MATH 1241 S2 2011: Calculus

For use in Dr Chris Tisdells lectures

Section 2: Techniques of integration.

Created and compiled by Chris Tisdell

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Motivation
What you should already know
Integrals of trig functions
Reduction formulae
Trig & hyperbolic substitutions
Partial fractions
Rationalising substitutions
Weierstrass substitutions
Appendix (more on what you should already know)

Images fromThomas calculusby Thomas, Wier, Hass & Giordano, 2008, Pearson Education, Inc.
1

1. Motivation.
Why study integration?
The theory of integration is a cornerstone of calculus. Integration finds
a useful place in many disciplines, such as: engineering; physics; biology;
economics and beyond.
Where are we going?
We will develop a number of important integration techniques that will
be useful in the study of applied problems.
Throughout our discussions we will see HOW integration naturally arises
in the analysis of applied problems and in modelling. This is critical to
motivate the ideas and also to build the intuition.

2. What you should already know.

You studied integration at school and in MATH 1131. You should be
comfortable with:
using a table of integrals
integrating by inspection
integration by parts
integration by simple substitution.
Just in case youve forgotten these techniques, I have included some
examples to refresh your memory and to test your skills in the Appendix.
You will find this course much easier if you can integrate with ease. Your
hard work will payoff later in the session!!
3

3. Integrals of trig functions.

You should be familiar with:

The above integrals are derived by using the double angle formulas:
cos 2x = cos2 x sin2 x
= 2 cos2 x 1
= 1 2 sin2 x
and for future reference
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x.
6

Integrals of products of sin and/or cos.

We first discuss how such integrals naturally arise.

Applications matter! Socalled Fourier series play an important role

in the study of heat flow.
A finite Fourier series of a function f is given by the sum
f (x) :=
=

N
X

an sin nx

(1)

n=1
a1 sin x + a2 sin 2x + aN sin N x

where the an are some numbers that are to be determined. That is, we
aim to write f (x) as a sum of sin functions.

We now see how integration of trig functions is central to the method.

We claim that the mth coefficient am is given by
Z
1
am =
f (x) sin mx dx.
(2)

If we multiply both sides of (1) by sin mx and then integrate over
[, ] we obtain
Z

f (x) sin mx dx =

Z X
N

an sin nx sin mx dx
n=1

N Z
X
=
an sin nx sin mx dx .

n=1

Thus we have obtained an integral that involves a product of sin functions.

How do we evaulate such an integral?

Integrals of products of sin and/or cos

These are done using the socalled product to sum formulae:
sin A cos B = [sin(A B) + sin(A + B)]/2
sin A sin B = [cos(A B) cos(A + B)]/2
cos A cos B = [cos(A B) + cos(A + B)]/2
Ex:

sin 4x cos 2x dx =

Independent learning ex: Now return to, and prove, (2).

10

Integrals of the form

cosm x sinn x dx

If m or n are odd then our aim is to transform the integral into one of
the types:
1
sink+1 x + C
k+1
Z
1
k
cos x sin x dx =
cosk+1 x + C.
k+1
At the heart of the approach is to factor out a sin x or cos x from the
odd power term and then use the identity
Z

sink x cos x dx =

cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
to transform the integral into one which can be directly evalutated.

Q: How can you verify the above integrals?

11

Ex. Evaluate
I :=

cos4 x sin3 x dx.

12

Ex: Evaluate
I :=

cos5 x sin5 x dx

13

If both m and n are even, then the integral is slightly harder. We will
see shortly a recursive method for dealing with such an integral, but for
smaller values of m and n one can use the identities
1 cos 2x
1 + cos 2x
2
2
cos x =
sin x =
.
2
2
Ex. Evaluate I :=
I =
=
=
=

1
8

cos4 x sin2 x dx.

We have

(cos2 x)2 sin2 x dx

 

1 + cos 2x 2 1 cos 2x
dx
2
2
Z

Z 

1
8

1 + cos 2x cos2 2x cos3 2x dx

1 + cos 2x cos2 2x (1 sin2 2x) cos 2x dx

=
=

Z
1
1 cos2 2x + sin2 2x cos 2x dx
8

1 x
1
1
sin 4x + sin3 2x + C.
8 2
8
6
14

Applications matter! An important problem in applied math, engineering and physics is to calculate the total mass of an given object.
Consider a thin plate occupying the unit quarterdisk in the first quadrant.

If the density (x, y) of the plate at any point (x, y) is given by

(x, y) = x2y 4 then the total mass of the plate is given by

Z 1 Z 1x2

M =
x2y 4 dy dx.
0
0

15

To make this integral easier, we switch to polar coordinates: x =

r cos ; y = r sin ; dy dx = r dr d with a substitution giving
M =

Z /2 Z 1
0

Z 1
0

(r2 cos2 )(r4 sin4 ) rdrd

r7 dr

Z /2
0

(cos2 )(sin4 ) d.

16

4. Reduction formulae
Repeated integration by parts can be a long process! We can shorten
the process by applying socalled reduction formulae.
Ex: The reduction formula
Z

1
tann x dx =
tann1 x
n1

can be used in an iterative fashion to calculate

If In :=

tann2 x dx

()

tan5 x dx.

tann x dx then (*) may be compactly written as

In :=

1
tann1 x In2 ,
n1

n 2.
17

R /2

Ex. Let In := 0

sinn x dx. Use the reduction formula

n1
In :=
In2,
n

n2

to calculate I7.

18

Ex: Construct a reduction formula for

In :=

xnex dx.

19

Ex: Find the reduction formula for

In :=

Z /2
0

sinn x dx.

The reduction formula for the integral of cosn x is similar.

20

Ex: Construct a reduction formulae from

In :=

Z /4
0

secn x dx.

A similar method is used to obtain the reduction formula for the integral
R /4
In := 0 tann x dx.
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Ex. [Q1, Class Test 1, 2002] Let

In :=

Z /4
0

tann sec d.

Show that

1 
2 (n 1)In2 ,
In :=
n

for n 2.

Note that
d
sec = sec tan .
d

22

A Two parameter recurrence:

Consider
Im,n =
=

Z /2
0
Z /2
0

cosm x sinn x dx
[cosm1 x][sinn x cos x] dx

and use integration by parts. Choose u = cosm1 x and v 0 =

sinn x cos x. Thus,
u0 = (m 1) sin x cosm2 x, v =

1
sinn+1 x.
n+1

Integration by parts then leads to

Im,n =

m1
Im2,n,
m+n

m 2.

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In a similar way, one could also obtain the recurrence

Im,n =

n1
Im,n2. n 2.
m+n

1, I
In applying the above formulae we must reach one of I1,1 = 2
1,0 =
I0,1 = 1 or I0,0 = 2 .

You are not expected to memorise this formula.

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5. Trig & Hyperbolic Substitutions.

You will have already seen integration by simple substitution.

With integrals involving square roots of quadratics, the idea is to make

a suitable trigonometric or hyperbolic substitution that greatly simplifies
the integral.

25

Integrals involving square roots of quadratics can be worked out using

the following trigonometric or hyperbolic substitutions.

a2 x2

try x = a sin

a2 + x2

try x = a tan or x = a sinh

x2 a2

try x = a sec or x = a cosh

26

27

Ex: Evaluate
I=

Z 4
0

x2 16 x2 dx.

28

Ex: Evaluate
I :=

dx
(a2 + x2)3/2

29

Ex: Evaluate
I :=

dx
q

x2 x2 1
via the substitution x = sec

(This last integral can also be done using a cosh substitution but it
is not easy.)
30

Applications matter! An important problem in applied math, engineering and physics is to calculate the total mass of an given object.
Consider a thin wire of constant density (mass per unit length) that
lies in the XY plane along the curve
y = f (x) := x2/2,

a x b.

It can be shown that the total mass M of the wire is

M =

Z b q

=
See how an integral of

1 + [f 0(x)]2 dx

a
Z bq
a

1 + x2 dx.

1 + x2 naturally arises?

31

6. Partial Fractions.
A rational function is a function of the form

f (x)
where f and g are
g(x)

polynomials.
Ex: Which of the following are rational functions?
(a)

2x + 1
3x2 4

x2
(c)
x1

cos x
(b) 2
x +1
ex
(d)
.
x+1

For the purpose of integration, we ensure that the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator. If not then we may need
to divide.

32

Building the intuition.

An integral like
Z

dx
x(1 x)

cannot be easily computed directly, however, we know that the integrals

dx
,
x
can both be directly evaluated.
Z

dx
1x

1
1 ?
as some linear combination of 1
Thus, can we write x(1x)
and
x
1x

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34

35

Heaviside proved important results in electromagnetism and vector calculus. He reduced Maxwells 20 equations in 20 variables to 4 equations
in 2 variables.
Mathematics is an experimental science, and definitions do not come
first, but later on.
Why should I refuse a good dinner simply because I dont understand
the digestive processes involved. [reply when criticised for his daring use
of operators before they could be justified formally.]
36

Factors are Linear:

Ex. Evaluate
I :=

2x 1
dx =
2
x + 5x + 6

2x 1
dx.
(x + 3)(x + 2)

37

Ex. Evaluate
Z

2x2 + 2x + 6
dx.
(x 1)(x + 1)(x 2)

38

Repeated Linear Factors:

Ex: Evaluate
I :=

x+3
dx.
3
(x + 2)

39

In general, each factor in the denominator of the form (x a)k gives

rise to an expression of the form
A1
A2
Ak
+
+
.....
+
.
2
k
xa
(x a)
(x a)
Ex: Evaluate
I :=

dx
.
3
x(x + 1)

40

Ex: [Q2, Class Test 1, 2003] Calculate

Z

8x + 9
dx.
(x 2)(x + 3)2

41

Irreducible Quadratic Factors:

Suppose the denominator of our rational function is a quadratic which
does not factor (over the real numbers). For example,
2x + 1
f (x) = 2
.
x + 4x + 5
To find the integral of such a function, we manipulate the integrand so
that
the numerator equals the derivative of the denominator.
This leads to a logarithm and complete the square on the denominator
of the remaining term leading to an inverse tangent function.

42

Ex: Evaluate
I :=

2x + 1
dx.
x2 + 4x + 5

43

If the quadratic does have real but irrational roots, one can use this same
method to avoid nasty partial fractions. The second factor will then lead
to an inverse tanh.
e.g.
2x + 1
dx
x2 + 4x 6
Z
3
2x + 4
+
=
dx
2
2
x + 4x 6
10 (x + 2)
!
3
x+2
2
1

= ln |x + 4x 6| + tanh
+ C.
10
10
Z

44

Ex: [Q1, Class Test 1, 2002] Calculate

Z

x
dx.
x2 + 2x + 10

You are given that

Z

du
u
1
1
+ C.
= tan
u2 + a2
a
a

45

Combinations of the Rules:

These rules can be combined to cover a variety of situations.
Ex: Calculate
I :=

x+6
dx.
x(x2 + 2x + 3)

46

In general, an irreducible quadratic factor

x2 + ax + b
in the denominator will give rise to a term of the form
Ax + B
x2 + ax + b
and more generally again, a factor
(x2 + ax + b)k
in the denominator will give rise to terms of the form
A 1 x + B1
A 2 x + B2
A k x + Bk
+ 2
+ ... + 2
.
x2 + ax + b
(x + ax + b)2
(x + ax + b)k

47

Ex. Evaluate
I :=

x
dx.
(x + 1)2(x2 + 1)

48

Applications matter! Where does an integral involving partial fractions arise? Let P = P (t) denote the population size of a species
at time t. It can be shown that P and dP/dt satisfy the differential
equation


dP
P
=P 1
(3)
dt
M
where M > 0 is a constant.
The challenge is to determine the unknown function P from (3) and
hence predict what will happen to the population over time.
If we rearrange (3) and integrate both sides w.r.t t then we obtain
Z

dP


dt =
P
dt
P 1M
1

1dt

which becomes
M

dP
= t + K.
P (M P )
49

Applying partial fractions we obtain

M

dP
=
P (M P )

dP
+
P

dP
M P

which can be integrated to form

P
= Cet.
|M P |
By considering two separate cases M P > 0 and M P < 0 we
can rearrange, solve for P and plot the following graph.

50

51

7. Rationalising substitutions
The above methods using partial fractions allow us to integrate (in principle) any rational function, so we often make a change of variable in an
integral that will lead us to some rational function.
Ex: Evaluate
I :=

dx
1 + x1/4

52

Ex: Calculate
I :=

dx

Z
q

e2x 1

53

8. Weierstrass substitution.
Weierstrass substitution is very useful for integrals involving a rational
expression in sin x and/or cos x.
x.
Weierstrass substitution is t = tan 2

2t
1 t2
2 dt
Recall, that sin x =
, cos x =
, and that dx =
.
1 + t2
1 + t2
1 + t2
You should know how to derive these formulae. For example, if t =
tan(x/2) then
2 tan(x/2)
2t
=
1 + t2
1 + tan2(x/2)
[sin(x/2)]/[cos(x/2)]
= 2
1 + [sin2(x/2)]/[cos2(x/2)]
= 2 sin(x/2) cos(x/2) = sin x.
Who was Weierstrass??
54

Ex: Calculate
I :=

dx
.
1 + cos x + sin x

55

R /2

Ex: Show that I = 0

dx
.

=
2+cos x
3 3

We let t = tan(x/2), so that

1 t2
cos x =
1 + t2
2 dt
1 + t2
in a similar way to the previous example. Substitution then leads to
dx =

Z 1

2
I =
dt
0 3 + t2
"
#1
2
t
= tan1
3
3 0

= .
3 3

56

Applications matter! Where does an integral like

d
1 + cos + sin
arise? Consider a thin plate in the XY plane that occupies the region
(in polars)
Z

1 r 2,

0 /2.

Suppose at each point (x, y) 6= (0, 0) the plate has density function
1
(x, y) = q
.
x2 + y 2 + x + y
To evaluate the total mass M of the plate we consider

Z
Z
1

M =

4y 2

1y 2

(x, y) dx dy.

Now, making substitutions: x = r cos ; y = r sin ; dx dy =

r dr d we obtain
M =

Z 2
1

dr

Z /2
0

d
.
1 + cos + sin
57

9. APPENDIX
MAPLE
The following examples show how to use MAPLE to perform partial
fraction decompositions.
> convert(x^2/(x+2), parfrac, x);

4
x2+
x+2
> convert(x/(x-b)^2, parfrac, x);

b
1
+
(x b)2
xb
58

Integration by Parts.

The analysis requires you to:

choose functions f and g 0 ;
then calculate f 0 and g from your above choices;
and then apply the above formula.

Ex: Evaluate I =

xex dx.

We choose f = x and g 0 = ex. Thus, f 0 = 1 and g = ex. Using

our IBP formula
I=

xex dx = xex

1ex dx

= xex ex + C.
59

Integration by inspection.
When confronted by an integral, you should always see if the integral
can be guessed and then finetuned by multiplying or dividing by a
constant.
Alternatively, multiply and divide the integral by a particular constant to
put it into a useful form.
Ex: Evaluate

x(x2 + 1)10 dx.

See that x is almost the derivative of (x2 + 1).

We make the guess (x2 +1)11 and then check our guess by evaluating
d
[(x2 + 1)11] = 11 2x(x2 + 1)10 = 22x(x2 + 1)10.
dx
See that we have an unwanted 22 in the above. Thus, we divide our
initial guess by 22 to obtain our answer
Z

x(x2 + 1)10 dx =

1 2
(x + 1)11 + C.
22
60

Observe that this method ONLY works for integrals of the form
Z

f (g(x))g 0(x) dx

when the derivative g 0(x) is present in the integrand up to a constant.

"

cos6 t

d
dt
dt
6
cos6 t
.
=
6
The above methods should remind you of the chain rule!
Z

sin t cos5 t dt =

x4(x3 + 1)10 dx

cannot be guessed and fine tuned since the derivative of x3 + 1 is not

in the integrand.

61

Other useful integrals.

1

Z
q

a2 x2
1

x
1
dx = sin

x
1
dx = sinh

a2 + x2

x
1
1
1
tan
dx =
2
2
a +x
a
a

1
1
1 x
dx
=
tanh
a2 x2
a
a

These four should be learnt carefully.

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