Plotting Frequency Responses (1 of 8)

PLOTTING FREQUENCY RESPONSES

BY M.T. Tham
Dept. of Chemical and Process Engineering
University of Newcastle upon Tyne
(APRIL 1999)

INTRODUCTION
Frequency domain analysis is best considered graphically via the use of frequency response
plots. Frequency responses show how the amplitude ratio and phase-shift change with
different frequencies. Thus, frequency responses plots are plots of amplitude ratios and phaseshifts as a function of frequency. Frequency responses are commonly plotted using either:
a) Polar/Nyquist plots, or
b) Bode diagrams
Both have their advantages and disadvantages.

POLAR AND NYQUIST PLOTS

The expressions used to describe frequency responses are complex numbers. Thus for any
system G ( s) , we can generate the frequency response G ( j ) by plotting
G ( j ) = Re(G ( j )) + j Im(G ( j )), = 0,...,
on an argand diagram. This is equivalent to plotting the frequency response using the polar
co-ordinates of G ( j )
AR = Amplitude Ratio G ( j ) and
= Phase-shift G ( j )
Plotting the values of the pair (AR, ) over some frequency range will give polar plot of the
frequency response as shown in Fig.1. Nyquist plots are also polar plots of frequency
responses. The difference between Nyquist plots and the polar plot shown in Fig. 1, is that the
Nyquist plots include a plot of AR and as a function of -, as shown in Fig. 2. However, it
is usually sufficient to plot the simpler polar representation.

Copyright 1999
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering
University of Newcastle upon Tyne

Plotting Frequency Responses (2 of 8)

AR

Increasing
frequency

Figure 1. Polar plot of a 2nd-order system

Frequency response as
function of -

Frequency response as
function of

Figure 2. Nyquist plot of same system as in Fig. 1

BODE DIAGRAMS
Unlike Nyquist or polar plots, Bode diagrams are frequency responses of systems where the
amplitude ratio and phase-shift properties are presented as distinct plots. That is, Bode
diagrams comprise a set of 2 plots:
a) Amplitude Ratio versus frequency
b) Phase-shift versus frequency
The procedure is straight forward. Given a transfer function G(s) in the Laplace domain,
transform it into the frequency domain by replacing all s terms with j.
Copyright 1999
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering
University of Newcastle upon Tyne

Plotting Frequency Responses (3 of 8)

calculate the Amplitude Ratio G ( j ) for a range of .

calculate the Phase-shift G ( j ) for the same range of .
They can then be plotted on the same graph, e.g.

0
-10

0.8

-20

0.7

-30

0.6

-40

0.5

-50

0.4

-60

0.3
0.2

-70

0.1

-80

0
0.01

Phase-shift

Amplitude Ratio (AR)

1
0.9

-90
0.1

10

Frequency
AR

Phase-shift

Figure 3. Bode plot of AR and phase-shift

Note:
The frequency values are plotted on a logarithmic axis
Both Amplitude Ratio (AR) and Phase-shift are plotted on linear axes
Thus semi-log graph paper is needed

Alternatively, we can plot the log of Amplitude Ratio, i.e. log(AR) instead. By plotting
log(AR) instead of AR as a ratio, the AR curve is straightened at its extremities as shown in
Fig. 4. This is useful in interpreting results, as we shall see later. However, it is more common
to plot 20log(AR) instead of AR as a ratio, or as log(AR), as shown in Fig. 5. Notice that the
shapes of the two sets of plots are identical.

Copyright 1999
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering
University of Newcastle upon Tyne

Plotting Frequency Responses (4 of 8)

log (AR)

-30

-0.6

-40

-0.8

-50
-60

-1

-70
-1.2

-30
-40

-15

-50

-20

-60
-70

-25

-90
1

-20

-10

-80
0.1

-10

-30
0.01

10

-80
-90
0.1

Frequency
log(AR)

Phase-shift (degrees)

-0.4

-5
Phase-shift (degrees)

-20

AR (dB)

-0.2

-1.4
0.01

-10

10

Frequency

Phase-shift

AR (dB)

Phase-shift

Figure 4. Bode plot of log(AR) and phase- Figure 5. Bode plot of 20log(AR) and phaseshift
shift

Finally for ease of interpretation, it is also common to graph 20log(AR) and phase-shift on
separate plots, but over the same frequency range, i.e.
0
0

-10
-20
Phase-shift (degrees)

-5

AR (dB)

-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
0.01

-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80

0.1

-90
0.01

10

Frequency

Figure 6a. Bode plot of 20log(AR)

0.1

10

Frequency

Figure 6b. Bode plot of phase-shift

Short Cut Method to Plotting Bode Diagrams

Given a Laplace transfer function, G(s), the variation of G ( j ) as a function of frequency
can be sketched quickly. The following example shows how this is done and illustrates why
the log of amplitude ratio is often used in plotting Bode diagrams.

Copyright 1999
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering
University of Newcastle upon Tyne

Plotting Frequency Responses (5 of 8)

First-order systems
Consider the example of a first order transfer function,
G ( s) =

K
1 + s

G ( j ) =

K
1 + j

The amplitude ratio is then determined as

AR ratio = G ( j ) =

K
1
= K.
1 + j
1 + j

Taking logs and multiplying both sides of the above equation by 20, we obtain:

20 log AR ratio = AR dB = 20 log K + 20 log

1
1 + j

Note:
By taking the log of AR and multiplying it by 20, we transform the amplitude ratio expressed
as a ratio, AR ratio , to amplitude ratio expressed in a unit called decibel, i.e. AR dB .

In our example, AR dB is made up of 2 components.

The first, 20log K is not a function of and is thus independent of frequency. Therefore,
when plotted against frequency, it will be a horizontal line.
Now, consider the frequency dependent component of AR dB , namely 20 log

1
. For
1 + j

extreme values of , this component shows some interesting properties:

0

1
1
=
1
20 log
= 20 log
1 + j
1 + 2 2 20 log

when 0
when >> 1

1
We can examine further the characteristics of 20 log with respect to frequency.

Copyright 1999
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering
University of Newcastle upon Tyne

Plotting Frequency Responses (6 of 8)

Let AR1 dB be the amplitude ratio when = 1 and AR2

= 10 1 . Subtracting one from the other, we get
AR1 dB AR2

dB

= 20 log

dB

the corresponding value when

1
1
20 log
1
101

= 20 log( 1 ) + 20 log(10 1 )

= 20 log( 1 ) + 20 log(10) + 20 log( 1 )

= 20 dB
That is, for a 10 (tenfold or decade) change in frequency, there is a 20 dB change in
AR dB . This is shown graphically in Fig.7.
1

101

AR (dB)

-5
-10
-15
-20
Frequency ()

Figure 7. Change in AR dB of a 1st-order process for a decade change in , at high

frequency ranges

SUMMARY
For any first order system with transfer function G ( s) =

at low frequency values, 20 log

1
1 + s

1
does not contribute to the AR dB plot.
1 + j

1
varies linearly with frequency, following a
1 + j
straight line with a slope of -20dB per decade change in frequency values

at higher frequency values, 20 log

Copyright 1999
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering
University of Newcastle upon Tyne

Plotting Frequency Responses (7 of 8)

These 2 observations enable us to define the so called

Low Frequency Asymptote (LFA)
and
High Frequency Asymptote (HFA)
for the low and high frequency ranges respectively.
These asymptotes intersect at a point. Since the HFA has been generated by considering the
1
plot of 20 log for values of >> 1, the point of departure from the LFA where

1
AR1 dB = 0 must be when 20 log = 0 . The value of the frequency at this point, c , must

therefore be
c =

1
and is called the corner frequency.

0
0.1

10

100

AR (dB)

-5
-10

Sketch of AR|dB

-15
-20
Frequency ()

Figure 8. Sketch of 20log(AR) using low and high frequency asymptotes

1
, the LFA and HFA will meet at = c = 1 and the AR dB of G(j)
1+ s
can be sketched quickly as shown in the neighbouring diagram.
Therefore, if G ( s) =

To render the AR dB more accurate, we can calculate its values at when

= 1 / 2

when AR dB 1dB

= 1

when AR dB 3dB

Copyright 1999
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering
University of Newcastle upon Tyne

Plotting Frequency Responses (8 of 8)

and

= 2

when AR dB 7dB

Unfortunately, similar asymptotes do not exists for the phase-shift part of the Bode diagram,
and you will have to make use of:
Imaginary part of G ( j )
= G ( j ) = tan 1

Real part of G ( j )
to calculate the phase-shift as a function of .
We can develop similar asymptotes to help us sketch the frequency responses of higher order
systems.

Copyright 1999
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering
University of Newcastle upon Tyne