Montesquieu

This article is about the French philosopher. For other leaving him his fortune as well as his title, and the oce
uses, see Montesquieu (disambiguation).
of Prsident Mortier in the Bordeaux Parliament.[8]
Montesquieus early life occurred at a time of signicant governmental change. England had declared itself a
constitutional monarchy in the wake of its Glorious Revolution (168889), and had joined with Scotland in the
Union of 1707 to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. In
France the long-reigning Louis XIV died in 1715 and was
succeeded by the ve-year-old Louis XV. These national
transformations had a great impact on Montesquieu; he
would refer to them repeatedly in his work.

Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brde et de

Montesquieu (/mntskju/;[1] French: [m tskj]; 18
January 1689 10 February 1755), generally referred
to as simply Montesquieu, was a French lawyer, man
of letters, and political philosopher who lived during the
Age of Enlightenment. He is famous for his articulation
of the theory of separation of powers, which is implemented in many constitutions throughout the world. He
did more than any other author to secure the place of the
word despotism in the political lexicon,[2] and may have
been partly responsible for the popularization of the terms
feudalism and Byzantine Empire.

Montesquieu withdrew from the practice of law to devote

himself to study and writing. He achieved literary success
with the publication of his Lettres persanes (Persian Letters, 1721), a satire representing society as seen through
the eyes of two imaginary Persian visitors to Paris and
Europe, cleverly criticizing the absurdities of contemporary French society. He next published Considrations sur
les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur dcadence
(Considerations on the Causes of the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans, 1734), considered by some scholars, among his three best known books, as a transition
from The Persian Letters to his master work. De l'Esprit
des Lois (The Spirit of the Laws) was originally published
anonymously in 1748. The book quickly rose to inuence political thought profoundly in Europe and America. In France, the book met with an unfriendly reception from both supporters and opponents of the regime.
The Catholic Church banned l'Esprit along with many
of Montesquieus other works in 1751 and included it
on the Index of Prohibited Books. It received the highest
praise from the rest of Europe, especially Britain.

Biography

Montesquieu was also highly regarded in the British

colonies in North America as a champion of liberty
(though not of American independence). Political scientist Donald Lutz found that Montesquieu was the most
frequently quoted authority on government and politics
in colonial pre-revolutionary British America, cited more
by the American founders than any source except for
the Bible.[9] Following the American revolution, Montesquieus work remained a powerful inuence on many
of the American founders, most notably James Madison of Virginia, the Father of the Constitution". Montesquieus philosophy that government should be set up
so that no man need be afraid of another[10] reminded
Madison and others that a free and stable foundation for
their new national government required a clearly dened
and balanced separation of powers.

Chteau de la Brde

Montesquieu was born at the Chteau de la Brde in the

southwest of France, 25 km south of Bordeaux.[3] His
father, Jacques de Secondat, was a soldier with a long
noble ancestry. His mother, Marie Franoise de Pesnel,
who died when Charles was seven, was an heiress who
brought the title of Barony of La Brde to the Secondat
family.[4] After the death of his mother he was sent to the
Catholic College of Juilly, a prominent school for the children of French nobility, where he remained from 1700 to
1711.[5] His father died in 1713 and he became a ward
of his uncle, the Baron de Montesquieu.[6] He became a
counselor of the Bordeaux Parliament in 1714. In 1715
he married Jeanne de Lartigue, a Protestant, who eventually bore him three children.[7] The Baron died in 1716,
1

3 POLITICAL VIEWS

Besides composing additional works on society and politics, Montesquieu traveled for a number of years through
Europe including Austria and Hungary, spending a year
in Italy and 18 months in England where he became
a freemason, admitted to the Horn Tavern Lodge in
Westminster,[11] before resettling in France. He was troubled by poor eyesight, and was completely blind by the
time he died from a high fever in 1755. He was buried in
the glise Saint-Sulpice, Paris.

Philosophy of history

Montesquieus philosophy of history minimized the role

of individual persons and events. He expounded the view
in Considrations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur dcadence that each historical event was
driven by a principal movement:
It is not chance that rules the world. Ask
the Romans, who had a continuous sequence
of successes when they were guided by a certain plan, and an uninterrupted sequence of reverses when they followed another. There are
general causes, moral and physical, which act
in every monarchy, elevating it, maintaining it,
or hurling it to the ground. All accidents are
controlled by these causes. And if the chance
of one battlethat is, a particular causehas
brought a state to ruin, some general cause made
it necessary for that state to perish from a single
battle. In a word, the main trend draws with it
all particular accidents.[12]

gave rise to his theories on government. When Catherine

the Great wrote her Nakaz (Instruction) for the Legislative Assembly she had created to clarify the existing Russian law code, she avowed borrowing heavily from Montesquieus Spirit of the Laws, although she discarded or
altered portions that did not support Russias absolutist
bureaucratic monarchy.[15]
Montesquieus most inuential work divided French society into three classes (or trias politica, a term he coined):
the monarchy, the aristocracy, and the commons. Montesquieu saw two types of governmental power existing:
the sovereign and the administrative. The administrative powers were the executive, the legislative, and the
judicial. These should be separate from and dependent
upon each other so that the inuence of any one power
would not be able to exceed that of the other two, either singly or in combination. This was a radical idea because it completely eliminated the three Estates structure
of the French Monarchy: the clergy, the aristocracy, and
the people at large represented by the Estates-General,
thereby erasing the last vestige of a feudalistic structure.

Likewise, there were three main forms of government,

each supported by a social principle": monarchies (free
governments headed by a hereditary gure, e.g. king,
queen, emperor), which rely on the principle of honor;
republics (free governments headed by popularly elected
leaders), which rely on the principle of virtue; and despotisms (enslaved governments headed by dictators), which
rely on fear. The free governments are dependent on fragile constitutional arrangements. Montesquieu devotes
four chapters of The Spirit of the Laws to a discussion
of England, a contemporary free government, where liberty was sustained by a balance of powers. Montesquieu
worried that in France the intermediate powers (i.e., the
In discussing the transition from the Republic to the Em- nobility) which moderated the power of the prince were
pire, he suggested that if Caesar and Pompey had not being eroded. These ideas of the control of power were
worked to usurp the government of the Republic, other often used in the thinking of Maximilien de Robespierre.
men would have risen in their place. The cause was not Montesquieu was somewhat ahead of his time in advocatthe ambition of Caesar or Pompey, but the ambition of ing major reform of slavery in The Spirit of the Laws. As
man.
part of his advocacy he presented a satirical hypothetical
list of arguments for slavery, which has been open to
contextomy. However, like many of his generation, Montesquieu also held a number of views that might today
3 Political views
be judged controversial. He rmly accepted the role of
Montesquieu is credited as being among the progenitors, a hereditary aristocracy and the value of primogeniture,
which include Herodotus and Tacitus, of anthropology, and while he endorsed the idea that a woman could head
as being among the rst to extend comparative methods a state, he held that she could not be eective as the head
of classication to the political forms in human societies. of a family.
Indeed, the French political anthropologist Georges Balandier considered Montesquieu to be the initiator of a
scientic enterprise that for a time performed the role of
cultural and social anthropology.[13] According to social
anthropologist D. F. Pocock, Montesquieus The Spirit
of the Laws was the rst consistent attempt to survey
the varieties of human society, to classify and compare
them and, within society, to study the inter-functioning
of institutions.[14] Montesquieus political anthropology

While addressing French readers of his General Theory,

John Maynard Keynes described Montesquieu as the real
French equivalent of Adam Smith, the greatest of your
economists, head and shoulders above the physiocrats in
penetration, clear-headedness and good sense (which are
the qualities an economist should have).[16]

Meteorological climate theory

Another example of Montesquieus anthropological

thinking, outlined in The Spirit of the Laws and hinted
at in Persian Letters, is his meteorological climate theory,
which holds that climate may substantially inuence the
nature of man and his society. By placing an emphasis on
environmental inuences as a material condition of life,
Montesquieu pregured modern anthropologys concern
with the impact of material conditions, such as available
energy sources, organized production systems, and technologies, on the growth of complex socio-cultural systems.
He goes so far as to assert that certain climates are superior to others, the temperate climate of France being ideal. His view is that people living in very warm
countries are too hot-tempered, while those in northern countries are icy or sti. The climate of middle Europe is therefore optimal. On this point, Montesquieu may well have been inuenced by a similar pronouncement in The Histories of Herodotus, where he
makes a distinction between the 'ideal' temperate climate
of Greece as opposed to the overly cold climate of Scythia
and the overly warm climate of Egypt. This was a common belief at the time, and can also be found within the
medical writings of Herodotus times, including the 'On
Airs, Waters, Places of the Hippocratic corpus. One can
nd a similar statement in Germania by Tacitus, one of
Montesquieus favorite authors.

Considrations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur dcadence (Considerations on the
Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, 1734) at Gallica
Arsace et Ismnie (Arsace and Ismnie, a novel;
1742)
De l'esprit des lois ((On) The Spirit of the Laws,
1748), volume 1, volume 2 at Gallica;
La dfense de L'Esprit des lois (In Defence of The
Spirit of the Laws, 1750)
Essai sur le got (Essay on Taste, pub. 1757)
Mes Penses (My Thoughts, 17201755)

6 See also
Government of France
Liberalism
List of liberal theorists
Napoleon I of France
U.S. Constitution, inuences

7 References

From a sociological perspective Louis Althusser, in his

analysis of Montesquieus revolution in method,[17] alluded to the seminal character of anthropologys inclu- 7.1 Notes
sion of material factors, such as climate, in the explanation of social dynamics and political forms. Examples of [1] Montesquieu. Random House Websters Unabridged
Dictionary.
certain climatic and geographical factors giving rise to increasingly complex social systems include those that were [2] Boesche 1990, p. 1.
conducive to the rise of agriculture and the domestication
[3] Bordeaux Google Maps
of wild plants and animals.

List of principal works

Memoirs and discourses at the Academy of
Bordeaux (17181721): including discourses on
echoes, on the renal glands, on weight of bodies, on
transparency of bodies and on natural history.
Spicilge (Gleanings, 1715 onward)
Systme des ides (System of Ideas, 1716)

[4] Sorel, A. Montesquieu. London, George Routledge &

Sons, 1887 (Ulan Press reprint, 2011), p. 10. ASIN:
B00A5TMPHC
[5] Sorel (1887), p. 11.
[6] Sore (1887), p. 12.
[7] Sorel (1887), pp. 11-12.
[8] Sorel (1887), pp. 12-13.
[9] Lutz 1984.

Lettres persanes (Persian Letters, 1721)

[10] Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, Book 11, Chapter 6,

Of the Constitution of England. Electronic Text Center,
University of Virginia Library, Retrieved 1 August 2012

Le Temple de Gnide (The Temple of Gnidos, a novel;

1725)

[11] Berman 2012, p. 150.

Histoire vritable (True History, a reverie; c.1723

c.1738)

[12] Montesquieu (1734), Considerations on the Causes of the

Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, The Free
Press, retrieved 30 November 2011 Ch. XVIII.

[13] Balandier 1970, p. 3.

[14] Pocock 1961, p. 9.
Tomaselli 2006, p. 9, similarly describes it as among the
most intellectually challenging and inspired contributions
to political theory in the eighteenth century. [ It] set the
tone and form of modern social and political thought.
[15] Ransel 1975, p. 179.
[16] See the preface to the French edition of Keynes General
Theory.
See also Devletoglou 1963.
[17] Althusser 1972.

7.2
7.2.1

Bibliography
Articles and chapters
Boesche, Roger (1990). Fearing Monarchs and Merchants:
Montesquieus Two Theories of
Despotism. The Western Political Quarterly 43 (4): 741761.
doi:10.1177/106591299004300405.
JSTOR 448734.
Devletoglou, Nicos E. (1963).
Montesquieu and the Wealth of
Nations. The Canadian Journal
of Economics and Political Science
29 (1): 125. JSTOR 139366.
Lutz, Donald S. (1984). The Relative Inuence of European Writers
on Late Eighteenth-Century American Political Thought. American
Political Science Review 78 (1):
189197. doi:10.2307/1961257.
JSTOR 1961257.
Person, James Jr., ed., Montesquieu (excerpts from chap. 8).
in Literature Criticism from 1400 to
1800 (Gale Publishing: 1988), vol.
7, pp. 350352.
Tomaselli, Sylvana. The spirit
of nations.
In Mark Goldie
and Robert Wokler, eds., The
Cambridge History of EighteenthCentury Political Thought (Cambridge:
Cambridge University
Press, 2006). pp. 939.

EXTERNAL LINKS

Auden, W. H.; Kronenberger,

Louis, The Viking Book of Aphorisms (New York, NY: Viking
Press, 1966).
Balandier, Georges, Political Anthropology (London: Allen Lane,
1970).
Berman, Ric (2012), The Foundations of Modern Freemasonry: The
Grand ArchitectsPolitical Change
and the Scientic Enlightenment,
17141740 (Eastbourne: Sussex
Academic Press, 2012).
Pangle, Thomas, Montesquieus
Philosophy of Liberalism (Chicago,
IL: University of Chicago Press,
1973).
Pocock, D. F., Social Anthropology (London and New York, NY:
Sheed and Ward, 1961).
Ransel, David L., The Politics of
Catherinian Russia: The Panin
Party (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1975).
Schaub, Diana J., Erotic Liberalism:
Women and Revolution in Montesquieus 'Persian Letters (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littleeld,
1995).
Shackleton, Robert, Montesquieu;
a Critical Biography (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1961).
Shklar, Judith, Montesquieu (Oxford Past Masters series). (Oxford
and New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1989).
Spurlin, Paul M., Montesquieu
in America, 17601801 (Baton
Rouge: Louisiana State University
Press, 1941; reprint, New York:
Octagon Books, 1961).

8 External links
Works by Montesquieu at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Montesquieu at Internet Archive
Works by Montesquieu at LibriVox (public domain

7.2.2

Books
Althusser, Louis, Politics and History: Montesquieu, Rousseau, Marx
(London and New York, NY: New
Left Books, 1972).

audiobooks)
Works by Montesquieu at LibriVox (public domain
audiobooks)
Free full-text works online

5
The Spirit of Laws (Volume 1) 1748 English audio
Complete ebooks collection of Montesquieu in
French.
Montesquieu, Notes on England
Montesquieu in The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Montesquieu in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Timeline of Montesquieus Life
Chteau Saint Ahon - Historic estate once owned by
Charles de Montesquieu
(French) Lettres persanes at athena.unige.ch

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

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