Empiricism: the theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience.

Hypothesis: a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited

evidence as a starting point for further investigation.
Sample: representative subset of the universe or population.
random sample: is a sample in which each member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected for the sample.
Size (N): the number of cases in the sample.
In general, the large in the N the more reliable.
Variable: is something that can be changed, such as a characteristic or value.
Variables are generally used in psychology experiments to determine if changes to
one thing result in changes to another.
median: is the score located at the center of a distribution. Consider this set of
numbers: 2, 3, 6, 8, 10. The median of this number distribution is 6. For
distributions with an even number of scores, take the average of the two middle
scores to find the median. (median is the middle score in a set of given numbers.).
Mean: is the mathematical average of a set of numbers. The average is calculated
by adding up two or more scores and dividing the total by the number of
scores(The mean is the arithmetic average of a set of given numbers).
Mode: is the most frequently occurring score in a set of given numbers.
survey: large sample of people are in interview of questionnaire.
The correlation coefficient : r =+- .00 to .99
r=-.92 is strong negative.
Positive Correlations: Both variables increase or decrease at the same time. A
correlation coefficient close to +1.00 indicates a strong positive correlation.
Negative Correlations: Indicates that as the amount of one variable increases, the
other decreases (and vice versa). A correlation coefficient close to -1.00 indicates a
strong negative correlation.

range = (highest score - lowest score).

case study: one or very few, case or cases is or are study in great detail.
Experiment: a control investigation into the relation the two or more reliable.
1.Wundts germany and 2. Edward Titchener U.K ~~ Structuralism
-Structuralism sought to identify the components of the conscious mind. Or it is a
method of analysis of aspects of human behavior. { Structuralism was a school of
thought that sought to identify the components (structure) of the mind (the mind
was the key element to psychology at this point). Structuralists believed that the
way to learn about the brain and its functions was to break the mind down into its
most basic elements. They believed, the whole is equal to the sum of the parts.}
3. William James USA...................... Functionalism
- Functionalism: Functionalism was the study of how the conscious mind helps
humans survive and successfully adapt to their environment.{ Functionalism was
the psychological school of thought that followed Structuralism and moved away
from focusing on the structure of the mind to a concern with how the conscious is
related to behavior... How does the mind affect what people do? One of the major
proponents of Functionalism was Thorndike (created the ever-popular puzzle box)
who studied the primary issue of functionalism}
4. John Watson ..................... Behaviorism
- Behaviorism: Behaviorism is an approach to psychology that studies observable
behavior, rather than hidden mental processes.
5. B. F. Skinner........................... Behaviorism..... Operant Conditioning
- Operant Conditioning: is the consequences of rewards and punishment on
behavior.{ Operant Conditioning is a type of learning in which a behavior is
strengthened (meaning, it will occur more frequently) when it's followed by
reinforcement, and weakened (will happen less frequently) when followed by
punishment. Operant conditioning is based on a simple premise - that behavior is
influenced by the consequences that follow. When you are reinforced for doing

something, you're more likely to do it again. When you are punished for doing
something, you are less likely to do it again.}
6. Sigmund Freud:................... Psychoanalysis
- Psychoanalysis is an approach used to study how the unconscious mind shapes
behavior.
7. jean piaget....................... cognition
- cognition: All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and
remembering. As you can tell, any of your ideas, thoughts, memories.
8. Kenneth Clark....................... sociocultural
- The sociocultural approach is based on the idea that society and culture shape
cognition. Social customs, beliefs, values, and language are all part of what shapes
a person's identity and reality.
9.Carl Rogers and 10. Abraham Maslow................ humanistic
-humanistic: that emphasizes the human capacity for choice and growth. The
overriding assumption is that humans have free will and are not simply fated to
behave in specific ways or are zombies blindly reacting to their environments.
( human has freedom).
11. Ivan Pavlov ................ classical conditioning.
is one form of learning in which an organism "learns" through establishing
associations between different events and stimuli. For example, when a neutral
stimulus (such as a bell).
12. charles darwin................... Evolutionary.
-The nervous system: is a complex system of nerves which allows you to register
touch, move, breathe, feel and think. The nervous system includes your brain,
spinal cord, and the nerves that travel throughout your body.
-1.Sensory neurons: (also known as Afferent Neurons) are responsible for
bringing information from sensory receptors (like the nerves in your hand) to the
central nervous system (spinal cord and brain). In other words, these neurons carry

information about the senses, so they bring information from the eyes, ears, etc., as
well as from within the body like the stomach.
-2. The interneurons: it has 3 functions:
1. to receive sensory info
2. to interrupt this informations and make response decision.
3. to transmit this info message to motor nervous or to other interneuron.
-3. motor neurons -- neurons that carry information from the central nervous
system to the muscles to make these movements.
--gland: an organ in the human or animal body that secretes particular chemical
substances for use in the body or for discharge into the surroundings.
--nerves is a bundle of neurons(axons) wrapped in myelin.
====The Central Nervous System consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
====The Peripheral Nervous System is divided into two sub-systems. The
Somatic Nervous System primary function is to regulate the actions of the
skeletal muscles. Often thought of as mediating voluntary activity. The other subsystem, called the Autonomic Nervous System, regulates primarily involuntary
activity such as heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, and digestion. Although these
activities are considered involuntary, they can be altered either through specific
events or through changing our perceptions about a specific experience. This
system is further broken down into two complimentary systems: Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic Nervous Systems.

Poet: Walt Whitman (1819-1892) grew up in Brooklyn and Long Island in a family
with 9 children. He learned how to be a printer and through this he discovered his
love for reading and writing.

Type of poem: Lyric

Speaker: The speaker is someone listening with pride to the song of America.

Audience: This poem is directed toward America's working class.

Tone: The tone is proud and joyous.

Meaning: This poem describes the song of America. The "song" represents the joy
of being free. All the different people, of different trades, sing a part of the song.
They become a chorus, harmonizing to make a beautiful melody.

Structure of poem: This poem has no rhyme or meter that can be determined so it is
a free verse.
This poem is a joyous reflection of the many working people in America, and how
they are going about their day, strong, happy, healthy, and good at their jobs. The
theme is productivity, or happiness in one's station in life. He describes all sorts of
people on their jobs-mechanics, carpenters, masons, boatmen, shoemaker,
woodcutter, and even mothers, wives, and young men. Each picture he presents of
these people is their "blithe" and happy nature in their station of life. He uses such
optimistic and joyous words to describe them going about their days: "blithe",
"carols", "strong", "delicious", "robust", "friendly". The entire poem is a

celebration of life, a celebration of the many different types of people that make up
what America is, and how they find joy and happiness in their every day.
=quick pace.
the theme of musicality
The tone of the poem is joyful, whimsical, and hopeful
Theme: family, strenght and skill, identity, man and nature .
The speaker in this poem is a writer, quite possibly a poet. He's the son of a potato
farmer, and as we quickly find out, he's the grandson of a harvester as well.

The poem opens with our speaker at his desk. Pretty basic, right? But then, through
his reminiscences, we move back in time to the potato field and peat bog where his
father and grandfather worked. The past is rich with nature the smell of dirt and
potatoes, the cold air, the texture of the earth, and the sound of shovels cutting
through it. While we know the speaker is only imagining the past, we feel as
though we're right there with him, because he's imagining it so darn well. Heaney
creates a vivid picture of the potato fields making good use of all five senses, then
gently returns us to the present:
it is a nostalgic poem. the poet it remembering his childhood with his father who
was a farmer.The poem starts and ends with the same lines "between my finger and
my thumb/The squat pen rests" but the first stanza ends with "as snug as a gun" and
the last stanza ends with "I'll dig with it." Thus, Heaney foregrounds the importance
of the writer's profession and craft by breathing new life into the cliched idiom "the
pen is mightier than the sword." Heaney affirms that he has decided to choose his
own career path, as a writer. It is clear that Heaney feels confident that he is very
skilled with a pen and demonstrates and proves that he is an accomplished poet by
writing this very thought provoking poem.Heaney realizes that in choosing 'the
squat pen' over 'the spade' he is in fact 'digging' up memories of his ancestors, and
thus enabling the process of the historical past giving meaning to the present. So all
in all, he draws the conclusion that whilst we must not forget our roots,we must
pursue our own passions and dreams in life. For Heaney, it is his chosen calling as

a writer in which he finds solace, which enables him to transfer memories onto
paper, giving old thoughts the power to transcend time.