Fluid dynamics

1 Equations of uid dynamics

The foundational axioms of uid dynamics are the
conservation laws, specically, conservation of mass,
conservation of linear momentum (also known as
Newtons Second Law of Motion), and conservation of
energy (also known as First Law of Thermodynamics).
These are based on classical mechanics and are modied
in quantum mechanics and general relativity. They are
expressed using the Reynolds Transport Theorem.

Typical aerodynamic teardrop shape, assuming a viscous

medium passing from left to right, the diagram shows the pressure distribution as the thickness of the black line and shows the
velocity in the boundary layer as the violet triangles. The green
vortex generators prompt the transition to turbulent ow and prevent back-ow also called ow separation from the high pressure
region in the back. The surface in front is as smooth as possible or
even employs shark-like skin, as any turbulence here will reduce
the energy of the airow. The truncation on the right, known
as a Kammback, also prevents backow from the high pressure
region in the back across the spoilers to the convergent part.

In addition to the above, uids are assumed to obey the

continuum assumption. Fluids are composed of molecules
that collide with one another and solid objects. However,
the continuum assumption considers uids to be continuous, rather than discrete. Consequently, properties such
as density, pressure, temperature, and ow velocity are
taken to be well-dened at innitesimally small points,
and are assumed to vary continuously from one point to
another. The fact that the uid is made up of discrete
molecules is ignored.
For uids which are suciently dense to be a continuum, do not contain ionized species, and have ow velocities small in relation to the speed of light, the momentum equations for Newtonian uids are the Navier
Stokes equations, which is a non-linear set of dierential
equations that describes the ow of a uid whose stress
depends linearly on ow velocity gradients and pressure. The unsimplied equations do not have a general closed-form solution, so they are primarily of use in
Computational Fluid Dynamics. The equations can be
simplied in a number of ways, all of which make them
easier to solve. Some of them allow appropriate uid dynamics problems to be solved in closed form.

In physics, uid dynamics is a subdiscipline of uid mechanics that deals with uid owthe natural science of
uids (liquids and gases) in motion. It has several subdisciplines itself, including aerodynamics (the study of
air and other gases in motion) and hydrodynamics (the
study of liquids in motion). Fluid dynamics has a wide
range of applications, including calculating forces and
moments on aircraft, determining the mass ow rate of
petroleum through pipelines, predicting weather patterns,
understanding nebulae in interstellar space and modelling
ssion weapon detonation. Some of its principles are even
used in trac engineering, where trac is treated as a
In addition to the mass, momentum, and energy conservacontinuous uid, and crowd dynamics.
tion equations, a thermodynamical equation of state givFluid dynamics oers a systematic structurewhich un- ing the pressure as a function of other thermodynamic
derlies these practical disciplinesthat embraces empir- variables for the uid is required to completely specify
ical and semi-empirical laws derived from ow measure- the problem. An example of this would be the perfect
ment and used to solve practical problems. The solution gas equation of state:
to a uid dynamics problem typically involves calculating various properties of the uid, such as ow velocity,
pressure, density, and temperature, as functions of space
and time.
Ru T
p=
Before the twentieth century, hydrodynamics was synM
onymous with uid dynamics.
This is still reected in names of some uid dynamics topics, like
magnetohydrodynamics and hydrodynamic stability, both where p is pressure, is density, Ru is the gas constant,
of which can also be applied to gases.[1]
M is molar mass and T is temperature.
1

1.1

EQUATIONS OF FLUID DYNAMICS

Conservation laws

fbody dV + Fsurf
V

Three conservation laws are used to solve uid dynamics

problems, and may be written in integral or dierential
form. Mathematical formulations of these conservation
laws may be interpreted by considering the concept of a
control volume. A control volume is a specied volume in
space through which air can ow in and out. Integral formulations of the conservation laws consider the change in
mass, momentum, or energy within the control volume.
Dierential formulations of the conservation laws apply
Stokes theorem to yield an expression which may be interpreted as the integral form of the law applied to an
innitesimal volume at a point within the ow.
Mass continuity (conservation of mass): The rate of
change of uid mass inside a control volume must
be equal to the net rate of uid ow into the volume.
Physically, this statement requires that mass is neither created nor destroyed in the control volume,[2]
and can be translated into the integral form of the
continuity equation:

dV =

u dS

Above, is the uid density, u is the ow velocity vector, and t is time. The left-hand side
of the above expression contains a triple integral over the control volume, whereas the righthand side contains a surface integral over the
surface of the control volume. The dierential form of the continuity equation is, by the
divergence theorem:

+ (u) = 0
t
Conservation of momentum: This equation applies
Newtons second law of motion to the control volume, requiring that any change in momentum of the
air within a control volume be due to the net ow
of air into the volume and the action of external
forces on the air within the volume. In the integral
formulation of this equation, body forces here are
represented by f , the body force per unit mass.
Surface forces, such as viscous forces, are represented by Fsurf , the net force due to stresses on
the control volume surface.

u dV

(u dS)u

p dS +

The dierential form of the momentum conservation equation is as follows. Here, both
surface and body forces are accounted for in
one total force, F. For example, F may be expanded into an expression for the frictional and
gravitational forces acting on an internal ow.
Du
p
=F
Dt

In aerodynamics, air is assumed to be a

Newtonian uid, which posits a linear relationship between the shear stress (due to internal
friction forces) and the rate of strain of the
uid. The equation above is a vector equation:
in a three-dimensional ow, it can be expressed
as three scalar equations. The conservation
of momentum equations for the compressible,
viscous ow case are called the NavierStokes
equations.
Conservation of energy: Although energy can be
converted from one form to another, the total energy
in a given closed system remains constant.

Dp
Dh
=
+ (kT ) +
Dt
Dt

Above, h is enthalpy, k is the thermal conductivity of the uid, T is temperature, and is

the viscous dissipation function. The viscous
dissipation function governs the rate at which
mechanical energy of the ow is converted to
heat. The second law of thermodynamics requires that the dissipation term is always positive: viscosity cannot create energy within the
control volume.[3] The expression on the left
side is a material derivative.

1.2 Compressible vs incompressible ow

All uids are compressible to some extent, that is,
changes in pressure or temperature will result in changes
in density. However, in many situations the changes in
pressure and temperature are suciently small that the
changes in density are negligible. In this case the ow
can be modelled as an incompressible ow. Otherwise the
more general compressible ow equations must be used.
Mathematically, incompressibility is expressed by saying
that the density of a uid parcel does not change as it
moves in the ow eld, i.e.,
D
= 0,
Dt

1.4

Steady vs unsteady ow

where D/Dt is the substantial derivative, which is the sum

of local and convective derivatives. This additional constraint simplies the governing equations, especially in
the case when the uid has a uniform density.
For ow of gases, to determine whether to use compressible or incompressible uid dynamics, the Mach number
of the ow is to be evaluated. As a rough guide, compressible eects can be ignored at Mach numbers below approximately 0.3. For liquids, whether the incompressible assumption is valid depends on the uid properties (specically the critical pressure and temperature of
the uid) and the ow conditions (how close to the critical pressure the actual ow pressure becomes). Acoustic
problems always require allowing compressibility, since
sound waves are compression waves involving changes in
pressure and density of the medium through which they
propagate.

1.3

Inviscid vs Newtonian and

Newtonian uids

ate a thin region of large strain rate (known as Boundary

layer) which enhances the eect of even a small amount
of viscosity, and thus generating vorticity. Therefore, to
calculate net forces on bodies (such as wings) we should
use viscous ow equations. As illustrated by d'Alemberts
paradox, a body in an inviscid uid will experience no
drag force. The standard equations of inviscid ow are
the Euler equations. Another often used model, especially in computational uid dynamics, is to use the Euler equations away from the body and the boundary layer
equations, which incorporates viscosity, in a region close
to the body.
The Euler equations can be integrated along a streamline
to get Bernoullis equation. When the ow is everywhere
irrotational and inviscid, Bernoullis equation can be used
throughout the ow eld. Such ows are called potential
ows.

Sir Isaac Newton showed how stress and the rate of strain
non- are very close to linearly related for many familiar uids, such as water and air. These Newtonian uids are
modelled by a constant viscosity, depending only on the
specic uid.
However, some of the other materials, such as emulsions
and slurries and some visco-elastic materials (e.g. blood,
some polymers), have more complicated non-Newtonian
stress-strain behaviours. These materials include sticky
liquids such as latex, honey, and lubricants which are
studied in the sub-discipline of rheology.

1.4 Steady vs unsteady ow

Potential ow around a wing

Viscous problems are those in which uid friction has signicant eects on the uid motion.
The Reynolds number, which is a ratio between inertial
and viscous forces, can be used to evaluate whether viscous or inviscid equations are appropriate to the problem.
Stokes ow is ow at very low Reynolds numbers, Re<<1,
such that inertial forces can be neglected compared to viscous forces.
On the contrary, high Reynolds numbers indicate that the
inertial forces are more signicant than the viscous (friction) forces. Therefore, we may assume the ow to be
an inviscid ow, an approximation in which we neglect
viscosity completely, compared to inertial terms.
This idea can work fairly well when the Reynolds number is high. However, certain problems such as those involving solid boundaries, may require that the viscosity
be included. Viscosity often cannot be neglected near
solid boundaries because the no-slip condition can gener-

Hydrodynamics simulation of the RayleighTaylor instability [4]

When all the time derivatives of a ow eld vanish, the

ow is considered to be a steady ow. Steady-state ow
refers to the condition where the uid properties at a point
in the system do not change over time. Otherwise, ow is
called unsteady (also called transient[5] ). Whether a particular ow is steady or unsteady, can depend on the chosen frame of reference. For instance, laminar ow over a
sphere is steady in the frame of reference that is station-

EQUATIONS OF FLUID DYNAMICS

ary with respect to the sphere. In a frame of reference enhances the heat and mass transfer. Another promising
that is stationary with respect to a background ow, the methodology is large eddy simulation (LES), especially in
ow is unsteady.
the guise of detached eddy simulation (DES)which is
Turbulent ows are unsteady by denition. A turbulent a combination of RANS turbulence modelling and large
ow can, however, be statistically stationary. According eddy simulation.
to Pope:[6]
The random eld U(x,t) is statistically stationary if all statistics are invariant under a shift
in time.
This roughly means that all statistical properties are constant in time. Often, the mean eld is the object of interest, and this is constant too in a statistically stationary
ow.
Steady ows are often more tractable than otherwise similar unsteady ows. The governing equations of a steady
problem have one dimension fewer (time) than the governing equations of the same problem without taking advantage of the steadiness of the ow eld.

1.5

Laminar vs turbulent ow

Turbulence is ow characterized by recirculation, eddies,

and apparent randomness. Flow in which turbulence
is not exhibited is called laminar. It should be noted,
however, that the presence of eddies or recirculation
alone does not necessarily indicate turbulent owthese
phenomena may be present in laminar ow as well.
Mathematically, turbulent ow is often represented via
a Reynolds decomposition, in which the ow is broken
down into the sum of an average component and a perturbation component.

1.6 Subsonic vs transonic, supersonic and

hypersonic ows
While many terrestrial ows (e.g. ow of water through a
pipe) occur at low mach numbers, many ows of practical interest (e.g. in aerodynamics) occur at high fractions
of the Mach Number M=1 or in excess of it (supersonic
ows). New phenomena occur at these Mach number
regimes (e.g. shock waves for supersonic ow, transonic
instability in a regime of ows with M nearly equal to 1,
non-equilibrium chemical behaviour due to ionization in
hypersonic ows) and it is necessary to treat each of these
ow regimes separately.

1.7 Magnetohydrodynamics
Main article: Magnetohydrodynamics
Magnetohydrodynamics is the multi-disciplinary
study of the ow of electrically conducting uids in
electromagnetic elds. Examples of such uids include
plasmas, liquid metals, and salt water. The uid ow
equations are solved simultaneously with Maxwells
equations of electromagnetism.

1.8 Other approximations

It is believed that turbulent ows can be described well

through the use of the NavierStokes equations. Direct
There are a large number of other possible approximanumerical simulation (DNS), based on the NavierStokes
tions to uid dynamic problems. Some of the more comequations, makes it possible to simulate turbulent ows
monly used are listed below.
at moderate Reynolds numbers. Restrictions depend on
the power of the computer used and the eciency of the
The Boussinesq approximation neglects variasolution algorithm. The results of DNS have been found
tions in density except to calculate buoyancy forces.
to agree well with experimental data for some ows.[7]
It is often used in free convection problems where
Most ows of interest have Reynolds numbers much too
density changes are small.
[8]
high for DNS to be a viable option, given the state
of computational power for the next few decades. Any
Lubrication theory and HeleShaw ow exploits
ight vehicle large enough to carry a human (L > 3 m),
the large aspect ratio of the domain to show that cermoving faster than 72 km/h (20 m/s) is well beyond the
tain terms in the equations are small and so can be
limit of DNS simulation (Re = 4 million). Transport airneglected.
craft wings (such as on an Airbus A300 or Boeing 747)
have Reynolds numbers of 40 million (based on the wing
Slender-body theory is a methodology used in
chord). In order to solve these real-life ow problems,
Stokes ow problems to estimate the force on, or
turbulence models will be a necessity for the foreseeow eld around, a long slender object in a viscous
able future. Reynolds-averaged NavierStokes equations
uid.
(RANS) combined with turbulence modelling provides a
model of the eects of the turbulent ow. Such a mod The shallow-water equations can be used to deelling mainly provides the additional momentum transscribe a layer of relatively inviscid uid with a free
surface, in which surface gradients are small.
fer by the Reynolds stresses, although the turbulence also

2.2

Terminology in compressible uid dynamics

The Boussinesq equations are applicable to surface 2.2 Terminology in compressible uid dywaves on thicker layers of uid and with steeper surnamics
face slopes.
In a compressible uid, such as air, the temperature and
Darcys law is used for ow in porous media, and density are essential when determining the state of the
works with variables averaged over several pore- uid. In addition to the concept of total pressure (also
widths.
known as stagnation pressure), the concepts of total (or
stagnation) temperature and total (or stagnation) density
In rotating systems, the Quasi-geostrophic equa- are also essential in any study of compressible uid ows.
tions assume an almost perfect balance between To avoid potential ambiguity when referring to temperapressure gradients and the Coriolis force. It is useful ture and density, many authors use the terms static temin the study of atmospheric dynamics.
perature and static density. Static temperature is identical
to temperature; and static density is identical to density;
and both can be identied for every point in a uid ow
eld.
2 Terminology in uid dynamics
The concept of pressure is central to the study of both
uid statics and uid dynamics. A pressure can be identied for every point in a body of uid, regardless of
whether the uid is in motion or not. Pressure can be
measured using an aneroid, Bourdon tube, mercury column, or various other methods.

The temperature and density at a stagnation point are

called stagnation temperature and stagnation density.

A similar approach is also taken with the thermodynamic

properties of compressible uids. Many authors use the
terms total (or stagnation) enthalpy and total (or stagnation) entropy. The terms static enthalpy and static
entropy appear to be less common, but where they are
Some of the terminology that is necessary in the study used they mean nothing more than enthalpy and enof uid dynamics is not found in other similar areas of tropy respectively, and the prex static is being used
study. In particular, some of the terminology used in uid to avoid ambiguity with their 'total' or 'stagnation' counterparts. Because the 'total' ow conditions are dened
dynamics is not used in uid statics.
by isentropically bringing the uid to rest, the total (or
stagnation) entropy is by denition always equal to the
static entropy.

2.1

Terminology in incompressible uid

dynamic

The concepts of total pressure and dynamic pressure arise 3 See also
from Bernoullis equation and are signicant in the study
of all uid ows. (These two pressures are not pressures 3.1 Fields of study
in the usual sensethey cannot be measured using an
aneroid, Bourdon tube or mercury column.) To avoid
Acoustic theory
potential ambiguity when referring to pressure in uid
Aerodynamics
dynamics, many authors use the term static pressure to
distinguish it from total pressure and dynamic pressure.
Aeroelasticity
Static pressure is identical to pressure and can be identied for every point in a uid ow eld.
Aeronautics
[9]
In Aerodynamics, L.J. Clancy writes: To distinguish it
Computational uid dynamics
from the total and dynamic pressures, the actual pressure
of the uid, which is associated not with its motion but
Flow measurement
with its state, is often referred to as the static pressure, but
Geophysical uid dynamics
where the term pressure alone is used it refers to this static
pressure.
Hemodynamics
A point in a uid ow where the ow has come to rest
(i.e. speed is equal to zero adjacent to some solid body
Hydraulics
immersed in the uid ow) is of special signicance. It
Hydrology
is of such importance that it is given a special name
a stagnation point. The static pressure at the stagna Hydrostatics
tion point is of special signicance and is given its own
namestagnation pressure. In incompressible ows, the
Electrohydrodynamics
stagnation pressure at a stagnation point is equal to the
Magnetohydrodynamics
total pressure throughout the ow eld.

3 SEE ALSO
Metauid dynamics
Rheology
Quantum hydrodynamics

3.3 Types of uid ow

Aerodynamic force
Cavitation

3.2

Mathematical equations and concepts

Airy wave theory

Bernoullis equation

Compressible ow
Couette ow

Reynolds transport theorem

Free molecular ow

BenjaminBonaMahony equation

Incompressible ow

Boussinesq approximation (buoyancy)

Boussinesq approximation (water waves)
Conservation laws
Euler equations (uid dynamics)
Dierent types of boundary conditions in uid dynamics
Darcys law
Dynamic pressure

Inviscid ow
Isothermal ow
Laminar ow
Open channel ow
Secondary ow

Fluid statics

Stream thrust averaging

HagenPoiseuille equation

Superuidity

Helmholtzs theorems
Kirchho equations

Supersonic

Knudsen equation

Transient ow

Manning equation

Transonic

Mild-slope equation
Morison equation
NavierStokes equations

Turbulent ow
Two-phase ow

Oseen ow
Pascals law
Poiseuilles law
Potential ow

3.4 Fluid properties

Density

Pressure

List of hydrodynamic instabilities

Static pressure

Newtonian uid

Pressure head
Relativistic Euler equations
Reynolds decomposition
Stokes ow
Stokes stream function
Stream function
Streamlines, streaklines and pathlines

Non-Newtonian uid
Surface tension
Viscosity
Vapour pressure
Compressibility

3.7

Fluid dynamics journals

3.5

Fluid phenomena

3.7 Fluid dynamics journals

Boundary layer

Annual Reviews in Fluid Mechanics

Coanda eect

Journal of Fluid Mechanics

Convection cell

Physics of Fluids

Convergence/Bifurcation

Experiments in Fluids

Darwin drift

European Journal of Mechanics B: Fluids

Drag (force)
Hydrodynamic stability
Kaye eect

Theoretical and Computational Fluid Dynamics

Computers and Fluids

Lift (force)

International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids

Magnus eect

Flow, Turbulence and Combustion

Ocean surface waves

Rossby wave

3.8 Miscellaneous

Shock wave

Important publications in uid dynamics

Soliton

Isosurface

Stokes drift

KeuleganCarpenter number

Turbulence

Rotating tank

Thread breakup

Sound barrier

Upstream contamination

Beta plane

Venturi eect
Vortex
Vorticity
Water hammer
Wave drag

3.6

Applications

Acoustics
Aerodynamics
Cryosphere science
Fluid power
Hydraulic machinery

Immersed boundary method

Bridge scour
Finite volume method for unsteady ow

3.9 See also

Aileron
Airfoil
Airplane
Angle of attack
Banked turn
Bernoullis principle

Meteorology

Bilgeboard

Naval architecture

Boomerang

Oceanography

Centerboard

Plasma physics

Chord (aircraft)

Pneumatics

Circulation control wing

3D computer graphics

Diving plane

5 FURTHER READING
Downforce
Drag coecient
Drag (physics)
Fin
Flipper (anatomy)
Flow separation
Foil (uid mechanics)
Formula One car
Glider
Hydrofoil
Keel (hydrodynamic)
Kssner eect
Kutta condition
KuttaJoukowski theorem

4 References
[1] Eckert, Michael (2006). The Dawn of Fluid Dynamics: A
Discipline Between Science and Technology. Wiley. p. ix.
ISBN 3-527-40513-5.
[2] Anderson, J.D., Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, 4th Ed.,
McGrawHill, 2007.
[3] White, F.M., Viscous Fluid Flow, McGrawHill, 1974.
[4] Shengtai Li, Hui Li Parallel AMR Code for Compressible MHD or HD Equations (Los Alamos National Laboratory)
[5] Transient state or unsteady state?
[6] See Pope (2000), page 75.
[7] See, for example, Schlatter et al, Phys. Fluids 21, 051702
(2009); doi:10.1063/1.3139294
[8] See Pope (2000), page 344.
[9] Clancy, L.J. Aerodynamics, page 21

5 Further reading

Lift coecient
Lift-induced drag
Lift-to-drag ratio
Lifting-line theory
NACA airfoil
Newtons third law
Planform
Propeller
Rudder
Sail (aerodynamics)
Skeg
Spoiler (automotive)
Stall (ight)
Surfboard n
Surface
Trim tab
Wing
Wingtip vortices

Acheson, D. J. (1990). Elementary Fluid Dynamics.

Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-859679-0.
Batchelor, G. K. (1967). An Introduction to Fluid
Dynamics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521-66396-2.
Chanson, H. (2009). Applied Hydrodynamics: An
Introduction to Ideal and Real Fluid Flows. CRC
Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Leiden, The Netherlands, 478 pages. ISBN 978-0-415-49271-3.
Clancy, L. J. (1975). Aerodynamics. London: Pitman Publishing Limited. ISBN 0-273-01120-0.
Lamb, Horace (1994). Hydrodynamics (6th ed.).
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-458684. Originally published in 1879, the 6th extended
edition appeared rst in 1932.
Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M. (1987). Fluid Mechanics. Course of Theoretical Physics (2nd ed.).
Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-7506-2767-0.
Milne-Thompson, L. M. (1968). Theoretical Hydrodynamics (5th ed.). Macmillan. Originally published in 1938.
Pope, Stephen B. (2000). Turbulent Flows. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-59886-9.
Shinbrot, M. (1973). Lectures on Fluid Mechanics.
Gordon and Breach. ISBN 0-677-01710-3.

External links
eFluids, containing several galleries of uid motion
National Committee for Fluid Mechanics Films
(NCFMF), containing lms on several subjects in
uid dynamics (in RealMedia format)
List of Fluid Dynamics books

10

7 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

7.1

Text

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, Glenn, AugPi, JamesReyes, Hike395, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Dysprosia, DJ Clayworth, Robbot, Hankwang, Fredrik,
R3m0t, Altenmann, Gandalf61, COGDEN, Moink, Robinh, Fuelbottle, Hexii, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Cfp, Chinasaur, Jason Quinn, Rparle, Bobblewik, LucasVB, Karol Langner, Samglidden, APH, Zfr, Tsemii, Rich Farmbrough, Crodrigue1, DIUZOMA,
Loren36, Tompw, Kaszeta, El C, Edwinstearns, Rgdboer, Liberatus, Shanes, RoyBoy, Gershwinrb, StoatBringer, ParticleMan, Msh210,
Chrisjohnson, Wtshymanski, LFaraone, Gene Nygaard, Kenyob, Oleg Alexandrov, CoolMike, Blaze Labs Research, StradivariusTV, Cbdorsett, GregorB, Jugger90, Petwil, BD2412, Thierry Dugnolle, Jorunn, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Quiddity, Ian Pitchford, Arnero, Nihiltres,
RexNL, Karelj, Chobot, DVdm, Siddhant, Wavelength, Spacepotato, Zaidpjd, Midgley, RussBot, Lordthanda, Nephron, Dhollm, Muukarhu, Stevenwmccrary58, Ospalh, Bota47, Closedmouth, Serendipodous, KasugaHuang, Nationalparks, ChemGardener, Peter.steier, Rex
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England, RandomStringOfCharacters, Abc518, Robvanvee, Gryllida, Mjs1991, Jordgette, HeavenCreator, AXRL, Rowan.romeyn, EmausBot, Passionless, Savh, Hhhippo, Fluidsystemtools, Shocker3K, Donner60, SBaker43, RockMagnetist, Peter Karlsen,
, Petrb,
Xonqnopp, ClueBot NG, Cwmhiraeth, Newuy, MarginalCost, Senthilvel32, Milosilak, Samsam-NJITWILL, CaroleHenson, Chogg, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tua92387, BG19bot, CitationCleanerBot, Glacialfox, Wannabemodel, Shyncat, Dobie80, Prj1991, Duncanpark, Chrahulprasad, Yuosuf al faraj, Adhish24, Azah Osili, Mundietomnis, Mmpozulp, Mayankrajput052 and Anonymous: 264

7.2

Images

File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original

artist: ?
File:HD-Rayleigh-Taylor.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/HD-Rayleigh-Taylor.gif License: Public
domain Contributors: Parallel AMR Code for Compressible MHD or HD Equations Original artist: Shengtai Li, Hui Li
File:OiintLaTeX.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/OiintLaTeX.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Maschen
File:Potential_flow_around_a_wing.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Potential_flow_around_a_
wing.gif License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Thierry Dugnolle
File:Teardrop_shape.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Teardrop_shape.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Arnero

7.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0