Reflective Practice, Vol. 5, No.

3, October 2004

Reflective learning journals: from

concept to practice
Karran Thorpe*
The University of Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada

Reflective learning journals are recognized as a significant tool in promoting active learning among
nursing students. Essentially, nurse educators strive to encourage students to think about past
experiences, current situations, and expected outcomes of their actions so that they can explain
what they do in the clinical setting and why. In other words, nurse educators seek to promote
professional practice that is reflective rather than routine.
The purposes in this paper are to discuss the application of two models of reflection to a set of
reflective learning journals and to offer some recommendations for educators, researchers, and
students. Using a three stage model of reflection (Scanlon & Chernomas, 1997), 52 nursing
students explored managerial concepts. The major findings indicated that students may be
categorized, according to Kember et al. (1999), as nonreflectors (i.e., lack evidence of deliberate
appraisal), reflectors (i.e., demonstrate insight through analysis, discrimination, and evaluation),
and critical reflectors (i.e., indicate a transformation from initial perspective).

The foundations for professional practice begin within the educational system.
Educators begin the process of assisting aspiring professionals to learn how to learn.
Reflective learning journals have become a significant tool in nursing education to
promote active learning among students. Essentially, nurse educators strive to
encourage students to think about past experiences, current situations, and expected
consequences of their actions so that they can explain what they do in various
professional settings and why. Put another way, nurse educators seek to promote
professional practice that is reflective rather than routine.
The purposes of this paper are to discuss the application of two models of
reflection to a set of reflective learning journals and to offer some recommendations
for educators, researchers, and students. The two models include the three stages of
reflection (Scanlon & Chernomas, 1997) and the three levels of reflection (Wong et
al., 1997; Kember et al., 1999).

*School of Health Sciences, The University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge,
Alberta, Canada, T1K 3M4. Email: Thorpe@uleth.ca
ISSN 1462-3943 (print)/ISSN 1470-1103 (online)/04/030327-17
 2004 Taylor & Francis Ltd
DOI: 10/1080.1462394042000270655
328 K. Thorpe

Reflective learning
In most academic settings, there is considerable energy expended as students
employ critical-thinking skills to explore complex concepts central to their discipline.
When students systematically engage in critical thinking, they tend to develop
insights not only into the concepts but also the learning process as well. Educators
use various strategies in seeking the one best technique to engage students actively
in their learning. Schön (1987) recognizes the significant contribution of critical
reflection in the development of professional knowledge and clinical expertise.
Educators in education and nursing employ reflective learning journals to enhance
creative and critical thinking among students in the classroom (e.g., Allen & Enz,
1986–1987; Hahnemann, 1986; Meyers, 1986; Meyers & Jones, 1993; McCrindle
& Christensen, 1995) and in the practice setting (e.g., Alm, 1996; Sedlak, 1997). A
few writers provide support for educators themselves to become inquiring teachers
(e.g., Schön, 1987; Henderson, 1992) and other writers create models to enhance
the teaching–learning process (e.g., McCaugherty, 1991; Hutchinson & Allen, 1997;
Riley-Doucet & Wilson, 1997; Scanlon & Chernomas, 1997; Wong et al., 1997;
Kember et al., 1999). It is important to note that this strategy of reflective learning
journals promotes students to become active learners.

Definition
Despite the frequent use of reflection and reflective learning journals in the litera-
ture, there is no consensus regarding how to define these terms. This lack of clarity
creates tremendous difficulty in terms of operationalizing the concepts and also in
comparing research findings (Getliffe, 1996). Boyd and Fales (1983) define
reflection as ‘the process of internally examining and exploring an issue of concern,
triggered by an experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self and
which results in a changed conceptual perspective’ (p. 100). This definition is widely
used and appropriate to this research exploring the application of the Scanlon and
Chernomas (1997) model. For purposes of this research, reflective learning journals
refer to written documents that students create as they think about various concepts,
events, or interactions over a period of time for the purposes of gaining insights into
self-awareness and learning.
Regarding reflection as both complex and elusive, Pierson (1998) suggests that
reflection is ‘a purposeful inter-subjective process that requires the employment of
both calculative and contemplative thinking’ (p. 169). She expresses concern that
calculative thinking (e.g., listing daily activities) instead of contemplative thinking
(e.g., employing an interactive, conversational style of writing to develop self-aware-
ness and understanding) may be more the norm in practice. Reflective thinking
requires a trusting relationship if one is to write about individual thoughts, feelings,
and experiences honestly; adequate time to consider ideas critically; active partici-
pation; involvement of self; and commitment.
 Reflective learning journals 329

Table 1. Theoretical models of reflection

Theoretical Models of Reflection

Three Stages of Reflection

1. Awareness
2. Critical Analysis
3. New Perspective
(Scanlon & Chernomas, 1997)

Three Levels of Reflection

1. Non-Reflectors (i.e., Habitual Action, Thoughtful Action, and Introspection)
2. Reflectors (i.e., Content Reflection, Process Reflection, and Content and Process
Reflection)
3. Critical Reflectors: (i.e., Premise Reflection)
(Wong et al., 1997; Kember et al., 1999)

Theoretical models
There are a number of models described in the literature directed to promoting
reflective thinking and practice. Hutchinson and Allen (1997) developed the
Reflection Integration Model to enhance reflective learning among education stu-
dents. Their model is based upon experiential learning theory and comprises four
components: pre-experience, experience, reflection, and integration. The model,
applicable to any experience, ‘can be the essential ingredient for turning experiences
into meaningful learning’ (Hutchinson & Allen, 1997, p. 228). McCaugherty (1991)
also discusses an experiential teaching model to promote the integration of theory
and practice among nursing students. Using patient case reviews, McCaugherty
engaged students in reflective-thinking activities that necessitated students to de-
scribe what care they provided for their patients and the rationale behind that care
(i.e., they discussed the what and why of their nursing practice). This model fosters
a student-centred approach that requires their active participation in learning about
patients in a real setting, thereby learning from experiences and gaining confidence
through their increased understanding of nursing practice.
Other models pertain to reflective-learning processes that occur in terms of the
context of the classroom and related assignments. Based upon the work of Atkins
and Murphy (1993), Scanlon and Chernomas (1997) described a model of reflective
learning used in nursing education. This model comprises three stages of reflection:
awareness, critical analysis, and new perspective (see Table 1). Awareness initiates
the process of reflection when an individual acknowledges a discomfort or lack of
information in explaining something. Curiosity or excitement regarding a need to
learn more about something also triggers the first stage of this model of reflection.
Scanlon and Chernomas (1997) note that ‘Awareness is the cornerstone of
reflection. Without awareness, reflection cannot occur’ (p. 1139). The second stage
of reflection entails critical analysis of the concept, situation, event, or need for
knowledge, taking into account one’s current knowledge and the application of new
information. Several skills are incorporated into the process of critical analysis, such
330 K. Thorpe

as ‘self-awareness, description, critical analysis, synthesis, and evaluation’ (Atkins &

Murphy, 1993, cited in Scanlon & Chernomas, 1997, p. 1139). The third stage,
called new perspective, emerges as an outcome of the analysis or subsequent to
applying new information. This final stage indicates that the individual has gained
insight into understanding the concept, situation, or event. Essentially, the process
of reflection encourages affective, cognitive, and even behavioural changes. What-
ever the effect upon these changes, learning does occur.
Another model of consequence for purposes of this research derives from the work
of Wong et al. (1997) and Kember et al. (1999). Using an action research approach,
Wong et al. (1997) explored ‘how teaching and learning strategies could be arranged
to maximize reflective learning among post-registration nurses’ (p. 478). This ap-
proach encourages procedural changes so as to benefit from meeting the needs of the
individuals involved, in this case, the students’ learning needs. Students were
categorized from their journal writing as non-reflectors, reflectors, and critical
reflectors (see Table 1). Using Mezirow’s (1991) work as a guide, Kember et al.
(1999) provided clarity in defining these terms in a later article. For instance,
non-reflective action entails habitual action, thoughtful action, and introspection.
Habitual action refers to what has been previously learned and becomes automatic
through frequent use. ‘Thoughtful action makes use of existing knowledge, without
attempting to appraise that knowledge, so learning remains within pre-existing
meaning schemes and perspectives’ (Kember et al., 1999, p. 21). Typically, ‘book
learning’ associated with university education, although a cognitive process, may be
considered as thoughtful action. Introspection refers to the feelings or thoughts
about oneself (i.e., the affective domain) and ‘involves no attempt to re-examine or
test the validity of prior knowledge’ (Kember et al., 1999, p. 21).
Reflective action can also be explained in terms of three component parts:
content, process, and premise. Content reflection addresses ‘what we perceive,
think, feel or act upon’ (Mezirow, 1991, p. 107, cited in Kember et al., 1999, p. 23).
and process reflection concerns how one performs those functions and how well they
are performed. Content and process reflection are deemed to be at the same level
whereas premise reflection is thought to be at a higher level of reflective thinking.
Premise reflection entails the why of the stated processes and enhances the oppor-
tunity to experience a perspective transformation. ‘Premise reflection then requires
a critical review of presuppositions from conscious and unconscious prior to learning
and their consequences’ (Kember et al., 1999, p. 23). In some ways, this step is quite
a demanding one in that assumptions must be put aside so that a problem can be
redefined and action redirected. Kember et al. (1999) determined that ‘evidence of
a significant change of perspective’ (p. 24) is necessary to use the label of premise
reflection, not an easy task for many students to achieve in all subject areas. Thus,
the label of critical reflection is appropriate for the term premise reflection.
Without the opportunity to develop independent and critical-thinking skills,
students may be compromised in their decision-making abilities in their professional
practice. They may rely upon rules and routines to support their practice. Only
through contemplating what one is doing and why can one demonstrate that
intelligent and competent practice ensues (Saylor, 1990). Although supportive of
 Reflective learning journals 331

reflective practice, Fowler and Chevannes (1998) believe that some learners may
find reflection ‘as unhelpful and alien to their way of thinking’ (p. 380). Therefore,
they argue against promoting reflective learning as a panacea. Mackintosh (1998)
provides a critical assessment of reflection as a learning strategy, particularly in
nursing, noting that the ‘terms concepts and frameworks for implementation lack
basic clarity … [and] within both education and clinical settings, its impact is
unclear’ (p. 556).

Critical thinking
In many ways, the critical-thinking literature parallels the literature on reflection.
Many writers seek to define critical thinking, describe the essential elements, and
develop tools to measure the extent to which individuals demonstrate their critical-
thinking ability (e.g., Watson & Glaser, 1964, 1994; Facione & Facione, 1996).
Watson and Glaser (1994) define critical thinking as a composite of knowledge,
skills, and attitudes. In applying critical thinking to nursing, Facione and Facione
suggest that critical thinking entails ‘purposeful self-regulatory judgment’ (1996,
p. 129) Other nursing writers conceptualize critical thinking by developing models
(e.g., Ford & Profetto-McGrath, 1994; Kataoka-Yashiro & Saylor, 1994; Conger &
Mezza, 1996; Videbeck, 1997; Kuhn, 1999), explaining strategies that work in the
classroom (e.g., Abegglen & O’Neill Conger, 1997; McGovern & Valiga, 1997;
Rossignol, 1997) and in clinical settings (e.g., Oermann, 1997; Haffer & Raingru-
ber, 1998; Weis & Guyton-Simmons, 1998), as well as clarifying the measurement
of this abstract construct (e.g., Leppa, 1997; O’Sullivan et al., 1997).
In contrast, Boychuk Duchscher (1999) provides a recent examination of critical
thinking that suggests ‘existing literature on critical thinking is confusing in its
description of the process, and ambiguous in drawing relationships between critical
thinking and the language currently used to illustrate the process of nursing’
(p. 577). She concludes that clarifying the concept of critical thinking is an essential
first step prior to applying and evaluating this concept in nursing practice. As
Maynard (1996) observes, there is consensus among nurse scholars about the
importance of critical thinking in nursing practice but little agreement in defining
and measuring the construct. This circumstance allows research to flourish and
fosters the questioning of current practice in educational settings. Over the past few
decades, in particular, nursing writers have been filling the void with their various
insights into critical thinking.
Regardless of these challenges, the connection between critical thinking and
reflection is evident in the literature from nursing and other disciplines. Although
Baker (1996) suggests that critical-thinking skills are fundamental to reflection,
other writers indicate that reflection is essential for critical thinking to occur.
Importantly, several writers, such as Hahnemann (1986), support the notion that
critical-thinking ability can change over time and that reflective learning journals
provide an effective strategy for positive change in learners. Moreover, Brookfield
(1998) explains the constituent elements of critical reflection and describes the four
lenses through which one’s practice can be viewed.
332 K. Thorpe

Method
Participants
The sample comprised 52 nursing undergraduates (49 females and 3 males) en-
rolled in a Nursing Management course. The undergraduates included both Post-
RN and generic baccalaureate students. Typically, and simultaneously, the Post-RN
students were working in various nursing positions, either part-time or full-time, and
the generic students were completing a four-hour weekly practicum in which they
were assigned a mentor whose role entailed some component of nursing manage-
ment. In class, there were many opportunities for students to work in small groups
as they contemplated solutions to problems, examined mini case studies, and
explored managerial concepts as they relate to nursing practice.

Procedure
At the beginning of the semester, students received written guidelines for journaling
and the requirements were discussed as part of the syllabus review. Subsequently,
questions about journal requirements were discussed whenever students requested
further information or clarification and when journals were returned to the students.
The written guidelines addressed four major topics: what a learning journal com-
prises and the pedagogical value of journaling, the course requirements for student
journals (e.g., types of entries, length), tips on how and when to do journal entries,
and selected references on journaling that were available in the university library or
from the course instructor. Students were expected to use their journals to explore
the management concepts being discussed in class or assigned readings. A total of
26 chapters were assigned, plus four optional areas; numerous concepts were
identified within each topical area. Given the broad scope in each topic area, it was
anticipated that students would select specific concepts for their reflections. In part,
they were expected to pursue ideas that were new to them or those aspects that were
confusing, in order to increase their understanding and learning.
Their journals were submitted on disc and worth 25% of their final grade.
Constructive feedback was provided to each student on disc and general comments
were provided in class when the assignments were returned. Typically, individual
feedback included a number of questions being asked to stimulate further reflection,
acknowledging insightful comments, or providing clarification in how to improve
their journal writing.

Qualitative data analysis

Qualitative data analyses of the reflective learning journals were conducted using
Qualitative Solutions and Research: Non-Numerical, Unstructured, Data: Indexing,
Searching, and Theorizing (NU*DIST, 1997). The unit of analysis was a sentence
in the journal entries. Oftentimes, the unit of analysis became a phrase due to the
nature of the writing (i.e., run-on sentences). Several analytical reviews were
completed since the data were analyzed for purposes of identifying data codes and
 Reflective learning journals 333

themes as well as for assessing the degree of congruence with the models (i.e., three
stages of reflection [Scanlon & Chernomas, 1997], and three levels of reflection
[Kember et al., 1999]).
The themes and codes were developed based upon a review of the literature as
well as the author’s teaching experiences. For instance, a code book was developed
for the emerging codes and themes. The codes and themes were refined over time
and in an iterative fashion by the investigator and two research assistants to ensure
high agreement for the themes and the codes. Importantly, determining the extent
of congruence with the two models necessitated focusing consistently on the models
throughout one round of analysis. To assist in this process, the definitions of the
three stages of reflection (i.e., awareness, critical analysis, and new perspective) as
described by Scanlon and Chernomas (1997) were delineated, expanded where
possible, and readily available. The levels of reflection (i.e., non-reflection,
reflection, and critical reflection), according to Kember et al. (1999), were similarly
documented, expanded, and readily available.
Since the focus of reflective learning journals in this research relates directly to
learning about concepts in nursing management, it was anticipated that there would
be less of an ethical dilemma compared to diaries or logs that require more personal
disclosure. Nevertheless, some writers, such as Mackintosh (1998), may still argue
that providing evidence of learning, particularly a lack of learning, may also be
considered an ethical issue. Thus, it is important in this study and, in all interactions
with students, that ethical considerations be addressed, particularly those ethical
considerations related to confidentiality and anonymity.

Findings
Although the three stages of reflection as described by Scanlon and Chernomas
(1997) established the framework for analyzing the reflective learning journals, the
three levels of reflection, according to Wong et al. (1997) and Kember et al. (1999),
provided substantial direction in completing the analysis. Thus, an attempt was
made to merge the two models (see Figure 1). It is noteworthy that Wong et al.
(1997) and Kember et al. (1999) clarify how to distinguish non-reflectors from
reflectors.
In using these two models as a guide, it is possible to say that, on the one hand,
more students may be classified as reflectors than initially thought. On the other
hand, fewer students may be categorized as critical reflectors. Of the total of 52
students, the majority of students fall into the category of reflectors whereby they
demonstrated in their writing indications of awareness and various levels of critical
analysis. At least six students may be labelled as critical reflectors in that they
demonstrated sound, thoughtful, in-depth consideration of the numerous concepts
of management, their experiences, and their discussions (in class or with appropriate
individuals, such as mentors, managers, or experts, etc.). Many individuals (e.g., 8
to 20) were also categorized as being essentially non-reflectors. In some instances,
the journal entry was so brief that it was difficult to assess for purposes of classifying
according to the categories being used.
334 K. Thorpe

Figure 1. Merging the three levels with the three stages of reflection.
Note: The jagged line indicates vacillation in moving from awareness to critical analysis and the
arrows indicate direction of movement, with a new perspective being the ultimate goal.

Merging the two models of reflection

Non-reflectors
A non-reflector typically demonstrates a lack of evidence of deliberate appraisal of
the concepts or ideas, in this case the concepts of management theory and practices.
Non-reflection is evident when the individual mentions a concept and simply
summarizes current thoughts or perspectives. Therefore, the individual presents
knowledge about a concept without any attempt to appraise that knowledge.
Essentially, no learning takes place. At times, a few individuals wrote about their
own feelings or thoughts about themselves, or they acknowledged an awareness of
feelings that they held toward others or ideas. However, they did not include
comments about how or why those feelings developed. Comments indicated that no
reflection had occurred when they simply presented a current state of knowing, were
essentially off topic, or were expressions of the individual’s feelings. Examples are
provided for the three levels of non-reflectors.

Habitual action. Although habitual action is generally not recorded in a journal, a few
students alluded to action that might be implied through their comments. For
instance, one student discussed the idea of time management, a concept with which
she could relate easily. In a brief paragraph, she made the following observations:

I find the task of time management a big problem in my home study. … Time can be
used effectively or it can be used in non-productive ways. … I feel that I can better
manage my time with the key points that were outlined in the beginning of the chapter.
 Reflective learning journals 335

There was no explanation about how the strategies might be effective for this
particular individual; the strategies were not even identified. Without clearly identi-
fying the strategy and setting objectives to implement them, one is led to believe that
the individual will not be successful in making change in terms of time management.
It is easier to resort to habits of the past than it is to change one’s behaviour. It is
important to realize that habitual action is not deemed to be a part of reflection;
therefore, it is of little value in terms of categorizing reflective learning. However, it
is worth noting because a number of students made similar comments.

Thoughtful action. Many students indicated thoughtful action in that they described,
albeit briefly, aspects of concepts from their past experiences and related those ideas
in terms of what they were reading. In many instances, there was no effort to expand
on how their readings enhanced or clarified what they had known previously or what
they had experienced. For instance, one student identified that her perception was
that leadership and management were synonymous, in concept and in reality,
meaning that the same person was typically both a manager and a leader. After
reading the chapter and thinking about her manager, she summarized her comments
about leadership in this way:
As described in the chapter, leaders are courageous, work toward empowerment, are
life-long learners, visionaries, and have the ability to cope well. These are qualities that
all nurses should obtain.

Another student indicated that:

… one chapter reviewed a lot of material I previously studied in nursing research. The
material reinforces the importance of research. I understand that, as a manager, it is
very important to provide staff with nursing research. Currently, nursing units are very
busy and nursing workloads are at their maximum, which makes it difficult to try and
get nurses involved in research activities. By using the examples provided in the book
I feel that nursing research can be implemented into the nursing system.

This quotation comprises the total discussion regarding the chapter on research in
management. These comments show that the individual believed that she had a
good understanding of research and, despite the difficulties in the work settings, that
research can be readily implemented. The latter comments cause one to wonder
about the student’s understanding of research.

Introspection. A number of students related feelings or thoughts about themselves

that occurred to them as they were writing. For instance, after reading one chapter,
one student described her feelings in this way:
I felt very inadequate and stressed at not being able to understand the concepts
presented especially after reading this chapter many times. I felt very stupid!

Reflectors
Reflectors, in their writing, provide numerous indications of their thinking processes.
They show that they are engaging in the various skills of analysis such as self-aware-
336 K. Thorpe

ness, description, critical thinking, critical analysis, discrimination, synthesis, and

evaluation of the concepts. Some of these skills appear to be essential first steps that
need to be addressed so that the individual may then move along to other complex
skills, to show deeper involvement in the reflection process. Kember et al. (1999)
describe two components as content reflection and process reflection. At some point
in their journals, all students were classified as demonstrating reflection at both the
content and process levels, which have been deemed to be equivalent levels. Content
reflection is concerned with the what of the management concepts and process
reflection pertains to the how of management concepts. The what component would
be described in their journals when they provided examples from their work
experiences. The how component of reflection would be described in their journals
in terms of how various activities or managerial concepts were enacted. In either of
these two situations, the students may describe something as positive or negative.
These two processes of reflection fit very well with the awareness and critical analysis
stages of reflection presented by Scanlon and Chernomas (1997).

Awareness. Numerous examples of awareness, identified as an essential first stage of

reflection, were mentioned by the students, especially as they explored concepts that
were new to them. In many instances, students simply mentioned that a concept was
unknown or new to them (e.g., shared governance, peer review, clinical advance-
ment models, strategic planning, and human resources management). Awareness is
evident when the student stated a current understanding about the concept, event,
or experience. Students, indicating a curiosity about the concept, sought to better
understand the essence of that concept. Oftentimes, they would state an initial
understanding without pursuing the discussion further. For instance, a number of
students were unfamiliar with concepts central to effective management and also the
theory behind many concepts. They used their journals to explore concepts that they
found particularly difficult or new to them. They indicated that they were engaged
in the reflective process and ready to proceed with the second stage when they wrote
about new ideas gleaned from their readings or interactions, when they identified
learning objectives, and when they made connections between one stage of knowing
to another.
For example, one student identified that a lack of knowledge about a concept led
to discomfort:
Before reading this chapter, I was uncomfortable with the concepts of autonomy,
beneficence, non-malificence and justice in relation to ethical issues, as they were
unfamiliar to me.

On the same topic of ethics, another individual wrote:

It was a real awakening for me to explore how ethics transcends many different facets
of the health care environment.

These statements indicate an initial awareness or acknowledgment of the lack of

information, even though there is some familiarity with the topic area, from previous
life and educational experiences (e.g., biomedical ethics courses). Although their
 Reflective learning journals 337

comments are brief, they demonstrate that the individual had not given a lot of
thought to the concepts, particularly from a management perspective. Further, they
show that, in some regards, individuals readily accept some information at face value
and move on. Other students showed awareness by identifying objectives that would
assist them to overcome a deficit. For instance, after admitting a lack of confidence
in herself in the classroom setting, one student remarked,
I need to develop a more questioning attitude about the knowledge I encounter.

Typically, this student struggled in writing her journal; she often summarized, very
briefly, some aspects of the chapters. Occasionally, she related the concepts to her
practice, but rarely discussed any aspect of a concept in depth.

Critical analysis
Critical analysis accommodates various levels of analysis, from a beginning step that
includes simple description, which might mean paraphrasing what one has read, to
other levels that require deep thinking and sound effort. Several students included
comments about what changes were needed to improve practice situations, how
those changes might be implemented, and why change didn’t occur at times.
Occasionally, they noted inappropriate behaviour or situations, often providing a
rationale for the situation. Typically, students labelled as critical reflectors tended to
write at length about a concept and made significant connections between their work
experiences and what they were reading in the text and discussing in class.
In one example, a registered nurse thought about the relationship between staff
nurses and managers, after a discussion in class about various associations and the
roles individuals have in those organizations. She commented:
Without its members, there would be no such groups. I think this relates to the concept
of nursing management because without the regular staff/floor nurses, (or front-line
workers), there would not be a need for management in this area! This reminds [me]
of why management or administration exists.

Critical reflectors
The label critical reflectors is retained for those individuals who showed that they
engaged in higher levels of thinking and analysis. These individuals are active
learners who seek out the why of things, who acknowledge a current set of beliefs
and values behind their actions, who critically review assumptions, presuppositions
from prior learning, and who readily change their position. They adopt a new
perspective regarding a concept or situation, which shows learning. Kember et al.
(1999) determined that ‘premise reflection was unlikely to be observed frequently
within student journals’ (p. 24). In terms of this study, a number of students were
classified as being critical reflectors because they wrote at length about management
concepts. Their writing typically included a description of the status quo (i.e.,
content reflection or the ‘what’ of something), they included thoughts about the
method or manner in which things worked (i.e., process reflection or the ‘how’ of
338 K. Thorpe

something), and they also included thoughts that showed their questioning of things
(i.e., premise reflection or the ‘why’ of something).

New perspective
In a number of journal entries, students wrote at some length about concepts or
events to show that they had moved from their initial position of being aware of what
should occur and how, through various stages of thinking and reflecting to a new
state of being informed, and finally, to a new perspective regarding that concept or
event. Often, they described the latter stages of insights gained into the concept
under discussion.
One student remarked that she had gained a better understanding about the nurse
manager’s role. Her comments indicated that she had been giving considerable
thought to the concepts about which she was reading, observing in her work
environment, and importantly, about her understanding, providing a new perspec-
tive regarding theory and practice. She wrote:
It has become clear to me what the role of a nurse manager is. I can now identify many
of the ethical dimensions of some nurse managers in the hospital, especially the
manager on ‘X’ [name of unit], she is highly ethical. Her judgements are obviously
based in fairness, (justice) and she is very focused on client autonomy. It is exciting to
be able to bridge the gap here, between work and school. I’m very excited because what
I’m learning about is so applicable to my work! It’s so much easier to grasp the
concepts under these conditions! I think this book is a superb reference for this course!

One student constantly considered her current working environment in terms of

what she was reading. Essentially, she compared theory with practice and contem-
plated what she observed as a reasonable fit and, at times, why the fit was not so
evident. Early in her writings, she considered the efficiency and effectiveness of the
organization. In her words, she summarized:
efficiency: our system has been in a survival mode but I see attempts to move away
from this school of thought to a more participatory style.

effectiveness: Again, survival has been a primary consideration and there appears to be
[a] mix between rational and natural in that there is some vying for power and
resources. I see strategic planning emerging as an important factor and managers are
gaining skill as this facet of management is paramount to the survival of their area of
responsibility. The downside is that the strategic planning is occurring mainly at the
program level. Hopefully, it will filter to the units as time goes on.

Another student pondered the notion of group dynamics at different times in her
writing over the semester. At one point, she admitted that she did not really
understand group dynamics. The following comment, in the final submission of her
journal, exemplifies the outcome of ‘deep thinking’ about this concept, about
various ideas and assumptions that were taken for granted, and the new perspective
that occurred after the student took the time to critically analyze her experiences, the
readings, observations, and discussions:
I had not thought deeply about why I enjoyed this particular group so much before. I
 Reflective learning journals 339

thought it was because the members were all very dedicated and personable people. I
can now see that it might be more related to the fact that they all were very strong in
the group building and maintenance functions. It was often seen by myself when
looking back that there was much coordinating, mediating/harmonizing, facilitating,
supporting, and encouraging going on. I think this section has made me aware of
important concepts, which I can try to strengthen (now that I am aware of them) in
future groups.

Continuing on, she explains that she was not aware of all of the reasons why groups
or teams do not work. She then provides an explanation as to why she didn’t know
that information. Further, this student provided some evidence of linking concepts,
such as leadership to group process, and applying those concepts to her work
environment. In doing so, she demonstrates an understanding of how theory works,
or doesn’t work, in practice.

Discussion
Reflective learning journals are demanding and time-consuming for both students
and educators. Therefore, it is important to ensure that the outcome of such an
expenditure of energy is effective learning. Essentially, effective learning refers to
deep learning, which is more than short-term, rote memory work. Using a model
such as the one proposed by Scanlon and Chernomas (1997) as a framework is an
excellent way of encouraging sound effort in reflection in journal entries. A model
provides a degree of structure that is often necessary to guide students in their
learning. This model was thought to be especially useful in that three stages of
reflective learning were outlined. Three stages were deemed to be manageable, and
further, students could see their progress over time.
Reflective learning entails a number of steps and requires diligence in addressing
those steps. Using the model proposed by Wong et al. (1997) and Kember et al.
(1999), most students may be categorized as reflectors. They readily demonstrate
the initial stages of reflection by describing their thoughts, feelings, actions (be-
haviours), events (many examples), situations, or perceptions. Although many
students definitely used skills necessary for critical analysis and were labelled as
reflectors, only a few students were labelled as sound critical reflectors. Given the
complexity of reflective thinking, it is difficult to compare these findings with those
of other writers. However, if one considers the distinction between reflectors and
critical reflectors, these findings may be fairly consistent with comments from other
writers. For instance, Cavanagh and colleagues (1995) reported that only 46.3% of
192 nursing students were classed as reflective thinkers (cited in Mackintosh, 1999).
Richardson and Maltby (1995) provide further support for this finding, indicating
‘that the majority of students [second-year nursing] lacked the ability to think about
what they did other than at a superficial level’ (cited in Mackintosh, 1999, p. 556).
However, it is important to recognize that making these comparisons may be a moot
point. The lack of common definitions for the terms we use continues to complicate
our ability to compare and, therefore, to gain from the research efforts within our
discipline and others.
340 K. Thorpe

Importantly, these models assist educators to make some headway in terms of

clarifying the stages and the levels of reflection. More work is necessary to complete
the process, which makes the task of educators even more difficult to clearly address
the needs of students. The team of Wong et al. (1997) and Kember et al. (1999)
continue to clarify and expand their understanding and application of reflective
learning journals. Some of the work that they are doing pertains to reflection within
the affective domain. Nevertheless, there is considerable work to do to clarify the
construct of reflection and to ensure that assignments, such as reflective learning
journals, are meaningful learning experiences for our students.

Recommendations
Recommendations are suggested for educators, researchers, and learners.

Educators
1. Communicate journal writing objectives clearly. Provide examples and poten-
tially give students an opportunity to practise their writing in class. Students need
to recognize the significance of journal writing to themselves as individuals.
Provide a handout at the beginning of the term and endeavour to answer their
queries clearly.
2. Provide constructive feedback. Often, students need individual feedback that is
specific, confidential, and constructive. This feedback can be written and oc-
casionally oral, when students seek additional information. Sometimes, it is
necessary to restate the criteria, since not all students understand the intended
message the first time it is given. Also, examples from their own work, where
things are done well, and where things are missing, provide concrete opportuni-
ties to help students improve.
3. Remain cognizant and observant of ethical consideration. To be effective in
promoting learning, journal writing necessitates that students be honest and open
in their entries. This type of disclosure places students in a vulnerable position.
If confidentiality is not maintained, the true objective of reflective learning
journals is lost. Many ethical dilemmas remain unaddressed regarding the use of
reflective learning journals, for the writer, the reader, and anyone mentioned in
the journals.
4. Use journal writing to improve teaching. This study has benefited from the
numerous comments by students fostering an understanding about what students
believe to be important to assist them to be successful. For instance, while the
handout was a useful tool, a few students asked for more guidance. Their
comments also indicated where they were struggling with concepts and where the
concepts were straightforward. From the larger data set, we learned that some
students experienced stressors (e.g., time pressures to get work done, interper-
sonal conflicts within group activities) and ineffective management skills (e.g.,
poor conflict management skills, poor interpersonal skills, poor communication
skills).
 Reflective learning journals 341

Researchers
1. Address the psychometrics and utility of the models. The outcomes of this
research provide guidance for further refinement of the models and provide
evidence of their value in obtaining the desired goals of learning.
2. Explore reflective learning journals through interpretive methods. The lack of
consensus regarding terms, concepts, frameworks, and implementation strategies
necessitates that more work be done to provide clarity to this construct. More-
over, the benefits of reflection to practice requires attention. How does reflection
benefit the practitioner and how does reflection benefit the recipient of nursing
care? Evidence is needed to document the effect of reflection upon those
involved.
3. Explore, for purposes of greater description, the actual change that occurs in
individuals who actively engage in reflective thinking and learning over time.

Learners
1. Acknowledge reality of lifelong learning. Embrace reflective learning activities as
essential to professional development and professional practice. This recommen-
dation addresses the need for students to engage actively in the learning process,
with reflection as one important way to be effective in learning about their
profession. Self-awareness is an initial step in recognizing when changes are
necessary. Be constantly curious, systematic in analysis, constructively critical,
diligent in making connections among conceptual patterns, and vigorously evalu-
ative in determining the outcomes of one’s practice.
2. Develop skills for future practice. Management skills are readily transferable to
any position and to any setting. In this study, students identified a variety of skills
that they wanted to develop further, such as time management, conflict resol-
ution, computer processing, communication, and importantly, group process.

Conclusion
In conclusion, according to Kember et al. (1999), ‘It is now widely accepted that
successful professionals need to reflect upon their actions as most tasks they perform
involve novel elements to which there are no defined solutions’ (p. 18). The onus
rests with educators to prepare professionals for reflective practice. Inherent in this
responsibility is the need to determine the extent to which learning actually occurs.
Utilizing a model, as described in this presentation, provides strong evidence of
student learning. Nevertheless, whereas the facilitation of learning remains with the
educator, the ultimate responsibility for learning resides with the learner. If we
accept the words of Peter Senge (1990), we will all embrace the responsibility and
joy of learning:

Real learning gets to the heart of what it means to be human. Through learning we
become able to do something we never were able to do. Through learning we extend
342 K. Thorpe

our capacity to create, to be part of the generative process of life. There is within each
of us a deep hunger for this type of learning. (p. 14)

Notes on contributor
Karran is an Associate Professor and Associate Dean in the School of Health
Sciences, University of Lethbridge. Her research interests include nursing
leadership and management, as well as teaching and learning topics such as
critical thinking, values, attitudes toward women, and reflective learning jour-
nals.

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