shaft has been reported to be in ranges from 3 to 22 mm (52), but a more typical
range is 517 mm (3, 5154).
When margarine emulsion passes through the space between the shaft and
cylinder wall, a thin crystallized product film is constantly and very rapidly scraped
off the cylinder wall and remixed with warmer product because of the scraping
action of the blades and the shafts high rotation speed. This causes rapid crystal
nucleation, further emulsification of the product, very high overall heat transfer
coefficients, and a homogeneous cooling of the margarine emulsion under precise
temperature control of the product being crystallized (5355).
The rotational speeds of shafts normally range from 300 to 700 rpm (5153)
and shafts are normally mounted with two, four, or six rows of blades (53).
The blades are fixed to the shafts by specially designed pins and are movable
at their fixing points. Figure 6 illustrates the design and operation of a scrapedsurface heat exchanger based on a longitudinal view of the A unit and a crosssectional view of the cooling assembly. The shaft is mounted with four rows of
blades in a staggered configuration. The annular gap in this situation varies from
9 to 17 mm.
In the crystallizing product, there is a rapid increase in the solid content during
the passage through the cooling cylinder. Also, the viscosity of the product
increases accordingly with the temperature drop. At a certain point during this
process, a critical shaft speed is reached. Beyond this speed, no additional mixing
is obtained, and the power input required to rotate the shaft at a higher speed will
more than offset any heat transfer benefits resulting from more frequent scraping of
the cylinder wall (54, 55).
In order to prevent buildup of crystallizing product on the shaft, warm water
is normally circulated through the shaft to ensure a clean shaft surface at all times
(5154). The warm water is normally pumped into the shaft at a point near the
thrust/axial bearing assembly and exits close to the water inlet point based on the
inside construction of the shaft (52). The water circulation facility is also beneficial
after a temporary production stoppage, as the warm water helps to melt solidified
product and, thus, facilitates the restart of the A unit.
Energy Balance. The above-mentioned temperature drop, crystal nucleation, and
partial crystallization of the product during the passage through the A unit involve
an overall energy balance including specific and latent heat of the product as well as
other energy source inside the equipment. The power input through the blade shaft
is transferred to the product and the cylinder wall as heat (Qm ). A small amount of
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Figure 6. Scraped-surface heat exchanger. Courtesy of Crown Chemtech U.S.A., a division of Crown Iron Works Co., Minneapolis, Minnesota.
473
heat is also added to the process through the warm water circulation inside the
shaft (Qw ).
According to this, the energy in form of heat in the A unit can be expressed as
follows (19):
Qt FCp T1 T2 FJc W2 Y Qm Qw ;
where F is the flow rate, Cp the products specific heat, T1 the emulsions inlet
temperature, T2 the product exit temperature, Jc the latent heat of crystallization
in the fat, W2 the solid fat content at the exit from the A unit, and Y the fat content
of the margarine emulsion.
In a stationary condition, the heat Qt will presumably be transferred through the
cylinder wall at an ammonia evaporation temperature of Tf , which makes it possible
to define the heat transfer coefficient U as
Qt UAT ln;
where A is the heat transfer area and T ln is a logarithmic value defined as

T ln T1 lnT1 =T2 T2 ;
where T1 T1 Tf and T2 T2 Tf .
If the product at the exit from the A unit has a solid fat content of W2 at temperature T2 and is left to crystallize under stationary conditions, the degree of supercooling will be reduced with time, as the crystallization continues until a certain
temperature Ta has been reached. Based on this we have
Cp Ta T2 Jc YWa W2 ;
where Wa is the solid fat content at temperature Ta . Based on sufficient time to

achieve a stable situation, Wa can be determined from the solid fat curve in the product at temperature Ta .
From formula (4) the solid fat content at the exit of the A unit, W2 , can be
calculated as follows:
W2 Wa
Cp T
;
Jc Y
where T Ta T2 .
Formulas (1), (2), and (5) make it possible to relate process variables such as
the flow rate F, the emulsion temperature T1 , and the ammonia evaporation temperature Tf with parameters contributing to the consistency of the margarine such as
the solid fat content at the exit of the A unit W2 .
As the crystallization of a fat product demands both a rapid temperature
drop and time for crystal nucleation and crystal growth, sufficient retention
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time for the product in the A unit is required. The retention time can be calculated
from
Tr V=F;
where F is the product flow rate and V is the product volume in the A unit.
Shaft Design. The high viscosity margarine products exhibit during processing
in the A unit increases the significance of factors such as flow rate, shaft rotation
speed, turbulent flow conditions in relation to shaft design, blade configuration, and
annular gap between the shaft and cylinder wall (51). This is due to the viscositys
influence on flow properties, created turbulence, increased effect of mechanical
work, and obtained mixing and heat transfer.
Several shaft or cylinder designs are available today in A units for margarine
processing. The A units can be grouped according to whether they are mounted
with eccentric shafts, oval shafts, sectioned shafts, or oval tubes.
Eccentric shafts have been in wide use in the past and were developed by the
Votator Division of Louisville, Kentucky, and are claimed to provide more intensive
cooling for high-melting bakery margarine as well as a certain amount of working
and compression action similar to that given by the Complector of the older, openchill drum system (52) (see Section 5.2).
Figure 7. Votator scraped-surface heat exchanger unit. Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell Votator

Division, Louisville, Ky.
475
Figure 7 shows a new, all stainless steel Votator A unit complete with highpressure feed pump and worker unit for production of industrial margarines and
shortenings.
In the literature, one can find theoretical and practical studies relating to heat
transfer conditions in scraped-surface heat exchangers (19, 54), which cover factors
such as specific weight, specific heat, latent heat of crystallization, dry matter content, retention time, and overall heat transfer conditions.
A review of some of the fluid mechanics and heat transfer aspects of scrapedsurface heat exchangers currently available for margarine processing has been
given by N. Hall Taylor (56). A summary by N. Hall Taylor outlining the important
physical phenomena occurring under different circumstances in the A units is given
in the following discussion.
Heat Transfer and Viscous Dissipation for Newtonian Fluids. Because the gap
width is small relative to the shaft radius, the annular space can be represented
on the basis of a two-dimensional flow model. This is illustrated in Figure 8.
Figure 8 indicates the important action of the scraper blade. Removal of material
at the front allows fresh warm material to flow down the back of the blade to
be brought into contact with the cold surface. Two things then happen. First, the
material adjacent to the surface is slowed down to develop a velocity profile.
Second, the material starts to transfer heat into the wall.
This is a transient fluid flow and heat transfer problem. Figure 9 illustrates the
growth of these layers adjacent to the wall as seen from a coordinate system traveling with the blade.
In Figure 9, the upper line represents the viscous layer, which shows the progressive development of the linear velocity profile. The thickness at any position relative to the blade is given approximately as
dn 2
nx1=2
V
where n is the kinematic viscosity. The material outside this viscous layer continues
to travel at the rotational velocity V.
Figure 8. Fluid movement in the proximity of the blade (56). Courtesy of N. Hall Taylor, Crown
Chemtech Ltd., Reading, United Kingdom.
476
Figure 9. Velocity profile behind the blade (56). Courtesy of N. Hall Taylor, Crown Chemtech
Ltd., Reading, United Kingdom.
The inner line in Figure 9 represents the corresponding thermal layer and shows
the development of the thermal gradient. Again the material outside this layer
remains at a constant temperature above the wall temperatures (i.e., y0 yw ). The
thickness of the thermal layers (dT ) is given by
ax1=2
;
dT 2
V
where a is the thermal diffusivity.
Thus the ratio of the thickness of the two layers at any position is solely related
to the Prandtl number of the material:
dn n1=2
Pr1=2 :
a
dT
For foodstuffs under low shear conditions, the Prandtl number is large, i.e., the
viscous layer is much thicker than the thermal layer.
Within the viscous layer, all the viscous dissipation is taking place. The scale of
viscous heat generation/unit volume (p) at any point is given by
2
du
pm
;
dy
where du=dy is the velocity gradient.
It can be shown that within the viscous layer:
p
rV 2
;
4t
or in coordinates relative to the blade:

p
rV 3
:
4x
477
This result is only true provided the thickness of the viscous layer is less than the
gap width (H); i.e., dn < H.
By integrating the viscous dissipation terms over the volume of the viscous layer,
one can derive an equivalent heat flow that has to be removed in addition to any
cooling that takes place. This is given by
qn rV 3
n 1=2
;
LV
where L is the distance behind the blade at which the viscous boundary layer is
destroyed. This can either be due to the next blade (so that L is the distance between
the blades) or because of some turbulent motion in the liquid. The cause of such
turbulent action will be discussed in detail later.
The heat transferred from the thermal layer to the wall can also be estimated and
averaged over the mixing length. This gives

V
qT ky
aL
1=2
:
Thus, increasing the rotational velocity will improve the rate of heat transfer
(proportional to V 1=2 ). However, at the same time the heat that has to be removed
from viscous dissipation is increasing (proportional to V 5=2 ).
The net cooling flux is
qc qT qV :
This indicates that for a given material there will be an optimum velocity at which
the greatest cooling is achieved. It also suggests that under certain conditions
qT qV and no net cooling is achieved.
This will occur if
V 2 > Cp y Pr1=2
or

k
V > Cp y
Cp m
2
1=2
:
The velocity at which this takes place will decrease as the viscosity increases. In a
margarine process the most critical section is in the final scraped-surface heat
exchanger (SSHE) and then toward the exit end. Here there is the greatest viscosity
(highest Pr) and also the smallest temperature difference between the wall and the
material (y).
In most cases this critical velocity is well above the maximum operating velocity
of the SSHE.
478
Non-Newtonian Fluids. Most foodstuffs and margarines are non-Newtonian fluids.

This means that the effective viscosity varies with the shear applied to the material.
A useful representation of this behavior is as follows:
K
g
n n0 0 ;
g
where g is the shear rate, essentially equal to the velocity gradient; n0 is a reference
viscosity at the reference shear rate g0 s1 ; and k is a constant typically in the
range 0.60.7. It should also be remembered that viscosity is generally strongly
dependent on temperature. This can typically be represented by
n
y
n nR
;
yR
where nR is a reference viscosity at temperature yR and n is a constant in the
range 23.
The influence of shear on viscosity has a very significant influence upon the rate
of development of the viscous boundary layer.
The shear in the viscous layer is given by
g
V
:
dn
Thus, just behind the blade, the shear will be very high (since dn is very small),
and this means that the effective viscosity will be low. Consequently, the layer will
move away from the wall more gradually than in the Newtonian fluid case.
A simplified equation for the thickness of the viscous layer for non-Newtonian
fluid is

dn g k=2k
dn dn 0 0 0
;
V
where
dn 0 2
n x1=2
0
:
V
The influence of the shear factor can be seen from the following table, which
shows the derived thickness (dn ) as a function of dn0 for a velocity V of 2 m/s,
equivalent to 300 rpm:
dn0
1
2
4
8
16
dn
0.02
0.06
0.18
0.50
1.41
479
This illustrates that the viscous layer is an order of magnitude smaller for the nonNewtonian material when compared to a corresponding Newtonian material.
The thermal diffusion process, however, is not affected by the shear and so the
same equations as before apply. Thus, the thickness of the thermal layer becomes
closer to that of the viscous layer.
This analysis indicates that, for high-melting-point margarines, there is likely to
be a very thin layer close to the cooling surface in which a linear profile is developed. This is a region of high shear, which effectively lowers the viscosity within
this region. Outside this layer the material is moving uniformly with the rotating
shaft. This condition is often referred to as mass rotation.
There is, however, a number of instabilities that induce vortices, and these can
delay the onset of the mass rotation condition. The next section will discuss the
cause of these instabilities.
Flow Instabilities. For clarity, these instabilities will be discussed in terms of
Newtonian fluids, although similar, more complicated behavior will occur with
non-Newtonian fluids.
1. Instability behind the blade. The flow situation is equivalent to the analysis
of the transition from laminar to turbulent flow along a plate parallel to the
direction of flow and is shown in Figure 10. Instability is predicted to start at
Reynolds numbers greater than 580, although observable disturbances need a
higher value, say 1000.
Thus this type of disturbance will occur when
Re
Vx
> 1000:
n
On the basis of the earlier discussion, this implies a mixing length (L) of
L
1000n
:
V
For water n 105 and so if V 2 m/s, L 5 mm. For an oil of 1000 cP, L
will be about 5 m, in which case this instability will not be observed since the
distance to the next blade is only 0.2 m.
Figure 10. Instability behind the blade (56). Courtesy of N. Hall Taylor, Crown Chemtech Ltd.,
Reading, United Kingdom.
480
2. Instability within the annular space. The rotation of the fluid in the annular
space means that a centrifugal pressure gradient exists across the gap, the
higher pressure being at the wall. This pressure gradient is given by
dp rV 2
:
dr
r
Ignoring the velocity gradients, this implies a pressure difference across
the gap of
p rV 2
H
;
R
where R is the shaft radius.

For our standard SSHE, H 16 mm and R 61 mm so that at 300 rpm
p is 0.01 bar, with the pressure at the cylinder wall being slightly higher
than at the shaft surface.
Although the pressure difference seems small compared to the local operating pressure of say 5070 bars, it is still capable of inducing a circulation
pattern. Thus, by Bernoullis equation, this pressure difference can accelerate
the liquid (ignoring viscous effects) to a velocity u given by
1 2
rV 2 H
ru p
;
2
R
1=2
u
2H
:
V
R
Hence for the standard SSHE, u 1:37 m/s.
The significance of this centrifugal effect is that if can cause a series
of fairly stable vortices to be set up between and travel with the blades.
Figure 11 shows this effect. This implies that the outer dimension of the vortex
is equal to the gap width H and that the mixing length L lies somewhere
between H and 2H. Because this is about a tenth of the distance between the
blades, the heat transfer should be increased by a factor of 23.
Figure 11. Vortices behind the blade (56). Courtesy of N. Hall Taylor, Crown Chemtech Ltd.,
481
The vortices need some time to establish, and they will be most persistent if
the ratio of the distance between the blade (pR) to the gap width (H) is close
to an integer. For the standard SSHE the ratio is about 13.
3. Enhancement of annular gap instabilities. The instability of the previous
section will be suppressed by higher viscosities, again reverting to mass rotation. There are different methods used to overcome this with varying degrees
of success:
Oval tubes
Oval shafts
Eccentric shafts
Sectioned shafts
The first three are clear from their description. The sectioned shaft equipped
with staggered blades has large flats to accommodate the blades on opposite
sides, so that the gap widths vary between 9 and 17 mm. Figure 12 shows a
diagram of such a shaft. The effect of the staggered blades is that the position
of the flat is rotated through 90 with each successive blade set. This
arrangement has other advantages and will be explained later.
The last three design concepts listed have the common feature that the gap
width at a point on the cooling cylinder will vary as the shaft rotates. In the
case of the oval tube the gap width varies when seen from a point rotating
with the shaft.
Figure 12. Sectioned shaft (56). Courtesy of N. Hall Taylor, Crown Chemtech Ltd., Reading,
United Kingdom.
482
Figure 13. Influence of shaft type on gap width (56). Courtesy of N. Hall Taylor, Crown
Chemtech Ltd., Reading, United Kingdom.
Figure 13 illustrates this variation in gap width for the case of the oval shaft
and the sectored shaft. An eccentric shaft would also have a sine-type
function but with only one maximum per revolution.
The key feature of these designs is that the change in gap width creates a
radial velocity equal to dH=dt at the shaft surface. This also has the ability to
generate vortices within the gap.
As Figure 14 illustrates, the advantage of the sectored shaft is that it has
pulses of much greater velocity than the oval shaft followed by periods in
which the turbulence is allowed to develop.
4. Axial flow. The axial velocity of the material through the annular gap is at a
much lower velocity than the rotational velocity. It can, however, still contribute to the creation of instabilities when the staggered blade configuration
is used. This is because, as the material progresses through the cylinder,
it encounters variations in gap width as illustrated in Figure 15. At each
of the changes in cross-sectional areas there is the possibility to induce
turbulence.
Figure 14. Influence of shaft type on rate of change gap width (56). Courtesy of N. Hall Taylor,
Crown Chemtech Ltd., Reading, United Kingdom.
483
Figure 15. Change of gap with axial flow (56). Courtesy of N. Hall Taylor, Crown Chemtech Ltd.,
Refrigeration System and Scraped-Surface Units. Scraped-surface heat exchangers for margarine production are, as mentioned, designed for direct expansion
refrigerants such as ammonia and Freon 22. Advantage is taken of the high rate of
heat transfer due to surface boiling of the refrigerant (54).
A-units with individual refrigeration systems per cooling cylinder assembly
are available from most suppliers. From Figure 16, an A-unit with four cooling
cylinders with individual refrigeration systems can be seen. Each cooling cylinder
is mounted with a surge drum above the cylinder. The surge drum is part of the
refrigeration system of each cylinder. Figure 17 shows how the refrigeration system
of an A-unit cooling cylinder assembly operates.
During normal operation, all stop valves around the A-unit are open. The liquid
refrigerant inlet solenoid valve (A) is open, allowing liquid to pass through the level
control valve (B) and into the bottom of the refrigerant jacket surrounding the
Figure 16. Chemetator SSHE for margarine processing. Courtesy of Crown Chemtech Ltd.,
484
Figure 17. Schematic diagram of refrigeration system. Courtesy of Crown Chemtech U.S.A., a division of Crown Iron Works Co., Minneapolis, Minnesota.
485
cylinder. Rapid heat transfer through the cooling cylinder wall from the warm
product inside the cylinder causes a considerable proportion of the liquid refrigerant
to vaporize upon contact with the outside wall of the cooling cylinder. Gas and
entrained liquid are discharged from the top of the jacket into the surge drum.
To ensure flooded conditions at all times in the jacket, a liquid level is maintained
in the surge drum by a sensor linked via a capillary tube to the control valve (B).
Gas leaves the surge drum via a pressure regulating valve (C) and the suction
to the suction trap of the fridge plant. The system is controlled by the pilot valve
mounted on the control valve (C). On manual systems, this is adjusted by hand
to give the desired temperature indication on the pressure gauge. On automatic
systems, this is linked via controller to the liquid temperature measuring device
(G) (57).
A current measuring device on the drive motor to the A-unit detects a rise
greater than a predetermined level above the normal running current, typically
10%, for the specific product being processed. This automatically closes the liquid
inlet valve (A) and the pressure regulating valve (C) while keeping the A-units
shaft rotating (54, 57). Normally, a warning signal is given to the operator of a
potential freeze-up, which may be prevented if the problem can be identified and
corrected. The system is then reset manually. If the problem is identified, such as
failure of the high-pressure feed pump, it is possible to prevent a certain freeze-up
by operating a hot-gas system either manually or automatically. This system is lined
electrically, so that it will only operate if valves A and C are closed. Selecting the
hot-gas option opens valves E and D. This immediately allows hot gas from the
high-pressure discharge side of the compressor to be introduced directly into
the refrigerant jacket of the A unit. The pressure in the jacket and surge drum rises
and forces all the liquid out via valve D and the suction line into the suction trap of
the refrigeration plant. Once the liquid is ejected, and assuming that the A-unit shaft
is still rotating, the hot-gas system can be switched off manually or automatically
through an electrical time delay relay. The system will then be ready for restart
when the original problem has been corrected.
In certain parts of the world, power cuts can occur frequently and cause problems
in the operation of A units for margarine production. Due to this, A units are usually
mounted with various features in the refrigerant system to minimize the downtime
related to power cuts. The hot-gas option is one feature. At the moment of the
power cut, valves D and E will automatically open and valves A and C will close.
Although the fridge compressor will also stop running, the residual hot gas in
the condenser and pipework will cause an immediate rise in the pressure in the
refrigerant jacket of the A unit. Although the A-unit shaft has stopped rotating,
this should allow it to rotate freely when power is restored. It is, however, important that this should nevertheless be checked manually after all necessary safety
precautions have been taken by isolating the drive motor locally or at the electrical
control panel (57).
Following a power cut, product feed failure, or any other abnormal conditions,
it is possible that the A unit will be frozen solid. In this situation, the hot-gas system
can be operated, as described, together with the warm water circulation through the
486
A-unit shaft to ensure rapid melting of the solidified margarine inside the cooling
cylinder.
Other systems used in A units to help prevent freeze-up situations, as described
above, operate by a drop tank principle, where the refrigerant is removed from
the refrigerant jacket with the aid of increased refrigerant pressure in the system
without installation and activation of a hot-gas system.
2.3. Worker Units
Fats require time to crystallize. This time is provided in crystallizers normally
called worker units, or B units. These are cylinders with larger diameters mounted
with pins on the inside of the cylinder walls (stationary pins) and on the rotors
(rotating pins) (3, 54, 55). The pins fixed to the concentric rotor are mounted in
a helical arrangement that intermesh with the stationary pins of the cylinder wall
(55). Worker units can be installed either between cooling cylinders of a multicylinder. A unit or after the A unit (3, 4, 51, 54, 55, 58). Worker units have the benefit of giving the margarine emulsion time to crystallize under agitation by the pins
of the rotating rotor (see Section 1).
The worker unit is normally mounted with a heating jacket for tempered water
on the cylinder and often also equipped with its own built-in water heater and
circulation pump for the tempered water. This is advantageous in preventing
product buildup on the cylinder wall and allows better product temperature control
during the passage through the worker unit. Product temperature increases of 2 C or
more due to release of latent heat of crystallization and mechanical work can be
observed in the worker unit (3).
Worker unit cylinders usually have product volumes ranging from 35 L up
to approximately 105 L per cylinder. B units with up to three worker cylinders
mounted on the same support frame are available on the market. Each worker cylinder usually has its own individual drive with fixed or variable speed for maximum
flexibility during processing of margarine. The design of a worker unit is illustrated
in Figure 18.
2.4. Resting Tubes
When producing margarine for stick or block wrapping, a resting tube is normally
connected directly to a packaging machine to allow the product sufficient time to
attain a hardness that is suitable for wrapping (3, 4, 54, 55). During production of
table margarine for stick wrapping, the product will commonly pass through the
cooling cylinders of the A unit and a possible intermediate worker unit (B unit)
inserted between the cooling cylinders. From the A unit, the product enters the
resting tube connected directly to the packaging machine (3).
The intermediate worker unit normally has a lesser product volume than final
worker units used in production of soft table margarine for tub filling. The purpose
of limiting the amount of work given to the product is first to produce a product that
is not too soft to be handled in the automatic stick wrapping machine. Second, it is
487
Figure 18. Worker unit (B unit) with one cylinder. Courtesy of Crown Chemtech U.S.A., a
division of Crown Iron Works Co., Minneapolis, Minnesota.
to prevent the aqueous phase of the margarine from being dispersed in an extremely
fine state of subdivision (54), which could have a negative effect on the flavor
release. Finally, too intensive working of a table margarine, with its higher solid
fat content compared to a soft margarine, could cause the product to attain an
unpleasant, greasy consistency (59). Too greasy a consistency could also cause
the wrapping material to stick to the product, which would result in a poor presentation of the product to the consumer. Figure 4 illustrates the process flow for
production of table margarine for stick wrapping.
The margarine is forced through the resting tube by the pressure of the highpressure feed pump. Resting tubes are normally fitted with screens or perforated
plates (55) to allow a minimal degree of work to be given to the product to ensure
optimal crystallization and plasticity.
488
Resting tubes for table margarine and similar products are made up of flanged
sections with lengths varying from approximately 450 mm (17.5 in.) to approximately 900 mm (35 in.) (54, 60). This allows the product volume of the resting
tube to be varied in accordance with the physical characteristics of the solidifying
margarine (54). Resting tubes for table margarine production commonly have diameters ranging from approximately 150 to 180 mm (6 to 7 in.) (54, 60). Resting
tubes for production of puff pastry margarine usually have diameters ranging
from approximately 300 to 400 mm (12 to 16 in.). The flanged section in these
resting tubes has a length of up to approximately 1000 mm (39 in.). The volume
of resting tubes for puff pastry margarine is normally considerably larger than
for other products to allow sufficient time for development of the special consistency required in puff pastry margarine (see Section 5.2).
Some equipment suppliers recommend using one single resting tube for feeding
table margarine to the packaging machine, whereas others recommend the use of
two connecting, parallel resting tubes. When one of the two resting tubes has been
filled with product, a motor-actuated rotary valve automatically switches the flow
of product to the second resting tube. The product in the first resting tube remains
static until the second resting tube has been filled.
The construction of a resting tube usually involves the required inlet adaptor,
flanged sections, screens or perforated plates, and an outlet connection flange for
direct linkup to the packaging machine. Alternatively, the resting tube could also
be mounted with an outlet extrusion nozzle, in case the product is fed to the packaging machine through the older, open hopper system. Resting tubes are normally
jacketed for warm water circulation to minimize the friction between the margarine
and the stainless steel wall of each section. This helps prevent channeling of
the product and reduces the overall discharge pressure required at the high-pressure
feed pump.
Figure 19 shows resting tubes of varied sizes for puff pastry margarine.
2.5. Packaging Equipment
Margarine products are packed in several ways depending on margarine type,
product consistency, and consumer preferences. In the U.S. market, consumer
retail margarines and related products, including butter blends, cover a variety of
products packaged in different ways (61). These can be grouped as follows:
Margarine in quarter-pound sticks
Margarine in one-pound solids
Margarine patties
Soft margarine in tubs
Spreads in quarter-pound sticks or one-pound solids
Soft spreads in tubs
Diet products in sticks or tubs
Liquid margarine in squeeze bottles.
489
Figure 19. Resting tubes for puff pastry margarine. Courtesy of Crown Chemtech U.S.A., a division of Crown Iron Works Co., Minneapolis, Minnesota.
490
Margarines for food service or industrial use are normally filled into 50-lb plastic
bag lined cartons, wrapped in blocks of 5 lb or bigger, or supplied in bulk.
Stick/Solid Retail Margarine. Two basic types of stick or solid packaging
machinery are used in the United States (62). The first of these forms is a molded
print that forces product into a measuring and molding chamber. The molded print
is removed from the chamber and then wrapped and cartoned. On the second type
of machine, the product from the resting tube is filled directly into a cell that is
prelined with a preformed wrapper bag. The wrapping is then folded and ejected
from the cell.
The second type of machinery is the more widely used type in the U.S.
margarine industry. The principle operation of the second type of machine is shown
in Figure 20. This type of packaging machine was originally developed by Benz &
Hilgers GmbH of Neuss, Germany, and today a wide range of machines for stick or
solid wrapping based on this concept exist (63). The concept shown in Figure 20
involves a machine with drive elements running in an oil bath. The product can be
fed to the machine either by a trough with feed worms or by direct linkup to a resting tube. Machines of this type can also be fed by a vertical funnel with a special
scraper/agitator mounted. This type of feeding arrangement is normally used when
wrapping miniportions at low hourly capacity.
In Figure 20, the wrapping material is fed continuously from a changeable reel
and is cut crosswise by a knife system before arriving at the bag forming station.
A plunger guides the wrapper through folding channels to form the bags, then
positions the bags exactly into the cells located in the intermittently running rotary
table in the center of the machine (64). The positioned bags are transported by
the rotary table to the dosing station. At the dosing station, the cells are lifted
Figure 20. Forming of the wrapper bag, filling, and folding. Courtesy of Benz & Hilgers GmbH,
Neuss, Germany.
491
Figure 21. Example of a packaging line. Courtesy of Benz & Hilgers GmbH, Neuss, Germany.
with the wrapper inside to ensure air-free filling of the product. Product is filled into
the preformed wrapper bags by the dosing station utilizing a dosing cylinder with a
piston. After subsequent folding and calibrating station, sharp-edged sticks or solids
are transported out of the packaging machine to the cartoning machine. Figure 21
shows an example of a packaging line including the stick wrapping machine and an
attached cartoning machine.
This packaging operation is more suitable for softer products than the system
where the product is molded before wrapping (62). Furthermore, the described
system normally operates with a bottom fold principle, which facilitates the folding
and closing operation during wrapping of softer product (64). A more economical
length-side fold principle can also be used in the packaging operation, saving
wrapping material. The two folding principles are shown in Figure 22.
The wrapping materials used in the wrapping operation shown in Figure 20
may be parchment, laminated aluminum foil, plastic-coated material, or plastic
foil (63). For packaging of margarines, the first two wrapping materials are commonly used.
Generally, packaging lines as shown in Figure 21 used in the margarine industry
are becoming quite sophisticated, involving electric and electronic monitoring
systems to control the functional sequences of the machinery. Monitoring systems
cover registration of production data, identification of end of wrapping material
roll, product pressure control, photoelectric wrapper registration, and automatic
control of dosing volume by integrated check weigher (63). Computer-aided
machine diagnostic systems can also be installed in packaging machinery. This
involves a programmable logic controller (PLC) monitoring system, which helps
to avoid faults in the packaging operation, to identify reasons for failure, and to
control production data.
High-speed, fully automatic packaging lines for stick wrapping of margarine
with speeds up to 240 sticks per minute are widely used in the U.S. margarine
industry. Such lines include fully automatic cartoning machines for inserting four
492
Figure 22. Packets with bottom and length-side fold. Courtesy of Benz & Hilgers GmbH, Neuss,
Germany.
quarter-pound sticks into one carton, for example. The cartons can then be packed
into cases in semiautomatic case packers or fully automatic wrap-around case
packers. Finally, the packaging lines can also include automatic palletizing
machines. Figure 23 shows a fully automatic, high-speed stick wrapping machine
complete with cartoning machine.
Soft Tub Margarine. In the North American market, soft margarine and spreads
are usually filled into tubs made from either polypropylene (PP) or polyethylene
(PE). Polypropylene allows for a thinner wall of the tubs and is more rigid then
PE. Due to the more rigid structure of PP, tubs made from PP can crack. Tubs
made from PE have a smaller tendency to crack, as PE is more flexible. Due to
this, lids are normally made from PE. Polyethylene gives a better weight control
during the manufacture of tubs, whereas PP in larger quantities is cheaper than
PE. Polypropylene and PE have equal properties in permeability of ultraviolet light
and air (oxidation) (65).
Tub filling machines for margarines and spreads are available from several
U.S. equipment manufacturers such as Rutherford of Rockford, Illinois, Phoenix
Engineering of Wisconsin, and Osgood of Clearwater, Florida.
In tub filling operations, it is normally required for hygienic and easy cleaning
procedures that the filling machine have a clear separation of the mechanical drive
and the product conveyor. Furthermore, it is advantageous to have filling machines
that prevent product or cleaning agents from entering the mechanical drive (66).
Cleaning of tub filling machines is normally limited to those parts in the conveyor
493
Figure 23. Stick wrapping machine with cartoner. Courtesy of Benz & Hilgers GmbH, Neuss,
Germany.
area that are in contact with the product. The dosing module and the entire area in
contact with the product can be automatically CIP (clean-in-place) cleaned in more
sophisticated machines.
Most tub filling machines are in-line machines with up to four tracks depending
on the requirements of filling volume and capacity.
Tub filling machines can be fitted with a variety of functions depending on
whether the margarine is packaged in tubs with a heat-sealed membrane or coverleaf under the lid, for example. The main functions of a tub filling machine for
margarine normally are (67):
Tub feeding station with magazine
Direct product feed with pneumatically operated compensating piston
Dosing device with filling nozzles
Feeding of snap-on lids
Press-on station for lids
Date coding device
Off-conveyor
Control panel
Optional functions usually include:
Tub cleaning or sterilization device
Automatic CIP cleaning system
Coverleaf station with magazine
Sealing membrane station with magazine
Other functions
494
Figure 24. Fully automatic tub filling and closing machine. Courtesy of Benz & Hilgers GmbH,
Neuss, Germany.
In margarine production, the packaging line for tubs can be completed with
wraparound case packers and palletizers (67). A fully automatic tub filling machine
is shown in Figure 24. A device for the simultaneous quantitative regulated filling
of liquid or soft plasticized substances, such as butter, margarine, pastes, or the like,
by means of nozzles into adjacently arranged containers with the assistance of at
least one control element interchangeably switchable from filling to discharging
and at least one dosing piston has been described (68).
Industrial Margarines. These products are usually filled into plastic-bag-lined
cartons of various sizes. Special bakery margarines, such as puff pastry margarines,
are normally wrapped in blocks of approximately 125 kg. Alternatively, puff
pastry margarine can be packed in plates or sheets of 15 kg (68, 69). Edmunds
and Budlong (69) have given a detailed description of a continuous sheeting and
packaging machine for puff pastry margarine and related products.
Block and plate wrapping machines for margarines are available today from
C. Bock & Sohn Maschinenfabrik of Norderstedt, Germany, and Gerstenberg &
Agger A/S of Copenhagen, Denmark.
Block packing machines are today quite sophisticated, and it is possible to wrap
different block sizes in one machine. Block packing machines can be delivered with
special slicing equipment for slicing the block during extrusion but before the final
wrapping as illustrated in Figure 25. Block packing machines can, if required, be
installed for automatic CIP cleaning, which is important especially in connection
with butter production (70).
Figure 25 shows a fully automatic block production line where the product to be
wrapped is fed from the SSHE plant into a dosing station. With the help of product
495
Figure 25. Fully automatic block wrapping machine. Courtesy of C. Bock & Sohn Maschinenfabrik, Norderstedt, Germany.
496
and compensator pressure, it is passed on through two laterally placed cylinders via
the resting tube toward the mouthpiece of the block packing machine. Exact weight
control is achieved by the piston stroke of the coupled dosing pistons mounted in
the two cylinders. The extrusion nozzle of the block packing machine is equipped
with a special cutoff device that cuts the product vertically from top to bottom after
finished dosing. The wrapper is fed from the reel, cut, and positioned automatically
under the extrusion nozzle or mouthpiece. The product block arrives onto the wrapper, which is supported by a transport plate. Each wrapper will be controlled in its
final position before dosing takes place. A no-wrapper/no-dosing device is mounted
in the machine. Vacuum will hold the wrapper correctly on the transport plate while
the block moves toward the folding level. Here the prefolded block will be transported by a chain conveyor to the various folding stations. The wrapped and folded
block leaves the machine on a transport belt (69).
Modern sheet wrapping production lines function after the same principles
except that the product is extruded as a sheet or plate from the mouthpiece vertically into a plate turner. Before the extrusion, the wrapper is positioned and follows
the product into the plate turner. The plate turner is driven by a four-step gear drive
rotating the plate turner 90 while the cross-folding takes place between each dosing/extrusion cycle. In a horizontal position the plate is pushed out on a conveyor
belt and transported through a permanent folding device for end folding below the
wrapped plate (70).
2.6. Refrigeration Plants
Refrigeration is a key operation in the margarine production plant. In the margarine
industry, Freon 22 and ammonia were widely used as refrigerants. New regulations
phasing out the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are in place in many countries
for environmental reasons (see Section 3). Plans for phasing out a hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) such as Freon 22 (R-22) are currently being made or in
some countries are already in place (52, 71). The layout of an ammonia compressor
plant servicing an SSHE for margarine production can be seen in Figure 17 (see
Section 2.2).
Ammonia systems consist of a compressor designed to compress the lowpressure ammonia gas from the SSHE. The gas is then discharged from the
compressor into the condenser. When ammonia is under a pressure of 150 psi
(10 bar), it will liquify at a temperature of 25.6 C (78 F) (71). Condensers can
be of the air-cooled or water-cooled type covering also evaporative condensers
(72). From the condenser, the liquid ammonia flows to the receiver. The receiver
in which the high-pressure ammonia liquid is stored maintains a constant supply
of refrigerant to the SSHE.
Figure 26 shows a packaged ammonia compressor system designed for servicing
an SSHE in margarine production. The system is skid-mounted from the factory for
easy installation. Only the condenser of the system is supplied loose.
Ammonia compressor systems used in margarine plants are usually equipped
with highly efficient superseparators for removal of lubrication oil from the
497
Figure 26. Packaged ammonia compressor system. Courtesy of Cremeria Americana SA,
Mexico.
ammonia (71). Lubrication oil carried over into the ammonia will eventually reduce
the heat transfer efficiency of the SSHE, as the oil will be deposited as a thin film on
the outside wall of the cooling cylinder. This can reduce the heat transfer considerably. Compressors of the reciprocating piston type or screw compressors are normally installed depending on compressor cost at various capacities or individual
preferences (71). The screw compressors, with their highly efficient coalescing
separators, reduce the amount of oil in the system considerably (70).
The use of ammonia as a refrigerant in margarine plants offers certain advantages as well as disadvantages. The advantages are cost, efficiency, detection, and
environment (70). The quantity of refrigerant needed to charge an ammonia system
is substantially less than for other systems, which provides additional savings.
Ammonia is the most efficient of the commonly used refrigerants. Easy detectability of ammonia leaks is an advantage compared to R-22, taking into consideration the latest enforcement laws by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA). Finally, ammonia is biodegradable and has no impact on the ozone
layer (71).
The disadvantage are toxicity and flammability. Ammonia has a corrosive effect
on tissues and can cause laryngeal, bronchial spasm and edema, which lead to
obstructed breathing. Ammonias flammability range in air is 1625% by volume.
It is usually characterized as hard to ignite (71). A suitable ammonia detection
system with alarm should be installed and well maintained. Detectors should sound
an alarm at the lowest practical level, not to exceed 1000 ppm.
Due to the disadvantages of ammonia, a number of regulations and standards
provide safe practice procedures for the use of ammonia as a refrigerant. Details on
mechanical requirements of refrigeration systems can be found in ANSI/ASHRAE
Standard 15, Safety Code for Mechanical Refrigeration. Piping requirements
should comply with ANSI B31.5, Refrigeration Piping (70). Many local and
national codes must also be complied with in many states.
498
3. REFRIGERANTS FOR THE FUTURE

A number of new refrigerants have been proposed during the last several years as
candidates to replace R-22 and R-502 in industrial refrigeration systems (73). International accords such as the Montreal Protocol on CFC production and other
accords concerning pollution and gas emissions to the atmosphere in particular
prompt a review of the refrigerants used in the margarine industry (52, 74).
Studies of the CFC refrigerants ozone depletion and its effect on the ozone layer
and global warming have reached such serious conclusions that both national and
international accords are in place to protect the environment (52, 71, 74).
R-22 is an HCFC refrigerant considered to have an ozone depleting effect only
5% of that of a CFC refrigerant such as R-12 (52). Replacements for R-502 are
being announced earlier than replacements for R-22 by refrigerant manufacturers.
This is due to the early deadlines for ending production of ozone-depleting CFC
refrigerants such as R-115, which is a component of R-502 (73). New refrigerants
to replace R-502 and R-22 are discussed in detail in the literature (73, 74).
Well-known biodegradable but toxic ammonia currently is emerging as the leading
replacement refrigerant (71).
The industry should already consider the effects of the new environmental
policies on its possible need for new refrigeration equipment or for modification
of existing equipment (71, 74).
New alternative refrigerants may exhibit different heat transfer characteristics
and may quite importantly require different discharge pressures than R-22 under
similar temperature conditions (73). This should be considered very carefully,
and all safety procedure and regulations as well as pressure vessel codes should
be followed closely when modifying existing refrigeration plants (72). Considerable information on R-22 and R-502 replacement refrigerants has been developed
by the Alternative Refrigerants Evaluation Program (AREP). AREPs purpose is to
identify the most promising non-ozone-depleting refrigerants (73).
Fluorocarbon products that do not contain chlorine and/or bromine (i.e., fully
fluorinated and hydrofluorinated [HFC] products) are not stratospheric ozonedepleters, and production of these products is not being eliminated by the Montreal
Protocol. They are, however, restricted by the U.S. Clean Air Act and must be
recovered rather than released to the atmosphere.
As a result of the Montreal Protocol and Kyoto Protocol and subsequent
amendments and ratification by individual countries, there are current and proposed regulations limiting the production, consumption, and trade of CFCs, HCFCs,
and HFCs. Over the past two decades, the global fluorocarbons market has
undergone a number of major transitions toward a greater use of non-ozonedepleting HFCs and non-global-warming, nonfluorocarbon alternatives in emissive
or potentially emissive applications.
Compared with the United States, the European Union has been significantly
more aggressive in its production reduction to date and scheduled reduction of
HCFC production, and it is considering restrictions in the use of HFCs in compliance with Kyoto Protocol goals to limit the emissions of global warming gases.
PLANT LAYOUT AND PROCESS FLOWSHEET
499
HFCs, FCs, and other fluoro-based compounds are some of the alternatives to
HCFCs and CFCs (75).
4. PLANT LAYOUT AND PROCESS FLOWSHEET

In margarine production, raw materials account for about 50% of the margarine
cost, actual production costs account for 20%, and other costs are 30% of the total
(35). Well-managed formulation and efficient, accurate metering/weighing systems
for the various raw materials in the emulsion preparation plant are essential factors
for cost-efficient margarine production (35, 7678).
Table 2 can be used to illustrate the significance of the cost of the various ingredients in a specific recipe for production of 1 ton of margarine.
Microcomputers, allow the optimizing of formulation cost or least-cost formulation. One method is to select from the formula file according to fluctuations in raw
materials prices. The high number of formulas required can make this task quite
difficult unless computers are used to sort out the least-cost formula. Production
schedules and previous purchases of raw materials will also have to be considered
(35).
Another method is to create new formulations by minimization. Here formula
cost is optimized against constraints. These constraints are based on finished product characteristics in relation to raw material characteristics. Production constraints relate to raw material properties, existing and new processes as well as
productivity in the plant. It is essential to compare formulas and processes in order
to optimize productivity by minimizing metering or weighing errors during emulsion
TABLE 2. Ingredient Cost (79).

Ingredient
Soybean oil, hydr. 44/46 C
(111.2/114.8 F)
Soybean oil, hydr. 34/36 C
(93.2/96.8 F)
Soybean oil
Emulsifier
Lecithin
Color (carotene)
Aroma
Water
Salt
Milkpowder
Potassium sorbate
Citric acid
% in Recipe
U.S.
$/Ton Margarine
32.00
190.30
4.00
23.79
44.00
0.20
0.20
0.005
0.02
16.935
2.00
0.50
0.10
0.04
213.22
5.98
1.61
12.65
8.05
0.14
3.91
23.00
8.40
2.53
100.0
493.58
From Crown Wurster & Sanger, Minneapolis, Minnesota, with permission.
500
preparation and the use of unsuitable formulas. This will help to minimize the
amount of product that has to be recycled. In a high-productivity setting, reworked
or recycled product should constitute no more than 0.10.2% of the total plant
production. Product specifications, fulfillment of these specifications, and product
consistency as well as expected technical performances of the product are quality
constraints. Depending on the quality control efficiency, recycling losses may reach
0.20.4% of the total production. Raw material quality is usually the cause (35).
Emulsion preparation systems play a very important role for achieving the above
productivity and thus the desired profitability in margarine production. Three general systems are normally used for metering and mixing the various ingredients into
a water-in-oil emulsion. These are (80):
A continuous metering pump system
A batchwise scale tank system
A batchwise flowmeter system
4.1. Continuous Metering Pump System

The margarine industry, like other food processing industries, is continuously
involved in optimizing productivity through rationalization to minimize production
costs. To achieve this a proper production method and production installation must
be chosen allowing optimal capacity at minimal labor cost, maintenance cost,
space, and energy requirements. At the same time the high product quality and
productivity must be assured (81).
Continuous emulsion preparation using a metering pump system has been successfully used during the last decades in the margarine industry to meet the above
requirements (76, 78) and is considered to be a very flexible installation (53).
Well-known suppliers of metering pump systems are Bran Luebbe Inc. of Buffalo
Grove, Illinois, and American Lewa Inc. of Holliston, Massachusetts.
In connection with the use of continuous metering pump systems, metering
or dosing can be defined as the addition of a defined ingredient flow or amount
(ingredient flow is equal to the ingredient amount added over a specified time
period) to a process tank, a mixer, or a process (81).
To allow metering, the ingredient flow (i.e., ingredient amount) must be transported, metered, and added. The metering pump covers the three operations of
transport, metering, and addition in one step. Thus, the metering pump differs
from regular pumping applications by two characteristics (81):
1. The flow is easily adjustable in a defined way.
2. Pressure and viscosity variations have no or only minimal influence on the
flow.
A metering pump consists of drive with gear reducer and a pumphead, where the
gear reduces the rotary motion of the drive motor and coverts it into a reciprocating
501
plunger motion. Suction and discharge valves work alternately according to the
plunger stroke. The capacity is determined by plunger diameter, stroke length,
and stroking speed and can be adjusted manually, electrically, or pneumatically
(8183).
A combined adjustment of stroke length and stroking speed will allow the
proportional metering of two or more ingredient flows based on the use of
multiple pumpheads (79). Due to the flexibility of the metering pump, margarine
emulsion preparation can be fully or partly automated by the use of a metering
pump system with multiple pumpheads. For example, only two pumpheads are
used for metering of the oil phase and the water phase.
Plunger diameter, stroke length, and type of stroking speed adjustment can be
chosen individually for each pumphead in the multiple pumphead metering pump
system (8183).
In margarine production it is possible to install a multipumphead system with
individual pumpheads for each ingredient or ingredient group used in the emulsion
preparation (76, 81). All pumpheads can be driven by one single motor with gear
reducer, which is an advantage from an energy consumption point of view. The
proportional metering of each ingredient is adjustable through the stroke length
in each pumphead. The total capacity of the metering pump system is adjustable
according to the product demand of the crystallization line and the packaging
operation (76, 78, 81).
Figure 27 shows a multipumphead metering system that uses an individual
pumphead for each ingredient. A system capable of accurately metering up to 16
ingredients, with dosing accuracies of 0:1%, has been reported (76, 78). Dosing
pump suppliers guarantee accuracies better than 0:5% (82, 83).
Maintenance of a stable emulsion in the continuous metering systems total
product flow is critical for an efficient margarine production and is achieved
through the use of specially designed static in-line mixers. These are installed
in the main pipelines downstream of the metering system as can be seen from
Figure 27.
Low-pressure or high-pressure metering pump systems can be installed according to users preference and required plant design. Figure 27 shows a high-pressure
system, where the emulsion flow from the system passes directly to the SSHE of
the crystallization line. In low-pressure systems, the emulsion flow from the system
passes the static mixers and a possible in-line plate pasteurizer before entering a
balance tank. The balance tank is usually equipped with an agitator and high and
low level switches for control of the drive of the metering pump system. From the
balance tank, the emulsion is then pumped by a separate high-pressure piston pump
to the SSHE.
Due to the flexibility of the multipumphead metering system virtually any
margarine formula can be processed within the range of fat content and water content for which the system is originally laid out during the design of the overall
processing capabilities (76, 78). Failsafe devices assure that the system is stopped
automatically if an ingredient fails to flow. The use of a balance tank offers some
advantages in this connection.
502
Figure 27. Multipumphead metering system (74). Courtesy of Food Engineering.
Accumulating excess margarine from the packaging operation can be returned to

the main fresh emulsion flow by a separate rework metering pump as shown in
Figure 27. This helps guarantee a uniform quality in the final product (78), as
well as minimizes waste.
Adjustment of the multipumphead metering system according to the recipes to
be produced and other required functions can be done automatically and integrated
into a control system based on the use of a PLC. The control system can be
connected to a possible main computer system in the margarine plant, allowing
for registration of process parameters and other statistical information used in
production control (8183).
The described principles of a multipumphead metering system have been
reported to offer several advantages in the margarine emulsion preparation (78).
These are
Dosing accuracy of 0:1%. Accurate dosing of raw materials can save margarine
producers significantly in the cost of ingredients.
Improved hygiene. The totally enclosed system keeps the product safe from
contamination and permits easy cleaning and disinfection.
503
Single system convenience. All elements for pumping, metering, mixing, and
controlling mounted within one unit result in minimal floor space requirement
and if layout is appropriate, allows easy maintenance.
Consistent quality and composition of the emulsion.
4.2. Scale Tank System
Scale tank systems or automatic batching systems are used in the margarine
industry in order to meet todays requirements with regard to automation, accuracy,
labor cost reduction, productivity, and inventory control (75, 82).
Automation in todays margarine industry means that all actions needed to
operate the process with optimal efficiency are ordered by a control system on
the basis of instructions that have been fed into the control system in the form
of a control program.
In an automated process the computer-based control system continuously
communicates with every controlled component and transmitter. The control system monitors and controls the process through signals received and sent covering
areas such as (84):
Actuation of components in the process through output (command) signals
Input (feedback) signals from valves and motors informing the control system
that the component in question has been actuated
Input (analog) signals from transmitters covering temperature, pressure, and
other parameters that provide information on the actual status of process
variables
Input signals from monitoring transmitters in the system that report when a given
condition has been attained. Such conditions could be maximum or minimum
level in a process tank, preset maximum temperatures, etc.
The logic unit of the control system processes the signals for optimal process
control, which means that product losses and consumption of service media and
energy are kept at an absolute minimum.
The automated control system has the following control tasks (84):
On/off or digital control
Analog control
Monitoring
Reporting
These control tasks cover areas such as controlling start/stop of motors, opening
and closing of valves, agitation start/stop, pasteurization control, selection of product routes and filling valves, control of pumping capacities and weighing systems
for formulation and blending, registration of fault conditions, interlocking of
functions and various process sections, self-diagnostic fault finding, data logging,
504
materials consumption and inventory reporting, maintenance in relation to equipment operational hours, optimization of process in relation records of energy
consumption, quality assurance, and total plant supervision (84).
The possibilities for automation are quite extensive. For each margarine production plant different levels of automation may be required or possible. The automation level for a plant is decided and planned according to factors such as (84):
Selected or installed process equipment and its affect on automation level
Requirements with regard to level of operator interactions and labor
Required degree of reporting within the plant in relation to quality control,
inventory control, and accounting
Examples of automation in margarine production have been reported (7678).
Automation based on the use of scale tanks for automatic batching has been
reported in detail for a U.S.-based plant for production of margarine and blends
containing butter (77).
Oils required for the margarine production in the described plant may arrive by
railroad tank car or road tank truck and are unloaded by connecting the vessels
discharge system to the receiving pump of the plant. A sanitary flowmeter registers
the amount of product received and transmits this information to the processing
computer for inventory control. Storage tanks for the received oils are normally
of the stainless steel silo type. The tanks are equipped with both heating and cooling
controls for maintaining a constant oil temperature and are flooded with nitrogen to
prevent oxidation of the oils. Oils are pumped from the storage tanks to the batching
system in hot-water heated jacketed pipelines to keep the oils from solidifying (77).
Oil storage tanks could be mounted with level controls capable of reporting the oil
level in each storage tank to the processing computer. In this way the computer can
monitor whether the oil level in a storage tank is large enough to meet the batch
requirements.
Milk required for the production is received in a similar manner and pasteurized
before storage in a refrigerated tank until required for batching. A portion of the
milk may be used for combining with salt for brine milk.
Minor ingredients such as sodium benzoate, potassium sorbate, citric acid,
cream, emulsifier, and butter are stored in individual, stainless steel tanks. Each
of these ingredients are weighed, during the batch formulation, in a smaller stainless steel tank suspended from an electronic loadcell (77). Microingredients such
as vitamin A, vitamin D, carotene, color, and flavor are also stored in stainless steel
tanks and enter the system through piston-type metering pumps. The batching
system consists of two larger stainless steel tanks suspended from an electronic
loadcell and are used for weighing the oils and the milk ingredients.
Through a keyboard, the computer operator can enter the formulas and number
of batches required for the production each day. The computer can hold numerous
formulas. A sequential weighing of each ingredient designated by the formula used
is started by computer command. The ingredients weighed are discharged into one
505
of two blending tanks after which the microingredients are metered into the blend
tank. At this stage the computer control system automatically commences a new
weighing cycle. The prepared batch in the blending tank is transferred to a surge
tank before transfer to the balance tank feeding the SSHE lines (77).
The computer control system is capable of displaying the formula of the batch,
desired weights for each ingredient being batched, and total weight of the entire
batch. Blend tank status, ingredient tank status, overweight or underweight conditions, and batch tank status are monitored by the control system, which will automatically alert the operator should a fault condition occur.
The described automated batching system offers important advantages with
regard to data processing and hard-copy printing of the results of the production
day. These are (77):
Summary report of the amount of each ingredient weighed
Summary of the amount of formulas run
Inventory of ingredients remaining in storage in various tanks
Data transfer to main computer for accounting purposes
Automated batching systems using scale tanks in margarine production offer
a good solution toward higher productivity, better inventory control, accuracy in
formulation, reduced labor requirement, and a consistent product.
4.3. Flowmeter System

A flowmeter-based system is an alternative to the metering pumps system and the
scale tank system in the emulsion preparation. Flowmeter-based systems can also
be automated through computer control covering automatic start/stop of feed
pumps, opening/closing of valves, registration of raw materials consumption, etc.
Flowmeter-based systems are used quite commonly in the margarine emulsion
preparation (80). These systems are a good alternative in margarine plants where
only a minimal degree of automation is desired due to the lower labor costs and
local requirements. Figure 28 illustrates a margarine plant using flowmeters for
metering the ingredients for the margarine emulsion preparation.
Batch controllers for each flowmeter are mounted in the main control panel. The
emulsion preparation cycle begins when the operator enters the desired quantities of
each oil type into the batch controller for the oil flowmeter. The operator selects the
proper outlet valve of one of the oil storage tanks, selects the proper feed pump, and
activates the batch controller. The selected outlet valve will then open automatically
and the selected feed pump will start automatically. The preselected oil quantity is
metered into the emulsion preparation tank. When the desired quantity has been
metered, the batch controller automatically activates the closing valve downstream
of the flowmeter, stops the pump, and closes the outlet valve. The operator now
selects the outlet valve and feed pump for the second oil type through a switch
system, reactivates the batch controller, and the described sequence is repeated.
506
Figure 28. Flowmeter-based emulsion preparation. Courtesy of Crown Chemtech U.S.A., a division of Crown Iron Works Co., Minneapolis, Minnesota.
507
Individual oil feed lines and flowmeters for each oil type can be installed for
optimal accuracy. When metering of all oil types for the oil blend is completed,
the operator enters the desired quantity of emulsifier solution into a second batch
controller. The sequence is repeated, but this time for metering the emulsifier
solution, which has been pre-prepared in designated tanks. The same sequence is
finally repeated for the prepared watermilk phase through a third batch controller
and flowmeter after a proper period of time, allowing sufficient mixing of the oil
blend and emulsifier solution in the blending tank.
The watermilk phase preparation system in Figure 28 is based on the use of a
batch mixing and pasteurization tank. A defined quantity of water is added to the
batching tank. Milk powder is added to the tank and mixed with the water during
heating. The tank is equipped with a special agitator designed to prevent burning of
protein on the tank wall. Heating and cooling of the prepared batch takes place
in the tank by steam heating of the jacket of the tank. When the desired temperature
of 7578 C (167172 F) has been reached, heating is stopped and cooling is
commenced by circulating chilled water through the heating/cooling jacket of the
tank. Figure 29 illustrates the described batch mixing and pasteurization tank.
The pasteurized batch is transferred to a holding tank for use in the emulsion
preparation. The process of mixing and pasteurization of a batch takes less than
2 h (84). The watermilk phase can alternatively be prepared in a mixing tank
and pasteurized using a modern type of multisection plate pasteurizer. The prepared
Figure 29. Batch mixing and pasteurization tank. Courtesy of Crown Chemtech U.S.A.,
a division of Crown Iron Works Co., Minneapolis, Minnesota.
508
watermilk phase is pumped from the mixing tank to the plate pasteurizer, where
the product undergoes successive stages of treatment such as preheating, heating
to 7578 C (167172 F), holding at that temperature for 1520 s, cooling, and
chilling in a continuous flow. The preheating and cooling stages are combined in
a regenerative section where the outgoing pasteurized product gives up its heat
to the incoming product. This greatly reduces the thermal energy demand (84).
Figure 30 illustrates a possible layout of the equipment of the margarine processing line shown in the flow diagram in Figure 28.
Pasteurization of the watermilk phase is a very important process. The pasteurization kills microorganisms that cause disease. If infections occur, the reason is
either that heat treatment has not been properly performed or that the watermilk
phase has been reinfected after pasteurization (84). Due to this it is important to
monitor the pasteurization process carefully in order to make sure that the water
milk phase is treated in the prescribed manner. Proper storage conditions for the
pasteurized batch before use in the emulsion preparation are also important.
Pasteurization of the complete margarine emulsion as shown in Figure 27 is often
done to minimize the risk of reinfection and to ensure the best possible storage
properties of the finished margarine product.
Thorough cleaning and disinfection of the equipment are essential parts of
margarine operations to ensure optimal hygienic conditions. Combined with proper
processing such as pasteurization, proper cleaning procedures help to ensure
optimal product shelf life.
Extensive development has and is taking place in the area of cleaning and
disinfection techniques. A wide range of detergents and disinfectants is available
today, complicating the choice of suitable cleaning agents for particular food processing operation. Economic pressures have speeded up the mechanization and
automation of the cleaning operations.
The degree of cleanness can be defined by the following terms (84):
Physical cleanness: removal of all visible dirt from the cleaned surfaces.
Chemical cleanness: removal of all visible dirt as well as microscopic residues,
which can be detected by taste or smell but are not visible to the naked eye.
Bacteriological cleanness: obtained by disinfection that kills all pathogenic
bacteria and most, but not all, other bacteria.
Sterility: destruction of all microorganisms.
Even today, some items of equipment in the margarine production can be found
not to be designed for easy cleaning and draining. Tanks with flat bottoms and
inadequate drainage points can be found. Pipes are found with unnecessary bends,
blank ends, and unsatisfactory valves. Such installations are very difficult to clean
and could lead to the buildup of stagnant products.
During the design and erection phase of new plants, full consideration should be
given to problems of cleaning. Cleaning operations must be performed strictly
according to a carefully planned procedure in order to achieve the required degree
509
Figure 30. Layout of a margarine processing line. Courtesy of Crown Chemtech U.S.A., a division of Crown Iron Works Co., Minneapolis, Minnesota.
510
of cleanness. The cleaning cycle in a margarine operation usually comprises the

following steps (84, 85):
Removal of residual fat and milk solids in the plant by means of drainage and
forcing product out with water or compressed air.
Preliminary wash with warm water about 49 C (120 F) for loosening fat and
milk solids adhering to the sides of the equipment.
Cleaning with alkaline detergent solution at 6070 C (140 158 F) for approximately 30 min to remove all traces of fat, milk solids, and other residues from
the interior of the production line. All blank ends and valves not suitable for
CIP should be removed and washed by hand.
Postrinsing with clean, warm water to remove the last traces of detergent.
Disinfection by means of heating with steam or hot water, alternatively disinfecting with chemical agents such as chlorine and other halogen compounds,
benzoic acid washing, or quaternary ammonium salts. In the latter case, the
cycle is concluded with a final rinse.
Cleaning in place (CIP) can be defined as circulation of cleaning liquids through
machines and other equipment in a cleaning circuit (84). This method of cleaning
has replaced the older practice of stripping down valves and other difficult to clean
equipment in many margarine factories. The CIP method is essentially the same as
the method described above (85).
The passage of the high-velocity flow of liquids over the equipment surfaces
generates a mechanical scouring effect that dislodges dirt deposits. This only
applies to the flow in pipes, heat exchangers, pumps and valves, etc. The usual technique
for cleaning of tanks is to spray the detergent on the upper surfaces and allow it to
run down the walls. The mechanical scouring effect is often insufficient but can to
some extent be improved by the use of specially designed spray nozzles or cleaning
turbines. Tank cleaning requires large volumes of detergent that must be circulated
rapidly (84).
4.4. Storage of Finished Product
Storage conditions play quite an important role for the overall quality of margarine
products. Insufficient or improper storage conditions can lead to several product
failures such as sandiness or graininess, oiling out, lack of plasticity, brittleness,
or microbiological spoilage for sensitive product types (86).
Margarines are usually stored in palletized cartons or boxes in refrigerated
storage rooms built with insulated walls and insulated ceiling for optimal energy
utilization. The margarine pallets are usually placed individually in a rack system
to allow for proper air circulation around each pallet. During the initial period of
storage, the temperature change in the product is not uniform across the pallet load.
The cartons or boxes on the outer layers reach storage temperatures well before
those in the middle of the pallet (52). This could lead to differences in product
structure depending on whether the product is located in the outer layer or in the
middle of the pallet.
PROCESSING OF LOW-FAT SPREADS, PUFF PASTRY MARGARINE
511
Recently, this problem has been addressed by a very simple solution. Specially
designed spacers are inserted between each layer of cartons on the pallet. The
airflow is in this way facilitated throughout the pallet, and heat exchange between
the product and the environment is achieved more efficiently. The spacers are
designed in such a way that they enable the air to circulate as it flows, thereby
ensuring that temperature stabilization is carried out quickly. Systems for inserting
and retrieving the spacers have been developed. Spacers can be inserted or removed
in less than 1 min and do not increase the height of pallets significantly as they are
only approximately 20 mm in thickness each (52).
Retail margarines are usually stored at 510 C (4050 F) at the point of manufacture for 12 days before shipment, so that the crystal structure can become
fully developed and stabilized. With lower melting point fats now used in most
margarines, especially in polyunsaturated table margarines and low-fat spreads,
and also because of the water present, most margarines today require that the
refrigeration is maintained throughout the distribution chain and in the consumers
home (45, 8688). Specialty margarines such as puff pastry margarine should be
stored 24 days at 1216 C (5461 F) to allow time to stabilize the special texture
and plasticity desired prior to dispatch or cold storage (89) (see Section 5.2).
Studies of the effect of storage conditions on quality of retail margarines, such as
polyunsaturated margarines, have tended to focus on the changes in physical and
chemical properties that occur during storage. The effect of storage on the sensory
properties of the product also has great importance to the manufacturer, distributor,
and the consumer (88).
Storage conditions affect sensory properties such as color, flavor, texture, and
general acceptability (88). Sensory values for these properties decline with storage
time. For polyunsaturated retail margarine it has been found that storage at 5 C
(41 F), alternatively 10 C (50 F), did not result in significant differences in the
product with regard to color and texture. Product stored at 5 C (41 F) exhibited
significantly better flavor results than product stored at 10 C (50 F). High-quality
shelf life of polyunsaturated retail margarine is seen to be approximately 8 months
when stored at a constant 5 C (41 F), 6 months at 10 C (50 F) (88).
Low-fat spreads with 40% fat content and containing protein usually have a
shelf life of 810 weeks and water-based low-fat spreads of about 4 months based
on storage at temperatures below 10 C (50 F) (90) (see Section 5.1). Very low fat
spreads with fat contents below 20% and with a water continuous emulsion character
require low pH, ultra high temperature processing, and possibly aseptic filling procedures to allow closed shelf lives comparable to conventional low-fat spreads (91).
5. PROCESSING OF LOW-FAT SPREADS, PUFF PASTRY

MARGARINE, AND PUFF PASTRY BUTTER
Low-fat spreads, puff pastry margarine, and puff pastry butter are all very interesting products from an equipment and processing point of view as they require
processing techniques that are quite different from those used in the processing
of conventional retail margarine.
512
5.1. Low-Fat Spreads

Introduction. Under the influence of official dietary recommendations, product
pricing structure, and evolving consumer lifestyles, low-fat spreads have progressed
during the last decade from being food alternatives to butter and margarine to the
present standing of a product in its own right. This market trend toward reduced
fat consumption has led to a significant reduction in the consumption of butter
both on the U.S. and the European Community (EC) markets (9195).
Margarine consumption has remained fairly steady with a slight upward trend
in the EC market lately (approximately 1% per annum) (93), whereas the U.S.
market from 1991 to 1992 showed an overall reduction of 2.2% even though the
consumption of low-fat margarine and spreads showed an increase of 49.8% (96).
Low-fat spreads were first introduced in the market in Great Britain in 1968 and
have a significant market share today of approximately 26% in Great Britain (93).
The production of low-fat spreads is traditionally complex and there are many
variations on the same theme as the technology becomes more advanced. Lowfat spreads are inherently unstable, since the bulk of the product comprises watersoluble ingredients, while an acceptable texture is normally only achieved with a
water-in-oil emulsion. Therefore, the tendency of the emulsion will be to become
oil in water, and once this occurs the reaction is invariably irreversible, resulting in
high wastage. Additionally, if the emulsion is unstable, although the product may
not be fully reversed, the texture will be open and coarse and unacceptable (90).
In the yellow spreads market, oil-in-water spreads have recently been introduced
and are relatively new. One drawback for these products is their stringent requirements for ultra high temperature processing and aseptic filling to achieve acceptable
shelf lives. Low-fat spreads (40% fat) containing protein usually have a shelf life of
810 weeks and water-based low-fat spreads of about 4 months based on storage at
temperatures below 10 C (50 F) (90).
Table 3 illustrates low-fat spreads available with fat contents ranging from 60%
to as little as 5%. Below about 20% fat content products of a water continuous
emulsion character are prevalent (91).
TABLE 3. Some Low-Fat Spreads.

Low-Fat Spreads
Approximate
Composition (% Fat)
Vegetable fat spreads

Vegetable/butterfat blended spreads
Butterfat spreads
Very low fat spreads
Water continuous spreads
Adapted from Ref. (91), with permission.
60
40
40
40
2030
15
9
5
513
Formulation. Several patents have been issued covering low-fat spreads formulation and processing indicating that critical process control and/or significant levels
of water binding agents are required (91, 92, 97, 98).
From a formulation point of view, low-fat spreads can be grouped as follows:
Without protein and without stabilizer added
Without protein but with stabilizer added
With low protein level and with stabilizer added
With high protein level and with stabilizer added
With low protein level and with stabilizer and thickener (fat replacer) added
To further illustrate and summarize the complexity of low-fat spreads formulation and possible ingredients to be used, a typical formulation of a 40% fat content
low-fat spread is shown in Table 4 of functional properties of possible ingredients in
TABLE 4. Low-Fat Spread at 40% FatTypical Formulation.

Component
Ingredients
Oil blend
Hydrogenated vegetable oil

Vegetable oil
Mono and diglycerides
Lecithin
Polyglycerol ester
Beta carotene including vitamins A and D
Annatto
Butter extract
Organic acids
Ketones
Esters
Maltodextrin
Gelatin
Modified starch
Sodium alginate
Potassium sorbate
Sorbic acid
Buttermilk
Skim milk
Whey
Caseinate
Soy
Salt
S. Cremoris
S. Diacetylactis
S. Leuconostoc
Acid regulator
Acid regulator
Buffer
Emulsifier
Color
Flavor
Stabilizer
Preservative
Water with protein source
Salt
Starter culture
Sodium-hydroxide
Sodium-hydrogen
Trisodium-citrate
%
3740
0.251.0
0.0010.005
100200 ppm
13
0.10.3
5060
12
Trace
0.1
0.10.4
0.10.4
514
low fat spreads formulation. Table 5 indicates a summary of recipes for various
types of low-fat spreads.
Processing. Low-fat water-in-oil emulsions with fat contents of 40% or lower
have been found to be quite sensitive to line pressures and cooling rate in the
SSHE line. Fill temperatures are higher than with corresponding 50% fat products
because the emulsion is more viscous. If fill temperature is too low, the product will
build up in the tub with excessive lid contact causing crumbly product and water
leakage. If too much crystallization occurs in the process, the shearing forces of
processing and filling may break the emulsion. Therefore, low-fat products are
more easily prepared by use of high liquid oil content and low solid fat index
(SFI) blends. The higher liquid oil content improves the emulsion stability by more
adequately separating the increased number of aqueous-phase droplets. Careful
blend selection and processing ensures that quite butterlike textures can still be
produced. In the case of low-fat butter, the production is more difficult due to higher
SFI values for butter oil at lower temperatures.
Low-fat butter or dairy spreads can also be produced from an oil-in-water
dairy cream or premixed cream with a fat content adjusted to the desired percentage
in the low-fat dairy spread using phase inversion. For product stability reasons,
emulsifier (approximately 1% distilled monoglyceride) and stabilizer (hydrocolloids such as gelatin or sodium alginate) are added in smaller quantities to the prepared cream. This is necessary to prevent free water in the finished stored product.
Minor ingredients, such as flavor and color, can also be added. The cream is prepared during controlled agitation and temperature and passed through the SSHE
line at a rate of 4050% of normal capacity. High SSHE (A unit) shaft speeds as
well as increased shaft speeds in the required worker unit (B unit) are preferred to
achieve phase inversion. Constant flow rate and exact temperature control are
necessary for proper phase reversion, crystallization, and working of the product
(9092, 99).
In general, vegetable-oil-based and butter-oil-based low-fat spreads as well as
blended low-fat spreads containing both vegetable oil and butter oil can be produced continuously. This is achieved by crystallizing a batchwise or continuously
prepared water-in-oil emulsion in an SSHE process line.
The process line for this purpose is normally especially designed to ensure crystallization and texturization of the product to take place under controlled conditions
and within the processing equipment. The manufacture under high degree of agitation with minimal shear precedes the processing of the emulsion, providing an
emulsion of the correct phase (wateroil) and water droplet size.
The flow diagram in Figure 31 shows such a process line using SSHEs for
pasteurization of the prepared water-in-oil emulsion, crystallization of the emulsion, and reworking of the crystallized emulsion.
Typically, the bulk liquid oils are transferred from the storage facility to the
emulsion mixing vessel at 5560 C (131140 F). Oil-soluble ingredients, such as
emulsifier, color, and flavor, are added in a separate vessel to minimize their storage
time at elevated temperatures. Emulsifiers are used to lower the surface tension
between the water and oil phases, thereby stabilizing the liquid emulsion before
TABLE 5. Basic Formulations for Reduced-Fat Spreads.

Product Type (Fat Content)
Ingredient
60%
40%
Water Only
40% Water
Plus Stabilizer
40% Low
Protein Level
40% Higher
Protein Level
20% Based on
EPO42031 5A2
10% Oil in Water Based

on EPO29856 1A2
Composition, %
Fata
Emulsifier (distilled
monoglycerides)
Lecithin
Beta carotene, ppm
Flavor/vitamins, %
Water (salt) (adjust
to pH 4.86.2 with
lactic acid if required)
Gelatin
Thickener
Skim milk powder
Sodium caseinate
Potassium sorbate
Flavor
59.5
39.5
39.5
39.5
39.5b
19.6
10.0
0.4
(IV 55)
0.1
4
0.02
39.0
0.6
(IV 80)
0.1
3
0.01
59.8
0.6
(IV 80)
0.1
3
0.01
59.3
0.5
(IV 55)
3
0.01
57.4
0.6
(IV 55)
4
0.01
51.7
0.4
(IV 55)
0.1
5
0.01
69.7
5
0.01
86.3
1.0
0.01
0.5
0.01
1.5
1.0
0.1
0.02
2.0
6.0
0.1
0.1
5.0
3.5c
1.5
0.1
0.1
3.0
9.0c
0.5
0.1
0.1
Typically liquid 76 hard fraction 24 (slip point 4244 C), i.e., palm stearin.
Can also contain butteroil.
c
Starch based.
Reprinted from Moran (91) with permission.
b
516
Figure 31. Schematic diagram of SSHE process line for production of low-fat spreads. Courtesy of Crown Chemtech U.S.A., a division of Crown Iron Works Co.,
Minneapolis, Minnesota.
517
crystallization takes place. This is necessary to ensure a homogeneous product and a

fine dispersion of the aqueous phase. The use of emulsifiers gives greater numbers
of smaller water droplets in the product, resulting in a light texture and good flavor
release.
Milk proteins and soy lecithin can also affect the water droplet size. Proteins and
lecithin tend to increase the drop size (91, 100).
The aqueous phase is prepared in a separate vessel and would typically comprise
skimmed milk, whey, or water. Salt and various acidity regulators are added to the
water phase along with an adjustment of the acidity. Finally, a bulking agent is
added to yield the optimum viscosity for a particular formulation.
The influence of the viscosity and functionality of the aqueous phase on emulsion stability, spreading, and eating characteristics of the product are significant. In
high-protein low-fat spreads, the proteins function is to create a three-dimensional
network responsible for immobilizing the water (94). The functional properties
for a given protein are greatly influenced by the environment (i.e., other ingredients
such as stabilizers) in which the protein is present during the emulsification
process (101).
The heated aqueous phase is added to the oil phase under controlled conditions
creating a good-quality water-in-oil emulsion. Critical parameters at this stage
include the temperature of the two phases, water phase viscosity and functionality,
addition rate, and type and speed of mixing.
The prepared emulsion is fed via a balance tank to a high-pressure pump, usually
of a piston variety to a series of in-line SSHEs. Once in the pasteurizer heating
cylinders, the product is pasteurized and held prior to being subjected to precooling
and prepared for crystallization. Cooling, stabilizing, and texturizing of the emulsion are continuously undertaken within a series of A and B units.
The emulsion is rapidly supercooled with vigorous agitation by the scraping and
blending action of the knife blades of the A unit. During the passage through the A
unit, a thin film of crystallized emulsion is continuously scraped off the walls of the
cooling cylinders and mixed with warmer emulsion. The water droplet size is reduced further during this step and the reduction is dependent on emulsion viscosity,
shaft speed, and retention time. The process continues until the emulsion leaves
the last cylinder and enters a worker unit for final texturization. Due to the presence
of higher amounts of solidified fat in the product during its passage through the
worker unit, water droplets can recoalesce during this process step. Typical process
conditions (2540% fat) would be as follows (90): aqueous phase temperature
45 C (113 F), oil phase temperature 60 C (140 F), emulsion temperature 52 C
(125.6 F), pasteurization temperature 85 C (185 F) for 15 s, precool temperature
40 C (104 F), final cooling temperature 12 C (57.6 F), temperature at filler 16 C
(60.8 F).
Ammonia/Freon evaporation temperatures would vary depending on throughput.
For stick wrapping, the produced product passes to a resting tube connected
directly to the stick wrapping machine. When the product is filled into tubs, it
is conveyed directly from the after-treatment worker cylinder to the filling
machine.
518
Excess product from the packaging operation is continuously remelted in a

rework SSHE in a controlled manner and returned to the system via the balance
tank or a positive pump facility for adding reclaimed material.
Figure 32 illustrates and summarizes the basic process lines used for the production of different types of low-fat spreads.
Figure 32. Basic process line for low-fat spreads (91). (a) Conventional processing;
( b) inversion processing; (c) method of oil in water spreads.
519
Figure 33. Scraped-surface heat exchanger. Courtesy of Schroeder & Co., Luebeck, Germany.
Figure 33 shows an SSHE with four cooling cylinders, one pin worker, and one
inversion crystallizer mounted for production of low-fat spreads using the inversion
technique.
5.2. Puff Pastry Margarine
Introduction. Puff pastry is quite different from other margarine types in its
properties and especially its plasticity (102). The plasticity of puff pastry margarine
is essential for preparation of puff pastry of high quality. Puff pastry is made from
very thin layers of dough and margarine, which bake to a light and flaky structure of
good volume and uniform appearance. This laminated structure is achieved by a
special dough handling procedure, where the dough is folded and rolled together
with the puff pastry margarine resulting in a finished puff pastry dough with alternating layers of dough and margarine (87, 102, 103).
The function of the puff pastry margarine is to act as a barrier between the dough
layers both during rolling to prevent them from fusing together and to prevent the
formation of a three-dimensional structure between the gluten protein in each thin
dough layer during baking (104).
520
The demands on the properties of puff pastry margarine can be summarized as

follows (80):
A high degree of plasticity over a wide temperature range.
Sufficient plasticity for stretching rolling in the dough preparation to ensure
unbroken homogeneous thin layers of margarine in the dough. This is
necessary for the laminated structure and volume of Danish pastry.
The absence of softness or greasiness when worked.
Choice of type of SSHE, shaft and blade design, flow rate and required product
retention time, oil blend formulation, as well as process temperature profile along
with several other factors have a significant influence on the final quality of any puff
pastry margarine (51, 105).
Formulation. To ensure the above properties of a puff pastry margarine, the oil
blend formulation plays quite an important role. When formulating a suitable oil
blend for puff pastry margarine, several factors such as local climatic conditions,
temperature and methods used during dough preparation, consumer (baker) preferences, and desired quality of the finished baked Danish pastry must be considered
(51). Puff pastry margarine normally has a fat content of 80% and oil blends giving
a flat SFI curve are sought. Tallow, lard, shea fat, palm oil and, to a certain degree,
hydrogenated fish oil are the most suited fats for production of plastic puff pastry
margarine (87, 106).
Palm-oil-based puff pastry margarine, where palm stearin, hydrogenated palm
oil, and palm kernel oil are the components of the oilblend, reportedly performs
better than tallow-based puff pastry margarine (103). This can be attributed to the
fact that it is easier to produce a vegetable-oil-based puff pastry margarine with a
good plasticity in an SSHE process line (105). Tallow-based puff pastry margarine
produced on the open chill drum system has excellent plasticity.
One hundred percent soybean-oil-based puff pastry margarine cannot be characterized as a typical puff pastry margarine oil blend (105). Soybean-oil-based
puff pastry margarine has relatively poor plasticity. Hydrogenated soybean oil in
combination with hydrogenated palm oil can give very good baking results as
well as a margarine with an excellent texture and plasticity (51). An example of
such an oil blend is as follows: hydrogenated soybean oil, 44 C (111.2 F), 40%;
hydrogenated soybean oil, 38 C (100.4 F), 20%; hydrogenated palm oil, 42 C
(107.6 F), 35%; liquid soybean oil, 5%.
Emulsifiers of the monoglyceride type with or without polyglycerol ester added
are usually added to the oil blend of the puff pastry margarine at a level of 1% of the
overall recipe of the margarine (106, 107). Emulsifiers influence the crystallization
of the margarine both during processing and storage resulting in improved plasticity
(106). They also ensure that the emulsion is heat stable during baking. Soy lecithin
is usually added at a level of 0.8% to facilitate the emulsifier effect.
Low pH of the water phase of the puff pastry margarine will have a pronounced
effect on the lift in the finished pastry. Low-calorie puff pastry margarine with 60%
fat content has been reported (94).
521
Processing. Puff pastry margarine with optimal properties has for many years
been produced on the open chill drum/vacuum complector system available in
the market from Gerstenberg & Agger A/S, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Here a thin layer (less than 1 mm) is applied directly on the surface of the open
chill drum. Crystallization takes place during complete rest and during very rapid
cooling. Afterward, the margarine flakes are rested in large hoppers for crystallization to progress before separate kneading under vacuum in a complector occurs
(80).
Due to this systems disadvantages in space requirements, labor demand, and
hygiene, production of puff pastry margarine in SSHE process lines has developed
significantly over the past two decades. Today, the majority of all puff pastry
margarine is produced in SSHE lines.
Choice of the required SSHE equipment is very important for the production of
high-quality puff pastry margarine. For each piece of equipment in the production
line, special design features have to be considered to ensure that the complete
production line has all the necessary capabilities for puff pastry margarine. This
relates to the previously mentioned required properties of puff pastry margarine.
A detailed discussion of required design features in the process line can be found
elsewhere in this Chapter (see Section 2.2).
It should be noted that process lines for vegetable-oil-based puff pastry margarine differs somewhat from the process lines for animal-oil-based puff pastry
margarine with regard to the equipment sizing and layout (51).
A general flow diagram for a puff pastry margarine processing line can be seen
in Figure 34.
Normally, it is recommended to use a process line where the SSHE is equipped
with multiple cooling cylinders (80). This is advantageous in the production of
puff pastry margarine as successive steps of cooling, working, and cooling of the
product promote the development of the consistency and the plasticity desired. The
desired properties of puff pastry margarine depend not only on oil blend formulation but also very much on the three-dimensional crystal structure formed during
crystallization and storage (105).
Figure 34. Schematic diagram for SSHE process line for production of puff pastry margarine.
522
During the product passage through the multiple cylinders of the SSHE, the
product is supercooled and, to a certain degree, crystallized. When mechanical
work is applied to the product during the cooling process by the blades of the A
unit or by the pins of the intermediate worker units (B unit) shaft, two types of
crystal structures will appear: a primary and a secondary.
The bindings between the crystals of the secondary structure are weak and
even though destroyed by the application of mechanical work, they reestablish
themselves very quickly when the mechanical work is eliminated. The bindings
in the primary structure are, on the contrary, very strong and when destroyed
by mechanical work, they will not reestablish easily. It is widely accepted in the
industry that the primary structure has a tendency to be formed if insufficient
mechanical work is applied. This leads to products with a brittle and hard texture.
A more detailed discussion of crystallization and crystal structures can be found in
Section 1.1.
Normally, the retention time in the A-unit alone is not sufficient for crystallization of puff pastry margarine due to the special texture required. For this reason, it
is advantageous to insert an intermediate worker unit (B unit) between the cooling
cylinders to allow time for the crystallization to progress further during agitation
under the absence of cooling (51, 104). Please refer to Figure 34.
To reduce the postcrystallization to a minimum to ensure the development of
the proper crystal structure and desired plasticity, it is necessary to prolong the
cooling and working of the puff pastry margarine in the SSHE line (105). This is
achieved by reducing the capacity of the process line to a level of only 5060% of
the capacity obtainable for regular margarine on the same A-unit.
The crystallization process is normally controlled through a variation of flow
rate, refrigerant evaporation temperature, or by changing the layout of the intermediate worker unit and cooling cylinders according to the oil blends used.
Besides the influence of temperature, blending, and time (capacity) on the
texture and quality of the puff pastry margarine, the volume and design of the final
resting tube (Figure 34) have a significant influence in relation to the oil blends used
(51, 80, 105). During the passage through the resting tube, a minor product
temperature increase indicating minimal postcrystallization can normally be observed before the product enters the packaging operation.
5.3. Puff Pastry Butter
Introduction. The flavor of butter and butter fractions is very attractive to the
human palate due to their content of very short chain fatty acids. Furthermore,
the word butter is appreciated by the consumer. Due to this, there has been a
growing interest in recent years, especially in Europe, to use butter stearin and other
butter fractions in pastries such as Danish pastries and croissants (108, 109). The
properties desired in puff pastry butter are similar to those outlined for puff pastry
margarine in Section 5.2.
Formulation. Oil blend formulation for puff pastry butter requires the same
consideration as for puff pastry margarine with regard to usage temperature, solid
PRODUCTION CONTROL, QUALITY CONTROL, AND SANITATION
523
TABLE 6. Possible Oil Blends for Recombined Butters for Various Bakery Applications.
Oil
Butter oil, drop point 32 C (89.6 F)
Butter stearin, drop point 40 C (104 F)
Soft butter stearin, drop point 24 C (75.2 F)
Butter olein, drop point 18 C (64.4 F)
Total
Bakery
(%)
Croissant
(%)
Puff Pastry
(%)
20
75
0
5
15
80
5
0
5
95
0
0
100
100
100
fat contents, plasticity, emulsifier dosage, and pH of the water phase. Some possible
oil blends (110) are shown in Table 6.
Processing. Design and layout of the SSHE line as well as the processing
conditions basically follows the same pattern as outlined for puff pastry margarine
in Section 5.2.
6. PRODUCTION CONTROL, QUALITY CONTROL,

AND SANITATION
The success of a margarine manufacturer depends on many factors including
marketing, productivity, and changes in ingredient costs. The foundation for continued success is the quality of the product itself. To ensure a constant high quality of
the product, production and quality control as well as sanitation in the margarine
plant are quite important disciplines.
Production control through registration of process parameters, formulation, flow
rates, ingredient consumption, and other production variables has been described
in Sections 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3. Cleaning and disinfection procedures have been
described in Section 4.3.
Quality of raw materials and finished products can be determined through instrumental techniques and ultimately by sensory evaluation. Results from these quality
control methods may be compared to minimum standards available either by law or
set by the marketplace (111).
6.1. Raw Materials
Management of quality requires that the specifications and regularity of properties
of mixture are fulfilled. The desired specifications are obtained when formulas are
made for raw materials of standard quality. This quality has to be maintained (35).
Fats and oils are obviously the raw materials of major importance in a margarine
production. When a margarine plant is not integrated with a refinery, increased control of raw materials and stabilization of manufacturing parameters through the
creation of specifications, acceptable by many fats and oils suppliers, is important
(35).
524
When a margarine plant is integrated with a refinery, the raw materials characteristics are generally obtained in the refinery. The quality control in the margarine
plant will essentially concentrate on the production parameters and on finished
product examination (35).
Quality control systems usually used for judging the quality of oils and fats or
oil blends used in margarine production could evaluate color, color stability, flavor,
flavor stability, free fatty acid, peroxide value, active oxygen method (AOM) stability, iodine value, slip melting point, fatty acid composition, refractive index,
crystallization rate, and solid fat/temperature relationship (solid fat index) (5, 91,
112, 113).
Refractive index, iodine value, AOM stability, and peroxide value provide standardized methology for those factors affecting oxidative stability (5, 113).
Solid fat index, melting points, penetration, and viscosity are normally used to
measure factors affecting consistency and texture (5, 35, 112, 113). Color is most
frequently measured by the Lovibond procedure (5).
Determination of crystallization rate and solid fat index can be done conveniently using pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques (91).
6.2. Finished Products
Testing techniques for the evaluation of physical properties and other properties of
finished margarine products as well as low-fat spreads have been stated to include
(4, 91): appearance, oral melting characteristics, oil exudation, slump (collapse),
penetrations, spreadability, emulsion viscosity at 35 C (95 F), emulsion drop
size, and electrical conductivity.
Oil exudation results from a reduction in the volume of the fat crystal network over time and is due to the formation of strong primary or secondary bonds.
External pressure also is an influencing factor that is particularly relevant with
wrapped products stacked at a low point in a pile in storage. Empirical tests include
measuring the oil exuded under controlled pressure on absorption into pre-weighed
paper (91).
Spreadability can be evaluated by spreading the product in a consistent manner
on a suitable surface such as greaseproof paper or cardboard. The results may vary
from smooth and homogeneous to very coarse and showing visible water drops
(91). In this way hardness, softness, homogeneity, and water stability may be evaluated along with the spreadability (92).
The stability of the water-in-oil emulsion is quite important in low-fat spreads,
and electrical conductivity gives a measure of this. Electrical conductivity can be
followed during production through suitably designed measuring cells mounted in
the process line or be measured directly on product samples in tubs (91).
Light microscopy can give a good impression of the drop size distribution, which
is an important characteristic especially for indicating potential microbiological
hazards in water-in-oil products (91). A very simple test for judgment of the droplet
size distribution in margarine is the use of dyed type of absorbent paper (indicator
paper) specially prepared for such purpose (91, 92, 114).
525
Appearance, color, oral melting characteristics, and flavor quality are factors that
can be judged through sensory evaluation by trained panels (4, 35, 91).
6.3. Microbiology and Plant Sanitation
Microorganisms are classified into three main groups, depending on their method
of reproduction (84, 85).
Molds. The category of molds comprises a fairly heterogeneous group of multicelled, threadlike fungi (84). Most molds reproduce by spores of various types. The
spores usually have thick walls and are relatively resistant to desiccation and
heat (84). When the colonies are fully developed, they become visible to the naked
eye and can be described by expressions such as hairy. Mold colonies can occur
in various colors depending on type of food product (83).
Yeasts. They are single-cell organisms of spherical, elliptical, or cylindrical
shape (84). These usually reproduce by budding. The yeast cell begins to grow a
small bud on the cell wall, which then increases in size until it is the same as
the parent cell (84, 85). It then breaks free and the process starts again.
Bacteria. This group consists of single-cell organisms that mostly reproduce by
binary fission (84, 85). That is, a mature organism starts dividing in the center,
resulting in the formation of two identical organisms. Under ideal conditions,
this fission can take place every 20 min, so one bacterium held under the optimum
conditions would result in many millions of bacteria in 24 h (84).
Development of Microorganisms. Microorganisms require certain basic conditions for growth. Temperature is the greatest single factor affecting growth, reproduction, and food deterioration (84). Bacteria can only develop within certain
temperature limits that vary from one species to another. The thermal death point
for bacteria falls into two classes (84, 85). The first is the simple type of bacteria,
which is killed by heating to 70 C (158 F) for 30 min. The second is the bacteria
type that forms a special heat-resistant state (spores), which enables the bacteria to
withstand adverse conditions. These are killed by steam treatment at 120 C (248 F)
for 30 min (84, 85).
The thermal death point for molds and yeasts is heating to 60 C (140 F) for
about 30 min (84). Bacteria cannot grow in the absence of moisture (82, 83).
Thus, they will not grow in dry oils and fats or in any other form of dry material.
Free water, even to the extent of one fourth of 1%, however, is sufficient to permit
the growth.
Microorganisms usually require other conditions for growth such as protein,
sugar, trace elements, and vitamins (85). Some are very sensitive to, and may be,
inhibited by acidic or alkaline conditions; others are not. Salt will destroy some
types, while others will grow only in strong salt solutions.
Microorganisms in Relation to Margarine. Margarine consists of oils and
fats and water that is finely dispersed in the oil blend as well as other ingredients
as indicated earlier. Normally, microorganisms cannot grow in fat and oil,
which means the microbiological rancidity only appears in the water droplets
and on the surface of the margarine (115). The composition of the water
526
phase, therefore, plays a very important part in the storage quality of the margarine (85).
The growth of bacteria, but not yeast and molds, can be controlled by the
combined effects of the salt concentration and the pH (or acidity) of the water
phase. A reduced salt concentration requires the margarine to be more acid (lower
pH) to give the same measure of protection against the growth of bacteria (85, 115).
In practice, margarines can be divided into three groups according to their salt
content. These are low salt margarines (01% salt), medium-salt margarines
(12.5% salt), and high-salt margarines (over 2.5% salt).
Nearly all forms of bacteria could survive and possibly grow in low-salt margarines. Due to this, it is important to produce a low-salt margarine with a very low
initial total bacteria count. To achieve this, very good cleaning procedures and an
overall high plant and equipment hygiene needs to be maintained (85). Furthermore, it is quite important that the water dispersion in the low-salt margarine is
as fine as possible as smaller water droplets furnish less nourishment for microorganisms in contaminated water droplets (85, 115). Finally, low-salt margarines
should have a pH range of 4.05.0 (85).
For medium-salt margarines, the initial total bacteria count should be kept low
but a water dispersion that is a little coarser can be allowed. Also, the water phase
can have a slightly higher pH of about 5.5 (85).
High salt levels in margarine (over 2.5%) should be combined with a high
pH (pH 6) as a low pH in high-salt margarines induces a greater rate of chemical
rancidity (oxidation) in the margarine (85, 115).
As the growth of molds and yeast in margarine is not prevented through the
combination of salt concentration and pH (acidity), the only protection against
the development is the size of the water droplets (85). It is, therefore, important
that the correct amount of emulsifying agents is used and that the processing conditions are such that a tight and stable emulsion can be prepared in a controlled
manner. Based on the above, it follows that some microorganisms can and will
grow either in the emulsion preparation system or the margarine production units.
The regular and efficient cleaning of the plant is, therefore, of the highest importance.
The previously mentioned thermal death point of most microorganisms is about
6070 C (140158 F). The thermal death point is the temperature at which the
organisms, when heated in a water solution will die (85). The presence of fat
and milk solids will protect them from the effect of heat, and they can, therefore,
withstand far higher temperatures. Pasteurization of the water phase or the liquid
emulsion improves the microbiological keeping properties. After pasteurization,
care should naturally be taken to ensure that the emulsion of the margarine is
not exposed to contamination (115).
It is vitally important that people working in a margarine plant observe cleanliness and the elementary rules of hygiene such as thoroughly washing their hands
before starting to work and after visiting the restrooms, paying immediate attention
to cuts and other wounds, never working with a dirty or loose bandage or with an
open wound, and never touching any foodstuffs more than is absolutely necessary.
527
People known to suffer from gastroenteritis should be removed from sensitive areas
of the production line (85).
6.4. Margarine Production Building Facilities
During the design of plants and buildings, consideration should be given to Good
Manufacturing Practices (GMPs as defined by Title 21, Code Federal Regulation,
Part 110) for microbiological control and ease of cleaning. This would allow the
ideal condition for margarine production but, in practice, margarine production
in some cases still takes place in buildings with exposed beams, for example, which
act as dust and dirt traps, which constitute a microbiological risk. The following
outlines some good manufacturing practices for facilities in order to establish
hygienic margarine production.
A margarine plant should be located in such surroundings and in relation to
other plants that there are no environmental hazards affecting the hygienic aspects
(116). On the outside of all entrances to the rooms of the plant, suitable areas should
be covered with asphalt, concrete, or other materials that prevent the accumulation
of water and allow proper cleaning of the area.
The plant should have the necessary rooms for production and storage including
cold storage as well as a separate room or another suitable facility for the storage of
packaging materials, additives, cleaning materials, and detergents (116). Separate
canteen and locker rooms as required for the personnel should be available. Further,
the plant should be laid out in such a way that finished products can be transported
in a hygienic manner from the storage room to distribution trucks.
For the use of the personnel, sufficient number of restrooms with handwashing
facilities should be available and located in such a manner that there is no direct
access between restroom areas and production rooms, storage rooms, or other
rooms where margarine, food additives, or other foodstuffs are located, unless the
restroom area contains a special front room that separates the restroom from the
production facilities.
Fixed installations for heating, power generation, or compressors for refrigeration, which could pollute the air, should be installed in a separate, effectively
ventilated room (116). The production rooms, with exception of the cold storage
room, should be adequately ventilated (85, 116). In the production room and product handling areas or in their close vicinity, there should be handwashing facilities
installed with cold and warm water (116). Soap and disposable towels should
be available at the handwashing facility (116). The floors should be smooth and
easily cleaned and made of materials that are adapted to the use of each room.
The walls should be smooth, free of ledges, and easily cleaned up to a suitable
height (116).
The production room itself should have a minimum ceiling height of 2.5 m
and the floors should be watertight and made from concrete with acid brick tiles
or other suitable material. The floors should slope appropriately toward drainage
points. The walls should be covered with glazed tiles or other suitable material
at a minimum height of 1.7 m and the transition between the floor and wall should
528
be watertight and made for easy cleaning (116). The floor should be kept fat free
and washed regularly with a mild alkaline detergent (85).
Unless the building and the production room, as well as other rooms, are kept
clean, there is always a serious danger of the plant being reinfected after washing,
which negates all the precautions taken with regard to cleaning and hygienic procedures in the plant.
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12

When designing margarine processing plants and choosing the equipment to be

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

1. CRYSTALLIZATION OF OIL AND FAT PRODUCTS

1.2. Polymorphism and Crystal Structure

CRYSTALLIZATION OF OIL AND FAT PRODUCTS

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

CRYSTALLIZATION OF OIL AND FAT PRODUCTS

the product as much as possible in the scraped-surface heat exchanger to achieve

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

CRYSTALLIZATION OF OIL AND FAT PRODUCTS

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of industrial source plant.

1.4. Canola Oil and Sunflower Seed Oil

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

CRYSTALLIZATION OF OIL AND FAT PRODUCTS

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

Figure 4. Schematic diagram stick (table) margarine plant.

PROCESSING EQUIPMENT FOR MARGARINE

2. PROCESSING EQUIPMENT FOR MARGARINE

2.1. High-Pressure Feed Pumps

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

2.2. High-Pressure Scraped-Surface Heat Exchanger

PROCESSING EQUIPMENT FOR MARGARINE

The scraped-surface heat exchanger normally consists of one or more horizontal

PROCESSING EQUIPMENT FOR MARGARINE

where A is the heat transfer area and T ln is a logarithmic value defined as

where Wa is the solid fat content at temperature Ta . Based on sufficient time to

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

Figure 7. Votator scraped-surface heat exchanger unit. Courtesy of Cherry-Burrell Votator

PROCESSING EQUIPMENT FOR MARGARINE

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

or in coordinates relative to the blade:

PROCESSING EQUIPMENT FOR MARGARINE

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

Non-Newtonian Fluids. Most foodstuffs and margarines are non-Newtonian fluids.

PROCESSING EQUIPMENT FOR MARGARINE

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

where R is the shaft radius.

PROCESSING EQUIPMENT FOR MARGARINE

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

PROCESSING EQUIPMENT FOR MARGARINE

PROCESSING EQUIPMENT FOR MARGARINE

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

PROCESSING EQUIPMENT FOR MARGARINE

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

PROCESSING EQUIPMENT FOR MARGARINE

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

PROCESSING EQUIPMENT FOR MARGARINE

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

PROCESSING EQUIPMENT FOR MARGARINE

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

3. REFRIGERANTS FOR THE FUTURE

PLANT LAYOUT AND PROCESS FLOWSHEET

4. PLANT LAYOUT AND PROCESS FLOWSHEET

TABLE 2. Ingredient Cost (79).

From Crown Wurster & Sanger, Minneapolis, Minnesota, with permission.

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

4.1. Continuous Metering Pump System

PLANT LAYOUT AND PROCESS FLOWSHEET

MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT

Figure 27. Multipumphead metering system (74). Courtesy of Food Engineering.