Sculpture: Sculptor (Disambiguation) Sculpture (Disambiguation) Visual Arts

Sculpture
Sculptor redirects here. For other uses, see Sculptor

(disambiguation) and Sculpture (disambiguation).
Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates
The Dying Gaul, or The Capitoline Gaul [1] a Roman marble

copy of a Hellenistic work of the late 3rd century BCE Capitoline
Museums, Rome
in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable

sculptural processes originally used carving (the removal
of material) and modelling (the addition of material, as
clay), in stone, metal, ceramics, wood and other materials but, since modernism, shifts in sculptural process led Michelangelo's Moses, (c. 15131515), housed in the church of
to an almost complete freedom of materials and process. San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome. The sculpture was commissioned
A wide variety of materials may be worked by removal in 1505 by Pope Julius II for his tomb.
such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or
molded, or cast.
Sculpture in stone survives far better than works of art
in perishable materials, and often represents the majority of the surviving works (other than pottery) from ancient cultures, though conversely traditions of sculpture in
wood may have vanished almost entirely. However, most
ancient sculpture was brightly painted, and this has been
lost.[2]
Sculpture has been central in religious devotion in many
cultures, and until recent centuries large sculptures, too
expensive for private individuals to create, were usually
an expression of religion or politics. Those cultures whose
sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures
of the Ancient Mediterranean, India and China, as well
as many in South America and Africa.
Assyrian lamassu gate guardian from Khorsabad, c. 721800
The Western tradition of sculpture began in Ancient BCE

Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great
masterpieces in the classical period. During the Mid1
2 PURPOSES AND SUBJECTS

used both for architectural sculpture, which is attached to
buildings, and for small-scale sculpture decorating other
objects, as in much pottery, metalwork and jewellery.
Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs,
usually of stone, often also containing inscriptions.
Another basic distinction is between subtractive carving
techniques, which remove material from an existing block
or lump, for example of stone or wood, and modelling
techniques which shape or build up the work from the material. Techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to
produce the work; many of these allow the production of
several copies.
Netsuke of tigress with two cubs, mid-19th century Japan, ivory

with shell inlay
The term sculpture properly covers many types of small

works in three dimensions using the same techniques, including coins and medals, hardstone carvings, a term for
small carvings in stone that can take detailed work.
The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring
appeal since antiquity; the largest on record at 128 m (420
ft) is the 2002 Chinese Spring Temple Buddha. Another
grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of
a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades.
The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the
head, showing just that, or the bust, a representation
of a person from the chest up. Small forms of sculpture
include the gurine, normally a statue that is no more than
18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin.
Modern and contemporary art have added a number of

non-traditional forms of sculpture, including sound sculpture, light sculpture, environmental art, environmental
sculpture, kinetic sculpture (involving aspects of physical
The Angel of the North by Antony Gormley, 1998
motion), land art, and site-specic art. Sculpture is an
important form of public art. A collection of sculpture in
dle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden.
passions of the Christian faith. The revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelo's David. Modernist sculpture 2 Purposes and subjects
moved away from traditional processes and the emphasis on the depiction of the human body, with the making One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in some
of constructed sculpture, and the presentation of found form of association with religion. Cult images are comobjects as nished art works.
mon in many cultures, though they are often not the colos-
Types of sculpture
A basic distinction is between sculpture in the round,

free-standing sculpture, such as statues, not attached (except possibly at the base) to any other surface, and the
various types of relief, which are at least partly attached
to a background surface. Relief is often classied by
the degree of projection from the wall into low or basrelief, high relief, and sometimes an intermediate midrelief. Sunk-relief is a technique restricted to Ancient
Egypt. Relief is the usual sculptural medium for large
gure groups and narrative subjects, which are dicult
to accomplish in the round, and is the typical technique
sal statues of deities which characterized Ancient Greek

art, like the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. The actual cult
images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples,
of which none have survived, were evidently rather small,
even in the largest temples. The same is often true in
Hinduism, where the very simple and ancient form of
the lingam is the most common. Buddhism brought the
sculpture of religious gures to East Asia, where there
seems to have been no earlier equivalent tradition, though
again simple shapes like the bi and cong probably had religious signicance.
Small sculptures as personal possessions go back to the
earliest prehistoric art, and the use of very large sculpture as public art, especially to impress the viewer with
the power of a ruler, goes back at least to the Great Sphinx
Moai from Easter Island, where the concentration of resources

on large sculpture may have had serious political eects.
of some 4,500 years ago. In archaeology and art history

the appearance, and sometimes disappearance, of large
or monumental sculpture in a culture is regarded as of
great signicance, though tracing the emergence is often
complicated by the presumed existence of sculpture in
wood and other perishable materials of which no record
remains;[3] the totem pole is an example of a tradition of
monumental sculpture in wood that would leave no traces
for archaeology. The ability to summon the resources
to create monumental sculpture, by transporting usually
very heavy materials and arranging for the payment of
what are usually regarded as full-time sculptors, is considered a mark of a relatively advanced culture in terms
of social organization. Recent unexpected discoveries
of Ancient Chinese bronze age gures at Sanxingdui,
some more than twice human size, have disturbed many
ideas held about early Chinese civilization, since only
much smaller bronzes were previously known.[4] Some
undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley
civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture
at all, though producing very sophisticated gurines and
seals. The Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone gures, when
it collapsed. Other cultures, such as Ancient Egypt and
the Easter Island culture, seem to have devoted enormous
resources to very large-scale monumental sculpture from
a very early stage.
Medal of John VIII Palaeologus, c. 1435, by Pisanello, the rst

portrait medal, a medium essentially made for collecting.
museums, and the ability to transport and store the increasingly large works is a factor in their construction.
Small decorative gurines, most often in ceramics, are
as popular today (though strangely neglected by modern
and Contemporary art) as they were in the Rococo, or in
Ancient Greece when Tanagra gurines were a major industry, or in East Asian and Pre-Columbian art. Small
sculpted ttings for furniture and other objects go well
back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram
ivories and nds from the tomb of Tutankhamun.
Portrait sculpture began in Egypt, where the Narmer

Palette shows a ruler of the 32nd century BCE, and
Mespotamia, where we have 27 surviving statues of
Gudea, who ruled Lagash c. 2144 2124 BCE. In Ancient Greece and Rome the erection of a portrait statue
in a public place was almost the highest mark of honour, and the ambition of the elite, who might also be depicted on a coin,[5] In other cultures such as Egypt and
the Near East public statues were almost exclusively the
preserve of the ruler, with other wealthy people only being portrayed in their tombs. Rulers are typically the only
people given portraits in Pre-Columbian cultures, beginning with the Olmec colossal heads of about 3,000 years
ago. East Asian portrait sculpture was entirely religious,
with leading clergy being commemorated with statues,
especially the founders of monasteries, but not rulers, or
ancestors. The Mediterranean tradition revived, initially
The collecting of sculpture, including that of earlier peri- only for tomb egies and coins, in the Middle Ages, but
ods, goes back some 2,000 years in Greece, China and expanded greatly in the Renaissance, which invented new
Mesoamerica, and many collections were available on forms such as the personal portrait medal.
semi-public display long before the modern museum was Animals are, with the human gure, the earliest subject
invented. From the 20th century the relatively restricted for sculpture, and have always been popular, sometimes
range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded realistic, but often imaginary monsters; in China animals
greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or represen- and monsters are almost the only traditional subjects for
tation of any type of subject now common. Today much stone sculpture outside tombs and temples. The kingsculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and dom of plants is important only in jewellery and deco-
rative reliefs, but these form almost all the large sculpture of Byzantine art and Islamic art, and are very important in most Eurasian traditions, where motifs such as
the palmette and vine scroll have passed east and west for
over two millennia.
One form of sculpture found in many prehistoric cultures
around the world is specially enlarged versions of ordinary tools, weapons or vessels created in impractical precious materials, for either some form of ceremonial use or
display or as oerings. Jade or other types of greenstone
were used in China, Olmec Mexico, and Neolithic Europe, and in early Mesopotamia large pottery shapes were
produced in stone. Bronze was used in Europe and China
for large axes and blades, like the Oxborough Dirk.
Materials and techniques
MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES
cylinder seals and engraved gems), and cast metals such

as pewter and zinc (spelter). But a vast number of other
materials have been used as part of sculptures, in ethnographic and ancient works as much as modern ones.
Sculptures are often painted, but commonly lose their
paint to time, or restorers. Many dierent painting
techniques have been used in making sculpture, including tempera, oil painting, gilding, house paint, aerosol,
enamel and sandblasting.[2][6]
Many sculptors seek new ways and materials to make art.
One of Pablo Picasso's most famous sculptures included
bicycle parts. Alexander Calder and other modernists
made spectacular use of painted steel. Since the 1960s,
acrylics and other plastics have been used as well. Andy
Goldsworthy makes his unusually ephemeral sculptures
from almost entirely natural materials in natural settings.
Some sculpture, such as ice sculpture, sand sculpture, and
gas sculpture, is deliberately short-lived. Recent sculptors
have used stained glass, tools, machine parts, hardware
and consumer packaging to fashion their works. Sculptors sometimes use found objects, and Chinese scholars
rocks have been appreciated for many centuries.
3.1 Stone
Sumerian male worshipper,

27502600 B.C.
Alabaster with shell eyes,
The materials used in sculpture are diverse, changing

throughout history. The classic materials, with outstanding durability, are metal, especially bronze, stone and pottery, with wood, bone and antler less durable but cheaper
options. Precious materials such as gold, silver, jade,
and ivory are often used for small luxury works, and
sometimes in larger ones, as in chryselephantine statues.
More common and less expensive materials were used for
sculpture for wider consumption, including hardwoods
(such as oak, box/boxwood, and lime/linden); terracotta
and other ceramics, wax (a very common material for
models for casting, and receiving the impressions of
Modern reconstruction of the original painted appearance (based

on scientic pigment analysis) of a Late Archaic Greek marble
gure from the Temple of Aphaea, c. 500 BCE
Stone sculpture is an ancient activity where pieces of

rough natural stone are shaped by the controlled removal
of stone. Owing to the permanence of the material, evidence can be found that even the earliest societies indulged in some form of stone work, though not all areas of the world have such abundance of good stone for
carving as Egypt, Greece, India and most of Europe.
Petroglyphs (also called rock engravings) are perhaps the
earliest form: images created by removing part of a rock
surface which remains in situ, by incising, pecking, carving, and abrading. Monumental sculpture covers large
works, and architectural sculpture, which is attached to
buildings. Hardstone carving is the carving for artis-
3.4
Pottery
tic purposes of semi-precious stones such as jade, agate,

onyx, rock crystal, sard or carnelian, and a general term
for an object made in this way. Alabaster or mineral
gypsum is a soft mineral that is easy to carve for smaller
works and still relatively durable. Engraved gems are
small carved gems, including cameos, originally used as
seal rings.
The copying of an original statue in stone, which was very
important for Ancient Greek statues, which are nearly
all known from copies, was traditionally achieved by
"pointing", along with more freehand methods. Pointing
involved setting up a grid of string squares on a wooden
frame surrounding the original, and then measuring the
position on the grid and the distance between grid and Dale Chihuly, 2006, (Blown glass)
statue of a series of individual points, and then using this
information to carve into the block from which the copy
is made.[7]
unique.[10] Hot casting can be done by ladling molten
glass into molds that have been created by pressing shapes
into sand, carved graphite or detailed plaster/silica molds.
3.2 Metal
Kiln casting glass involves heating chunks of glass in a
kiln until they are liquid and ow into a waiting mold beBronze and related copper alloys are the oldest and still low it in the kiln. Glass can also be blown and/or hot
the most popular metals for cast metal sculptures; a cast sculpted with hand tools either as a solid mass or as part
bronze sculpture is often called simply a bronze. Com- of a blown object.
mon bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus lling
the nest details of a mold. Their strength and lack of
brittleness (ductility) is an advantage when gures in action are to be created, especially when compared to various ceramic or stone materials (see marble sculpture for
several examples). Gold is the softest and most precious
metal, and very important in jewellery; with silver it is
soft enough to be worked with hammers and other tools
as well as cast; repouss and chasing are among the techniques used in gold and silversmithing.
Casting is a group of manufacturing processes by which
a liquid material (bronze, copper, glass, aluminum, iron)
is (usually) poured into a mold, which contains a hollow
cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify.
The solid casting is then ejected or broken out to complete
the process,[8] although a nal stage of cold work may
follow on the nished cast. Casting may be used to form
hot liquid metals or various materials that cold set after
mixing of components (such as epoxies, concrete, plaster
and clay). Casting is most often used for making complex
shapes that would be otherwise dicult or uneconomical
to make by other methods. The oldest surviving casting is
a copper Mesopotamian frog from 3200 BC.[9] Specic
techniques include lost-wax casting, plaster mold casting
and sand casting.
3.3
Glass
Glass may be used for sculpture through a wide range of

working techniques, though the use of it for large works
is a recent development. It can be carved, with considerable diculty; the Roman Lycurgus Cup is all but
A carved wooden Bodhisattva from the Song Dynasty 9601279,

Shanghai Museum
3.4 Pottery
Pottery is one of the oldest materials for sculpture, as well
as clay being the medium in which many sculptures cast
in metal are originally modelled for casting. Sculptors
often build small preliminary works called maquettes of
ephemeral materials such as plaster of Paris, wax, unred clay, or plasticine.[11] Many cultures have produced
pottery which combines a function as a vessel with a
sculptural form, and small gurines have often been as
popular as they are in modern Western culture. Stamps
and moulds were used by most ancient civilizations, from
Ancient Rome and Mesopotamia to China.[12]
3.5
6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE
Wood carving
Trecento onwards in Italy, with gures such as Arnolfo di

Cambio, and Nicola Pisano and his son Giovanni. Goldsmiths and jewellers, dealing with precious materials and
often doubling as bankers, belonged to powerful guilds
and had considerable status, often holding civic oce.
Many sculptors also practised in other arts; Andrea del
Verrocchio also painted, and Giovanni Pisano, Michelangelo, and Jacopo Sansovino were architects. Some sculptors maintained large workshops. Even in the Renaissance the physical nature of the work was perceived by
Leonardo da Vinci and others as pulling down the status of sculpture in the arts, though the reputation of
Michelangelo perhaps put this long-held idea to rest.
Wood carving has been extremely widely practiced, but

survives much less well than the other main materials, being vulnerable to decay, insect damage, and re. It therefore forms an important hidden element in the art history of many cultures.[3] Outdoor wood sculpture does
not last long in most parts of the world, so that we have
little idea how the totem pole tradition developed. Many
of the most important sculptures of China and Japan in
particular are in wood, and the great majority of African
sculpture and that of Oceania and other regions. Wood is
light, so suitable for masks and other sculpture intended
to be carried, and can take very ne detail. It is also much From the High Renaissance artists such as Michelangelo,
easier to work than stone.
Leone Leoni and Giambologna could become wealthy,
and ennobled, and enter the circle of princes, after a period of sharp argument over the relative status of sculp4 Social status of sculptors
ture and painting.[15] Much decorative sculpture on buildings remained a trade, but sculptors producing individual
pieces were recognised on a level with painters. From the
18th century or earlier sculpture also attracted middleclass students, although it was slower to do so than painting. Women sculptors took longer to appear than women
painters, and were less prominent until the 20th century.
5 Anti-sculpture movements
Aniconism remained restricted to Judaism, which did
not accept gurative sculpture until the 19th century,[16]
Zoroastrian and some other religions, before expanding to Early Buddhism and Early Christianity, neither of
which initially accepted large sculptures. In both Christianity and Buddhism these early views were later reversed, and sculpture became very signicant, especially
in Buddhism. Christian Eastern Orthodoxy has never accepted monumental sculpture, and Islam has consistently
rejected nearly all gurative sculpture, except for very
small gures in reliefs and some animal gures that fulll a useful function, like the famous lions supporting a
fountain in the Alhambra. Many forms of Protestantism
also do not approve of religious sculpture. There has
been much iconoclasm of sculpture from religious motives, from the Early Christians, the Beeldenstorm of the
Nuremberg sculptor Adam Kraft, self-portrait from St Lorenz Protestant Reformation to the 2001 destruction of the
Church, 1490s.
Buddhas of Bamyan by the Taliban.
Worldwide, sculptors have usually been tradesmen whose
work is unsigned; in some traditions, for example China,
where sculpture did not share the prestige of literati painting, this has aected the status of sculpture itself.[13]
Even in Ancient Greece, where sculptors such as Phidias
became famous, they appear to have retained much the
same social status as other artisans, and perhaps not
much greater nancial rewards, although some signed
their works.[14] In the Middle Ages artists such as the 12th
century Gislebertus sometimes signed their work, and
were sought after by dierent cities, especially from the
6 History of sculpture
6.1 Prehistoric periods
Much surviving prehistoric art is small portable sculptures, with a small group of female Venus gurines such
as the Venus of Willendorf (24,00022,000 BC) found
across central Europe;[17] the 30 cm tall Lwenmensch of
the Hohlenstein Stadel area of Germany of about 30,000
6.2
Ancient Near East
7
Venus of Laussel c. 25,000 BCE, an Upper Palaeolithic carving, Bordeaux museum, France
A Jmon statue, Japan
6.2 Ancient Near East

The Protoliterate period in Mesopotamia, dominated by
Uruk, saw the production of sophisticated works like the
Warka Vase and cylinder seals. The Guennol Lioness
is an outstanding small limestone gure from Elam of
about 30002800 BC, part human and part lioness.[21]
A little later there are a number of gures of large-eyed
Venus of Hohle Fels (also known as the Venus of Schelklingen; priests and worshippers, mostly in alabaster and up to a
is an Upper Paleolithic Venus gurine hewn from ivory of a foot high, who attended temple cult images of the deity,
mammoth tusk found in 2008 near Schelklingen, Germany. It but very few of these have survived.[22] Sculptures from
is dated to between 35,000 and 40,000 years ago, belonging to the Sumerian and Akkadian period generally had large,
the early Aurignacian, at the very beginning of the Upper Pale- staring eyes, and long beards on the men. Many masterolithic, which is associated with the assumed earliest presence of pieces have also been found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur
Homo sapiens in Europe (Cro-Magnon). It is the oldest undis(c. 2650 BC), including the two gures of a Ram in a
puted example of Upper Paleolithic art and gurative prehistoric
Thicket, the Copper Bull and a bulls head on one of the
art in general.
Lyres of Ur.[23]
From the many subsequent periods before the ascendency
of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 10th century BCE
Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylinder seals, relatively small gures in the round, and reliefs
of various sizes, including cheap plaques of moulded pottery for the home, some religious and some apparently
not.[24] The Burney Relief is an unusual elaborate and
relatively large (20 x 15 inches) terracotta plaque of a
naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey,
and attendant owls and lions. It comes from the 18th or
19th centuries BCE, and may also be moulded.[25] Stone
stelae, votive oerings, or ones probably commemorating victories and showing feasts, are also found from temples, which unlike more ocial ones lack inscriptions that
would explain them;[26] the fragmentary Stele of the Vultures is an early example of the inscribed type,[27] and the
Lwenmensch, from Hohlenstein-Stadel, now Assyrian Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III a large and
[28]
in Ulmer Museum, Ulm, Germany, the oldest solid late one.
known anthropomorphic animal-human statuette, The conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia and much
Aurignacian era, 30,000 BC26,000 BC
surrounding territory by the Assyrians created a larger
BCE, an anthropomorphic gure that may be a lionesswoman, has hardly any pieces that can be related to it until
the Guennol Lioness of 30002800 B.C. The Swimming
Reindeer of about 11,000 BCE is one of the nest of
a number of Magdalenian carvings in bone or antler of
animals in the art of the Upper Paleolithic, although
they are outnumbered by engraved pieces, which are
sometimes classied as sculpture.[18] With the beginning
of the Mesolithic in Europe gurative sculpture greatly
reduced,[19] and remained a less common element in art
than relief decoration of practical objects until the Roman period, despite some works such as the Gundestrup
cauldron from the European Iron Age and the Bronze Age
Trundholm sun chariot.[20]
Venus of Willendorf, c. 24,00022,000 BC.

Magdalenian Horse, c.
15,000 BCE Muse
d'Archologie Nationale, France
Creeping Hyena, c. 12,000 to 17,000 years ago,
mammoth ivory, found in La Madeleine, France
Swimming Reindeer c. 11,000 BCE, female and
male swimming reindeer - late Magdalenian period,
approximately 12,500 years old found at Montastruc, Tarn et Garonne, France
The Trundholm sun chariot, perhaps 18001500
BCE; this side is gilded, the other is dark.
and wealthier state than the region had known before,

and very grandiose art in palaces and public places, no
doubt partly intended to match the splendour of the art
of the neighbouring Egyptian empire. The Assyrians developed a style of extremely large schemes of very nely
detailed narrative low reliefs in stone for palaces, with
scenes of war or hunting; the British Museum has an outstanding collection. They produced very little sculpture in
the round, except for colossal guardian gures, often the
human-headed lamassu, which are sculpted in high relief
on two sides of a rectangular block, with the heads eectively in the round (and also ve legs, so that both views
seem complete). Even before dominating the region they
had continued the cylinder seal tradition with designs
which are often exceptionally energetic and rened.[29]
The Guennol Lioness, 3rd Millennium BCE, 3.5 males darker than females ones. Very conventionalized
inches high
portrait statues appear from as early as Dynasty II, before
2,780 BCE,[32] and with the exception of the art of the
One of 18 Statues of Gudea, a ruler around 2090
Amarna period of Ahkenaten,[33] and some other periods
BCE
such as Dynasty XII, the idealized features of rulers, like
The Burney Relief, Old Babylonian, around 1800 other Egyptian artistic conventions, changed little until
after the Greek conquest.[34]
BCE
Assyrian relief from Nimrud, from c 728 BCE
6.3
Ancient Egypt
Egyptian pharaohs were always regarded as deities, but

other deities are much less common in large statues, except when they represent the pharaoh as another deity;
however the other deities are frequently shown in paintings and reliefs. The famous row of four colossal statues outside the main temple at Abu Simbel each show
Rameses II, a typical scheme, though here exceptionally
large.[35] Small gures of deities, or their animal personications, are very common, and found in popular materials such as pottery. Most larger sculpture survives from
Egyptian temples or tombs; by Dynasty IV (26802565
BCE) at the latest the idea of the Ka statue was rmly established. These were put in tombs as a resting place for
the ka portion of the soul, and so we have a good number
of less conventionalized statues of well-o administrators and their wives, many in wood as Egypt is one of the
few places in the world where the climate allows wood
to survive over millennia. The so-called reserve heads,
plain hairless heads, are especially naturalistic. Early
tombs also contained small models of the slaves, animals,
buildings and objects such as boats necessary for the deceased to continue his lifestyle in the afterworld, and later
Ushabti gures.[36]
Facsimile of the Narmer Palette, c. 3100 BC, which
already shows the canonical Egyptian prole view
and proportions of the gure.
Thutmose, Bust of Nefertiti, 1345 BC, Egyptian Museum of

Berlin
See also: Art of ancient Egypt and Amarna art

The monumental sculpture of Ancient Egypt is worldfamous, but rened and delicate small works exist in
much greater numbers. The Egyptians used the distinctive technique of sunk relief, which is well suited to very
bright sunlight. The main gures in reliefs adhere to the
same gure convention as in painting, with parted legs
(where not seated) and head shown from the side, but
the torso from the front, and a standard set of proportions making up the gure, using 18 sts to go from the
ground to the hair-line on the forehead.[30] This appears
as early as the Narmer Palette from Dynasty I. However,
there as elsewhere the convention is not used for minor
gures shown engaged in some activity, such as the captives and corpses.[31] Other conventions make statues of
Menkaura (Mycerinus) and queen, Old Kingdom,

Dynasty 4, 24902472 BC. The formality of the
pose is reduced by the queens arm round her husband.
Wooden tomb models, Dynastry XI; a high administrator counts his cattle.
The Gold Mask of Tutankhamun, c. late Eighteenth
dynasty, Egyptian Museum
The Younger Memnon c. 1250 BC, British Museum
Osiris on a lapis lazuli pillar in the middle, anked by
Horus on the left, and Isis on the right, 22nd dynasty,
Louvre
The ka statue provided a physical place for the ka to
manifest. Egyptian Museum, Cairo
Block statue of Pa-Ankh-Ra, ship master, bearing a
statue of Ptah. Late Period, ca. 650633 BC, Cabinet des Mdailles.
6.4
Ancient Greece
9
metres (4.9 ft) high (largest known example of cycladic sculpture. From Amorgos
Cycladic statue 27002300 BC. Head from the gure of a woman, H. 27 centimetres (11 in)
Cycladic Female Figurine, c. 25002400 BCE, 41.5
cm (16.3 in) high
Mycenae, Female portrait, perhaps a sphinx or a
goddess. Painted plaster, ca. 13001250 BC
Mycenae, 16001500 BC. Silver rhyton with gold
horns and rosette on the forehead
Charioteer of Delphi, ancient Greek bronze statue, 5th century

BCE, close up head detail
6.4
Ancient Greece
Main article: Ancient Greek sculpture

The rst distinctive style of Ancient Greek sculpture developed in the Early Bronze Age Cycladic period (3rd
millennium BCE), where marble gures, usually female
and small, are represented in an elegantly simplied geometrical style. Most typical is a standing pose with arms
crossed in front, but other gures are shown in dierent
poses, including a complicated gure of a harpist seated
on a chair.[37]
Bulls head, Mycenaean rhyton Terra cotta, 1300

1200 BC. Found in a tomb on Karpathos, British
Museum
Mykonos vase, 670 BC, Decorated pithos found
at Mykonos, Greece, depicting one of the earliest known renditions of the Trojan Horse,
Archaeological Museum of Mykonos
Lifesize kouros, c. 590580 BCE, Metropolitan
Museum of Art
The "Naxian Sphinx" from Delphi, 570560 BC,
the gure 222 cm (87 in) high
Peplos Kore, c. 530 BC, Athens, Acropolis Museum
Late Archaic warrior from the east pediment of the
Temple of Aphaea, c. 500
The subsequent Minoan and Mycenaean cultures developed sculpture further, under inuence from Syria and
The Amathus sarcophagus, from Amathus, Cyprus,
elsewhere, but it is in the later Archaic period from
2nd quarter of the 5th century BC Archaic period,
around 650 BCE that the kouros developed. These are
Metropolitan Museum of Art
large standing statues of naked youths, found in temples
and tombs, with the kore as the clothed female equivalent, with elaborately dressed hair; both have the "archaic 6.4.1 Classical
smile". They seem to have served a number of functions,
perhaps sometimes representing deities and sometimes
the person buried in a grave, as with the Kroisos Kouros.
They are clearly inuenced by Egyptian and Syrian styles,
but the Greek artists were much more ready to experiment within the style.
During the 6th century Greek sculpture developed
rapidly, becoming more naturalistic, and with much more
active and varied gure poses in narrative scenes, though
still within idealized conventions. Sculptured pediments
were added to temples, including the Parthenon in
Athens, where the remains of the pediment of around 520
using gures in the round were fortunately used as inll
for new buildings after the Persian sack in 480 BCE, and
recovered from the 1880s on in fresh unweathered condition. Other signicant remains of architectural sculpture come from Paestum in Italy, Corfu, Delphi and the
Temple of Aphaea in Aegina (much now in Munich).[38]
Cycladic statue 28002300 BC. parian marble; 1.5
High Classical high relief from the Elgin Marbles, which originally decorated the Parthenon, c. 447433 BCE
10
There are fewer original remains from the rst phase of

the Classical period, often called the Severe style; freestanding statues were now mostly made in bronze, which
always had value as scrap. The Severe style lasted from
around 500 in reliefs, and soon after 480 in statues, to
about 450. The relatively rigid poses of gures relaxed,
and asymmetrical turning positions and oblique views became common, and deliberately sought. This was combined with a better understanding of anatomy and the
harmonious structure of sculpted gures, and the pursuit of naturalistic representation as an aim, which had
not been present before. Excavations at the Temple of
Zeus, Olympia since 1829 have revealed the largest group
of remains, from about 460, of which many are in the The Pergamene style of the Hellenistic period, from the Pergamon
Louvre.[39]
Altar, early 2nd century
The High Classical period lasted only a few decades
from about 450 to 400, but has had a momentous inuence on art, and retains a special prestige, despite a
very restricted number of original survivals. The best
known works are the Parthenon Marbles, traditionally
(since Plutarch) executed by a team led by the most famous Ancient Greek sculptor Phidias, active from about
465425, who was in his own day more famous for his
colossal chryselephantine Statue of Zeus at Olympia (c.
432), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, his
Athena Parthenos (438), the cult image of the Parthenon,
and Athena Promachos, a colossal bronze gure that stood
next to the Parthenon; all of these are lost but are known
from many representations. He is also credited as the
creator of some life-size bronze statues known only from
later copies whose identication is controversial, including the Ludovisi Hermes.[40]
The High Classical style continued to develop realism and
sophistication in the human gure, and improved the depiction of drapery (clothes), using it to add to the impact of active poses. Facial expressions were usually very
restrained, even in combat scenes. The composition of
groups of gures in reliefs and on pediments combined
complexity and harmony in a way that had a permanent
inuence on Western art. Relief could be very high indeed, as in the Parthenon illustration below, where most
of the leg of the warrior is completely detached from the
background, as were the missing parts; relief this high
made sculptures more subject to damage.[41] The Late
Classical style developed the free-standing female nude
statue, supposedly an innovation of Praxiteles, and developed increasingly complex and subtle poses that were
interesting when viewed from a number of angles, as well
as more expressive faces; both trends were to be taken
much further in the Hellenistic period.[42]
6.4.2
Hellenistic
The Hellenistic period is conventionally dated from the

death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, and ending either with the nal conquest of the Greek heartlands by
Rome in 146 BC or with the nal defeat of the last re-
maining successor-state to Alexanders empire after the

Battle of Actium in 31 BC, which also marks the end of
Republican Rome.[43] It is thus much longer than the previous periods, and includes at least two major phases: a
Pergamene style of experimentation, exuberance and
some sentimentality and vulgarity, and in the 2nd century BC a classicising return to a more austere simplicity
and elegance; beyond such generalizations dating is typically very uncertain, especially when only later copies
are known, as is usually the case. The initial Pergamene
style was not especially associated with Pergamon, from
which it takes its name, but the very wealthy kings of that
state were among the rst to collect and also copy Classical sculpture, and also commissioned much new work,
including the famous Pergamon Altar whose sculpture
is now mostly in Berlin and which exemplies the new
style, as do the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (another of
the Seven Wonders), the famous Laocon and his Sons
in the Vatican Museums, a late example, and the bronze
original of The Dying Gaul (illustrated at top), which we
know was part of a group actually commissioned for Pergamon in about 228 BC, from which the Ludovisi Gaul was
also a copy. The group called the Farnese Bull, possibly a 2nd-century marble original, is still larger and more
complex,[44]
Hellenistic sculpture greatly expanded the range of subjects represented, partly as a result of greater general
prosperity, and the emergence of a very wealthy class
who had large houses decorated with sculpture, although
we know that some examples of subjects that seem best
suited to the home, such as children with animals, were
in fact placed in temples or other public places. For a
much more popular home decoration market there were
Tanagra gurines, and those from other centres where
small pottery gures were produced on an industrial scale,
some religious but others showing animals and elegantly
dressed ladies. Sculptors became more technically skilled
in representing facial expressions conveying a wide variety of emotions and the portraiture of individuals, as
well representing dierent ages and races. The reliefs
from the Mausoleum are rather atypical in that respect;
6.5
Europe after the Greeks
11
most work was free-standing, and group compositions

with several gures to be seen in the round, like the Laocoon and the Pergamon group celebrating victory over
the Gauls became popular, having been rare before. The
Barberini Faun, showing a satyr sprawled asleep, presumably after drink, is an example of the moral relaxation of
the period, and the readiness to create large and expensive
sculptures of subjects that fall short of the heroic.[45]
After the conquests of Alexander Hellenistic culture was
dominant in the courts of most of the Near East, and some
of Central Asia, and increasingly being adopted by European elites, especially in Italy, where Greek colonies initially controlled most of the South. Hellenistic art, and
artists, spread very widely, and was especially inuential
in the expanding Roman Republic and when it encountered Buddhism in the easternmost extensions of the Hellenistic area. The massive so-called Alexander Sarcophagus found in Sidon in modern Lebanon, was probably
made there at the start of the period by expatriate Greek
artists for a Hellenized Persian governor.[46] The wealth
of the period led to a greatly increased production of luxury forms of small sculpture, including engraved gems
and cameos, jewellery, and gold and silverware.
expanding Roman Republic began to conquer Greek territory, at rst in Southern Italy and then the entire Hellenistic world except for the Parthian far east, ocial
and patrician sculpture became largely an extension of
the Hellenistic style, from which specically Roman elements are hard to disentangle, especially as so much
Greek sculpture survives only in copies of the Roman
The Riace Bronzes, very rare bronze gures recov- period.[47] By the 2nd century BCE, most of the sculpered from the sea, c. 460430
tors working at Rome were Greek,[48] often enslaved in
conquests such as that of Corinth (146 BCE), and sculpHermes and the Infant Dionysos, possibly an original tors continued to be mostly Greeks, often slaves, whose
by Praxiteles, 4th century
names are very rarely recorded. Vast numbers of Greek
statues were imported to Rome, whether as booty or the
Two elegant ladies, pottery gurines, 350300
result of extortion or commerce, and temples were often
[49]
Bronze Statuette of a Horse, late 2nd 1st century decorated with re-used Greek works.
B.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art
A native Italian style can be seen in the tomb monu-
The Winged Victory of Samothrace, c. 190 BC,

Louvre
Venus de Milo, c. 130 100 BC, Greek, the Louvre
Laocon and his Sons, Greek, (Late Hellenistic),
perhaps a copy, between 200 BC and 20 AD, White
marble, Vatican Museum
Leochares, Apollo Belvedere, c. 130 140 AD. Roman copy after a Greek bronze original of 330320
BC. Vatican Museums
6.5
6.5.1
Section of Trajans Column, CE 113, with scenes from the Dacian

Wars

Roman sculpture
Main article: Roman sculpture

Early Roman art was inuenced by the art of Greece and
that of the neighbouring Etruscans, themselves greatly inuenced by their Greek trading partners. An Etruscan
speciality was near life size tomb egies in terracotta,
usually lying on top of a sarcophagus lid propped up on
one elbow in the pose of a diner in that period. As the
ments, which very often featured portrait busts, of prosperous middle-class Romans, and portraiture is arguably
the main strength of Roman sculpture. There are no survivals from the tradition of masks of ancestors that were
worn in processions at the funerals of the great families
and otherwise displayed in the home, but many of the
busts that survive must represent ancestral gures, perhaps from the large family tombs like the Tomb of the
Scipios or the later mausolea outside the city. The famous bronze head supposedly of Lucius Junius Brutus is
very variously dated, but taken as a very rare survival of
Italic style under the Republic, in the preferred medium
of bronze.[50] Similarly stern and forceful heads are seen
on coins of the Late Republic, and in the Imperial period coins as well as busts sent around the Empire to be
placed in the basilicas of provincial cities were the main
visual form of imperial propaganda; even Londinium had
a near-colossal statue of Nero, though far smaller than the
30 metre high Colossus of Nero in Rome, now lost.[51]
The Romans did not generally attempt to compete with
free-standing Greek works of heroic exploits from history or mythology, but from early on produced historical
works in relief, culminating in the great Roman triumphal
columns with continuous narrative reliefs winding around
12
for emperors. However, rich Christians continued to
commission reliefs for sarcophagi, as in the Sarcophagus
of Junius Bassus, and very small sculpture, especially in
ivory, was continued by Christians, building on the style
of the consular diptych.[57]
Etruscan sarcophagus, 3rd century BCE
The "Capitoline Brutus", dated to the 3rd or 1st century BCE
Augustus of Prima Porta, statue of the emperor
Augustus, 1st century CE. Vatican Museums
Augustan state Greco-Roman style on the Ara Pacis, 13 BCE
Tomb relief of the Decii, 98117 CE

Bust of Emperor Claudius, c. 50 CE, (reworked
from a bust of emperor Caligula), It was found in
the so-called Otricoli basilica in Lanuvium, Italy,
Vatican Museums
them, of which those commemorating Trajan (CE 113)

and Marcus Aurelius (by 193) survive in Rome, where
the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace, 13 BCE) represents the
ocial Greco-Roman style at its most classical and re Commodus dressed as Hercules, c. 191 CE, in the
ned. Among other major examples are the earlier relate imperial baroque style
used reliefs on the Arch of Constantine and the base of
[52]
the Column of Antoninus Pius (161), Campana reliefs
The Four Tetrarchs, c. 305, showing the new antiwere cheaper pottery versions of marble reliefs and the
classical style, in porphyry, now San Marco, Venice
taste for relief was from the imperial period expanded to
the sarcophagus. All forms of luxury small sculpture con The cameo gem known as the "Great Cameo of
tinued to be patronized, and quality could be extremely
France", c. 23 CE, with an allegory of Augustus
high, as in the silver Warren Cup, glass Lycurgus Cup,
and his family
and large cameos like the Gemma Augustea, Gonzaga
Cameo and the "Great Cameo of France".[53] For a much
wider section of the population, moulded relief decora- 6.5.2 Early Medieval and Byzantine
tion of pottery vessels and small gurines were produced
in great quantity and often considerable quality.[54]
After moving through a late 2nd-century baroque
phase,[55] in the 3rd century, Roman art largely abandoned, or simply became unable to produce, sculpture
in the classical tradition, a change whose causes remain
much discussed. Even the most important imperial monuments now showed stumpy, large-eyed gures in a harsh
frontal style, in simple compositions emphasizing power
at the expense of grace. The contrast is famously illustrated in the Arch of Constantine of 315 in Rome,
which combines sections in the new style with roundels in
the earlier full Greco-Roman style taken from elsewhere,
and the Four Tetrarchs (c. 305) from the new capital of
Constantinople, now in Venice. Ernst Kitzinger found in
both monuments the same stubby proportions, angular
movements, an ordering of parts through symmetry and
repetition and a rendering of features and drapery folds
through incisions rather than modelling... The hallmark
of the style wherever it appears consists of an emphatic
hardness, heaviness and angularity in short, an almost
complete rejection of the classical tradition.[56]
This revolution in style shortly preceded the period in
which Christianity was adopted by the Roman state and
the great majority of the people, leading to the end of
large religious sculpture, with large statues now only used
Silver monster on a chape, Scottish or Anglo-Saxon, St Ninians

Isle Treasure, c. 800?
The Early Christians were opposed to monumental religious sculpture, though continuing Roman traditions in
portrait busts and sarcophagus reliefs, as well as smaller
objects such as the consular diptych. Such objects, often
in valuable materials, were also the main sculptural traditions (as far as is known) of the barbaric civilizations
of the Migration period, as seen in the objects found in
the 6th-century burial treasure at Sutton Hoo, and the
jewellery of Scythian art and the hybrid Christian and
animal style productions of Insular art. Following the
continuing Byzantine tradition, Carolingian art revived
ivory carving, often in panels for the treasure bindings of
grand illuminated manuscripts, as well as crozier heads
and other small ttings.
6.5
13
century
Detail of Christ on the Gero Cross, Cologne 965
970, the rst great example of the revival of large
sculpture
6.5.3 Romanesque
The Gero Cross, c. 965970, Cologne, Germany
Byzantine art, though producing superb ivory reliefs and

architectural decorative carving, never returned to monumental sculpture, or even much small sculpture in the
round.[58] However in the West during the Carolingian
and Ottonian periods there was the beginnings of a production of monumental statues, in courts and major
churches. This gradually spread; by the late 10th and 11th
century there are records of several apparently life-size
sculptures in Anglo-Saxon churches, probably of precious
metal around a wooden frame, like the Golden Madonna
of Essen. No Anglo-Saxon example has survived,[59] and
survivals of large non-architectural sculpture from before
1,000 are exceptionally rare. Much the nest is the Gero
Cross, of 96570, which is a crucix, which was evidently
the commonest type of sculpture; Charlemagne had set
one up in the Palatine Chapel in Aachen around 800.
These continued to grow in popularity, especially in Germany and Italy. The rune stones of the Nordic world, the
Pictish stones of Scotland and possibly the high cross reliefs of Christian Great Britain, were northern sculptural
traditions that bridged the period of Christianization.
The Brunswick Lion, 1166, the rst large hollow casting of a

gure since antiquity, 1.78 metres tall and 2.79 metres long
Main article: Romanesque art

From about 1000 there was a general rebirth of artistic production in all Europe, led by general economic
growth in production and commerce, and the new style
of Romanesque art was the rst medieval style to be used
in the whole of Western Europe. The new cathedrals and
pilgrims churches were increasingly decorated with architectural stone reliefs, and new focuses for sculpture
developed, such as the tympanum over church doors in
the 12th century, and the inhabited capital with gures
and often narrative scenes. Outstanding abbey churches
with sculpture include in France Vzelay and Moissac and
in Spain Silos.[60]
Romanesque art was characterised by a very vigorous

style in both sculpture and painting. The capitals of
columns were never more exciting than in this period,
when they were often carved with complete scenes with
several gures.[61] The large wooden crucix was a German innovation right at the start of the period, as were
free-standing statues of the enthroned Madonna, but the
high relief was above all the sculptural mode of the pe Archangel Ivory, 525550, Constantinople
riod. Compositions usually had little depth, and needed to
Late Carolingian ivory panel, probably meant for a be exible to squeeze themselves into the shapes of capitals, and church typanums; the tension between a tightly
book-cover
enclosing frame, from which the composition sometimes
The Harbaville Triptych, Byzantine ivory, mid-10th escapes, is a recurrent theme in Romanesque art. Figures
14
still often varied in size in relation to their importance

portraiture hardly existed.
Objects in precious materials such as ivory and metal
had a very high status in the period, much more so than
monumental sculpture we know the names of more
makers of these than painters, illuminators or architectmasons. Metalwork, including decoration in enamel, became very sophisticated, and many spectacular shrines
made to hold relics have survived, of which the best
known is the Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral by Nicholas of Verdun. The bronze Gloucester candlestick and the brass font of 110817 now in Lige are
superb examples, very dierent in style, of metal casting, the former highly intricate and energetic, drawing on
manuscript painting, while the font shows the Mosan style
at its most classical and majestic. The bronze doors, a
triumphal column and other ttings at Hildesheim Cathedral, the Gniezno Doors, and the doors of the Basilica di
San Zeno in Verona are other substantial survivals. The
aquamanile, a container for water to wash with, appears
to have been introduced to Europe in the 11th century,
and often took fantastic zoomorphic forms; surviving examples are mostly in brass. Many wax impressions from
impressive seals survive on charters and documents, although Romanesque coins are generally not of great aesthetic interest.[62]
The Cloisters Cross is an unusually large ivory crucix,
with complex carving including many gures of prophets
and others, which has been attributed to one of the relatively few artists whose name is known, Master Hugo,
who also illuminated manuscripts. Like many pieces
it was originally partly coloured. The Lewis chessmen
are well-preserved examples of small ivories, of which
many pieces or fragments remain from croziers, plaques,
French ivory Virgin and Child, end of 13th century, 25 cm high,
pectoral crosses and similar objects.
curving to t the shape of the ivory tusk
Baptismal font at St Bartholomews Church, Lige,

Baptism of Christ, 11071118
on the south transept portal, from 1215 to 1220, show
a more naturalistic style and increasing detachment from
The tympanum of Vzelay Abbey, Burgundy,
the wall behind, and some awareness of the classical traFrance, 1130s
dition. These trends were continued in the west portal at
Rheims Cathedral of a few years later, where the gures
Facade, Cathedral of Ourense 1160, Spain
are almost in the round, as became usual as Gothic spread
Prtico da Gloria, Cathedral of Santiago de Com- across Europe.[63]
postela, Galicia, Spain, c. 12th13th centuries
In Italy Nicola Pisano (125878) and his son Giovanni
developed a style that is often called Proto-Renaissance,
with unmistakable inuence from Roman sarcophagi
6.5.4 Gothic
and sophisticated and crowded compositions, including
Main article: Gothic art
a sympathetic handling of nudity, in relief panels on
The Gothic period is essentially dened by Gothic ar- their pulpit of Siena Cathedral (126568), the Fontana
chitecture, and does not entirely t with the development Maggiore in Perugia, and Giovannis pulpit in Pistoia of
of style in sculpture in either its start or nish. The fa- 1301.[64] Another revival of classical style is seen in the
cades of large churches, especially around doors, contin- International Gothic work of Claus Sluter and his folued to have large typanums, but also rows of sculpted g- lowers in Burgundy and Flanders around 1400.[65] Late
ures spreading around them. The statues on the Western Gothic sculpture continued in the North, with a fashion
(Royal) Portal at Chartres Cathedral (c. 1145) show an for very large wooden sculpted altarpieces with increaselegant but exaggerated columnar elongation, but those ingly virtuoso carving and large numbers agitated expres-
6.6
Renaissance
15
sive gures; most surviving examples are in Germany, after much iconoclasm elsewhere. Tilman Riemenschneider, Veit Stoss and others continued the style well into
the 16th century, gradually absorbing Italian Renaissance
inuences.[66]
Life-size tomb egies in stone or alabaster became popular for the wealthy, and grand multi-level tombs evolved,
with the Scaliger Tombs of Verona so large they had to
be moved outside the church. By the 15th century there
was an industry exporting Nottingham alabaster altar reliefs in groups of panels over much of Europe for economical parishes who could not aord stone retables.[67]
Small carvings, for a mainly lay and often female market, became a considerable industry in Paris and some
other centres. Types of ivories included small devotional polyptychs, single gures, especially of the Virgin,
mirror-cases, combs, and elaborate caskets with scenes
from Romances, used as engagement presents.[68] The
very wealthy collected extravagantly elaborate jewelled
and enamelled metalwork, both secular and religious, like Michelangelo, Piet, 1499.
the Duc de Berry's Holy Thorn Reliquary, until they ran
short of money, when they were melted down again for
cash.[69]
West portal of Chartres Cathedral (c. 1145)
South portal of Chartres Cathedral (c. 121520)
West portal at Rheims Cathedral, Annunciation
group
Nicola Pisano, Nativity and Adoration of the Magi
from the pulpit of the Pisa Baptistery
The Bamberg Horseman 1237, life-size stone
equestrian statue, the rst such antiquity
Lid of the Walters Casket, with the Siege of the Castle of Love at left, and jousting. Paris, 13301350
Siege of the Castle of Love on a mirror-case in the
Louvre, 13501370; the ladies are losing.
Central German Piet, 133040
Claus Sluter, David and a prophet from the Well of Michelangelo, The Tomb of Pope Julius II, c. 1545, with statues
Moses
of Rachel and Leah on the left and the right of his Moses.
Base of the Holy Thorn Reliquary, a Resurrection of
6.6
the Dead in gold, enamel and gems
Renaissance
Section of a panelled altarpiece with Resurrection of Renaissance sculpture proper is often taken to begin with
Christ, English, 145090, alabaster with remains of the famous competition for the doors of the Florence
Baptistry in 1403, from which the trial models subcolour
mitted by the winner, Lorenzo Ghiberti, and Filippo
Detail of the Last Supper from Tilman Riemen- Brunelleschi survive. Ghibertis doors are still in place,
schneider's Altar of the Holy Blood, 150105, but were undoubtedly eclipsed by his second pair for the
Rothenburg ob der Tauber, Bavaria
other entrance, the so-called Gates of Paradise, which
16
took him from 1425 to 1452, and are dazzlingly condent 6.7
classicizing compositions with varied depths of relief allowing extensive backgrounds.[70] The intervening years
had seen Ghibertis early assistant Donatello develop with
seminal statues including his Davids in marble (140809)
and bronze (1440s), and his Equestrian statue of Gattamelata, as well as reliefs.[71] A leading gure in the later
period was Andrea del Verrocchio, best known for his
equestrian statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice;[72]
his pupil Leonardo da Vinci designed an equine sculpture in 1482 The Horse for Milan-but only succeeded in
making a 24-foot (7.3 m) clay model which was destroyed
by French archers in 1499, and his other ambitious sculptural plans were never completed.[73]
Mannerist
The period was marked by a great increase in patronage of sculpture by the state for public art and by the
wealthy for their homes; especially in Italy, public sculpture remains a crucial element in the appearance of historic city centres. Church sculpture mostly moved inside just as outside public monuments became common.
Portrait sculpture, usually in busts, became popular in
Italy around 1450, with the Neapolitan Francesco Laurana specializing in young women in meditative poses,
while Antonio Rossellino and others more often depicted
knobbly-faced men of aairs, but also young children.[74]
The portrait medal invented by Pisanello also often depicted women.
Michelangelo was an active sculptor from about 1500 to
1520, and his great masterpieces including his David,
Piet, Moses, and pieces for the Tomb of Pope Julius II
and Medici Chapel could not be ignored by subsequent
sculptors. His iconic David (1504) has a contrapposto
pose, borrowed from classical sculpture. It diers from
previous representations of the subject in that David is
depicted before his battle with Goliath and not after the Adriaen de Vries, Mercury and Psyche Northern Mannerist lifegiants defeat. Instead of being shown victorious, as Do- size bronze, made in 1593 for Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor.
natello and Verocchio had done, David looks tense and
battle ready.[75]
Main article: Mannerism
Lorenzo Ghiberti, panel of the Sacrice of Isaac
from the Florence Baptistry doors; oblique view As in painting, early Italian Mannerist sculpture was very
largely an attempt to nd an original style that would top
here
the achievement of the High Renaissance, which in sculp Luca della Robbia, detail of Cantoria, c. 1438, ture essentially meant Michelangelo, and much of the
Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Florence
struggle to achieve this was played out in commissions
Donatello, David c. 1440s, Bargello Museum, to ll other places in the Piazza della Signoria in Florence, next to Michelangelos David. Baccio Bandinelli
Florence
took over the project of Hercules and Cacus from the
Donatello, Judith and Holofernes, c. 1460, Palazzo master himself, but it was little more popular than it is
Vecchio, Florence
now, and maliciously compared by Benvenuto Cellini to
a sack of melons, though it had a long-lasting eect
Francesco Laurana, female bust (cast)
in apparently introducing relief panels on the pedestal of
Verrocchio,
Doubting Thomas,
146783, statues. Like other works of his and other Mannerists it
Orsanmichele, Florence
removes far more of the original block than Michelangelo would have done.[76] Cellinis bronze Perseus with
Michelangelo, David, c.
1504, Galleria
the head of Medusa is certainly a masterpiece, designed
dell'Accademia, Florence
with eight angles of view, another Mannerist character Michelangelo, Dying Slave, c. 15131516
istic, but is indeed mannered compared to the Davids of
6.9
Neo-Classical
Michelangelo and Donatello.[77] Originally a goldsmith,

his famous gold and enamel Salt Cellar (1543) was his
rst sculpture, and shows his talent at its best.[78] As these
examples show, the period extended the range of secular
subjects for large works beyond portraits, with mythological gures especially favoured; previously these had
mostly been found in small works.
Small bronze gures for collectors cabinets, often mythological subjects with nudes, were a popular Renaissance
form at which Giambologna, originally Flemish but based
in Florence, excelled in the later part of the century, also
creating life-size sculptures, of which two joined the collection in the Piazza della Signoria. He and his followers
devised elegant elongated examples of the gura serpentinata, often of two intertwined gures, that were interesting from all angles.[79]
Stucco overdoor at Fontainebleau, probably designed by Primaticcio, who painted the oval inset,
1530s or 1540s
Benvenuto Cellini, Perseus with the head of Medusa,
15451554
Giambologna, Samson Slaying a Philistine, about
1562
17
though secular sculpture, especially for portrait busts
and tomb monuments, continued, the Dutch Golden
Age has no signicant sculptural component outside
goldsmithing.[82] Partly in direct reaction, sculpture was
as prominent in Catholicism as in the late Middle Ages.
Statues of rulers and the nobility became increasingly
popular. In the 18th century much sculpture continued
on Baroque lines the Trevi Fountain was only completed
in 1762. Rococo style was better suited to smaller works,
and arguably found its ideal sculptural form in early European porcelain, and interior decorative schemes in wood
or plaster such as those in French domestic interiors and
Austrian and Bavarian pilgrimage churches.[83]
Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Apollo and Daphne in the
Galleria Borghese, 16221625
Bust of Louis XIV, 1686, by Antoine Coysevox
Pierre Paul Puget, Perseus and Andromeda, 1715,
Muse du Louvre
Franz Anton Bustelli, Rococo Nymphenburg Porcelain group
6.9 Neo-Classical
Giambologna, The Rape of the Sabine Women,

Main article: Neoclassical sculpture
1583, Florence, Italy, 13' 6 high, marble
The Neoclassical style that arrived in the late 18th cen-
6.8
Baroque and Rococo
Main article: Baroque sculpture

In Baroque sculpture, groups of gures assumed new importance, and there was a dynamic movement and energy of human forms they spiralled around an empty
central vortex, or reached outwards into the surrounding
space. Baroque sculpture often had multiple ideal viewing angles, and reected a general continuation of the Renaissance move away from the relief to sculpture created
in the round, and designed to be placed in the middle
of a large space elaborate fountains such as Berninis
Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi (Rome, 1651), or those in
the Gardens of Versailles were a Baroque speciality. The
Baroque style was perfectly suited to sculpture, with Gian
Lorenzo Bernini the dominating gure of the age in works
such as The Ecstasy of St Theresa (16471652).[80] Much
Baroque sculpture added extra-sculptural elements, for
example, concealed lighting, or water fountains, or fused
sculpture and architecture to create a transformative experience for the viewer. Artists saw themselves as in the
classical tradition, but admired Hellenistic and later Roman sculpture, rather than that of the more Classical
periods as they are seen today.[81]
The Protestant Reformation brought an almost total stop
to religious sculpture in much of Northern Europe, and Antonio Canova: Psyche Revived by Loves Kiss, 1787
18
tury gave great emphasis to sculpture. Jean-Antoine

Houdon exemplies the penetrating portrait sculpture the
style could produce, and Antonio Canova's nudes the idealist aspect of the movement. The Neoclassical period
was one of the great ages of public sculpture, though
its classical prototypes were more likely to be Roman
copies of Hellenistic sculptures. In sculpture, the most familiar representatives are the Italian Antonio Canova, the
Englishman John Flaxman and the Dane Bertel Thorvaldsen. The European neoclassical manner also took hold in
the United States, where its pinnacle occurred somewhat
later and is exemplied in the sculptures of Hiram Powers.
Jean-Antoine Houdon, Bust of Benjamin Franklin,
1778, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Bertel Thorvaldsen: Jason and the Golden Fleece
(1803)
John Flaxman, Memorial in the church at Badger,
Shropshire, c. 1780s
Hiram Powers, 1851, The Greek Slave, Yale University Art Gallery
6.10 Asia
6.10.1
Greco-Buddhist sculpture and Asia
Main article: Greco-Buddhist art

Greco-Buddhist art is the artistic manifestation of GrecoBuddhism, a cultural syncretism between the Classical
Greek culture and Buddhism, which developed over a
period of close to 1000 years in Central Asia, between
the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century
BCE, and the Islamic conquests of the 7th century CE.
Greco-Buddhist art is characterized by the strong idealistic realism of Hellenistic art and the rst representations
of the Buddha in human form, which have helped dene
the artistic (and particularly, sculptural) canon for Buddhist art throughout the Asian continent up to the present.
Though dating is uncertain, it appears that strongly Hellenistic styles lingered in the East for several centuries
after they had declined around the Mediterranean, as late
as the 5th century CE. Some aspects of Greek art were
adopted while others did not spread beyond the GrecoBuddhist area; in particular the standing gure, often with
a relaxed pose and one leg exed, and the ying cupids
or victories, who became popular across Asia as apsaras.
Greek foliage decoration was also inuential, with Indian
versions of the Corinthian capital appearing.[84]
The origins of Greco-Buddhist art are to be found in
the Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250 BCE
130 BCE), located in todays Afghanistan, from which
Hellenistic culture radiated into the Indian subcontinent
with the establishment of the small Indo-Greek kingdom
One of the rst representations of the Buddha, 1st2nd century

CE, Gandhara
(180 BCE-10 BCE). Under the Indo-Greeks and then the

Kushans, the interaction of Greek and Buddhist culture
ourished in the area of Gandhara, in todays northern
Pakistan, before spreading further into India, inuencing
the art of Mathura, and then the Hindu art of the Gupta
empire, which was to extend to the rest of South-East
Asia. The inuence of Greco-Buddhist art also spread
northward towards Central Asia, strongly aecting the
art of the Tarim Basin and the Dunhuang Caves, and ultimately the sculpted gure in China, Korea, and Japan.[85]
Gandhara frieze with devotees, holding plantain
leaves, in purely Hellenistic style, inside Corinthian
columns, 1st2nd century CE. Buner, Swat,
Pakistan. Victoria and Albert Museum
Fragment of the wind god Boreas, Hadda,
Afghanistan.
Coin of Demetrius I of Bactria, who reigned circa
200180 BC and invaded Northern India
Buddha head from Hadda, Afghanistan, 3rd4th
centuries
Gandhara Poseidon (Ancient Orient Museum)
6.10
Asia
19
The Buddhist gods Pancika (left) and Hariti (right), Native Chinese religions do not usually use cult images of
3rd century, Gandhara
deities, or even represent them, and large religious sculpture is nearly all Buddhist, dating mostly from the 4th
Taller Buddha of Bamiyan, c. 547 AD., in 1963 and to the 14th century, and initially using Greco-Buddhist
in 2008 after they were dynamited and destroyed in models arriving via the Silk Road. Buddhism is also the
March 2001 by the Taliban
context of all large portrait sculpture; in total contrast to
some other areas in medieval China even painted images
Statue from a Buddhist monastery 700 AD, of the emperor were regarded as private. Imperial tombs
Afghanistan
have spectacular avenues of approach lined with real and
mythological animals on a scale matching Egypt, and
smaller versions decorate temples and palaces.[88] Small
6.10.2 China
Buddhist gures and groups were produced to a very high
quality in a range of media,[89] as was relief decoration of
Main articles:
Chinese art, Chinese ceramics, all sorts of objects, especially in metalwork and jade.[90]
Sculptors of all sorts were regarded as artisans and very
Lacquerware and Chinese jade
Chinese ritual bronzes from the Shang and Western few names are recorded.[91]
Shang Dynasty bronze ding
Wine jar, Western Zhou Dynasty (1050 BC-771
BC)
Lifesize calvalryman from the Terracotta Army, Qin
Dynasty
Tomb gure of dancing girl, Han Dynasty (202 BC220 AD)
Northern Wei Dynasty Maitreya (386534)
Tang Dynasty (618907) pottery horse and rider
Tang Dynasty (618907) pottery tomb guardian
Seated Buddha, Tang Dynasty ca. 650.
The Leshan Giant Buddha, Tang Dynasty, completed in 803.
Portrait of monk, Song Dynasty, 11th century
A Liao Dynasty polychrome wood-carved statue of Guan Yin,
Shanxi Province, China, (9071125 AD)
A wooden Bodhisattva from the Song Dynasty

(9601279)
Zhou Dynasties come from a period of over a thousand

years from c. 1500, and have exerted a continuing
inuence over Chinese art. They are cast with complex
patterned and zoomorphic decoration, but avoid the
human gure, unlike the huge gures only recently
discovered at Sanxingdui.[86] The spectacular Terracotta
Army was assembled for the tomb of Qin Shi Huang,
the rst emperor of a unied China from 221210 BCE,
as a grand imperial version of the gures long placed in
tombs to enable the deceased to enjoy the same lifestyle
in the afterlife as when alive, replacing actual sacrices
of very early periods. Smaller gures in pottery or wood
were placed in tombs for many centuries afterwards,
reaching a peak of quality in the Tang Dynasty.[87]
A wooden Bodhisattva from the Song Dynasty

(9601279)
Chinese jade Cup with Dragon Handles, 12th century
A glazed stoneware statue of a Judge of Hell, Ming
Dynasty (16th century)
Statue of Guanyin, by Chaozhong He, Ming Dynasty (13681644)
Blue underglaze statue of a man with his pipe, from
Jingdezhen, Ming Dynasty (13681644)
20
Almost all subsequent signicant large sculpture in Japan
was Buddhist, with some Shinto equivalents, and after
Buddhism declined in Japan in the 15th century, monumental sculpture became largely architectural decoration and less signicant.[94] However sculptural work in
the decorative arts was developed to a remarkable level
of technical achievement and renement in small objects
such as inro and netsuke in many materials, and metal
tosogu or Japanese sword mountings. In the 19th century
there were export industries of small bronze sculptures
of extreme virtuosity, ivory and porcelain gurines, and
other types of small sculpture, increasingly emphasizing
technical accomplishment.
Dog with snow-goggle eyes, 1000400 BC.
6th century haniwa gure
Kongo Rishiki (Guardian Deity) at the Central Gate
of Hry-ji
Priest Ganjin (Jianzhen), Nara period, 8th century
Jch, Amida Buddha, Heian Period, 1053, Bydin, Kyoto
Tsuba sword tting with a Rabbit Viewing the Autumn Moon, bronze, gold and silver, between 1670
and 1744
Nara Daibutsu, c. 752, Nara, Japan
6.10.3
Japan
See also: Japanese art, Japanese sculpture and List of National Treasures of Japan (sculptures)
Towards the end of the long Neolithic Jmon period,
some pottery vessels were ame-rimmed with extravagant extensions to the rim that can only be called
sculptural,[92] and very stylized pottery dog gures were
produced, many with the characteristic snow-goggle
eyes. During the Kofun period of the 3rd to 6th century
CE, haniwa terracotta gures of humans and animals in
a simplistic style were erected outside important tombs.
The arrival of Buddhism in the 6th century brought with it
sophisticated traditions in sculpture, Chinese styles mediated via Korea. The 7th century Hry-ji and its contents
have survived more intact than any East Asian Buddhist
temple of its date, with works including a Shaka Trinity
of 623 in bronze, showing the historical Buddha anked
by two bodhisattvas and also the Guardian Kings of the
Four Directions.[93]
Izumiya Tomotada, netsuke in the form of a dog, late

18th century
Yamada Chzabur, Wind God in repouss iron, c.
1915
6.10.4 India
The rst known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent
is from the Indus Valley civilization (33001700 BC),
found in sites at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in modernday Pakistan. These include the famous small bronze female dancer. However, such gures in bronze and stone
are rare and greatly outnumbered by pottery gurines
and stone seals, often of animals or deities very nely
depicted. After the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization there is little record of sculpture until the Buddhist era, apart from a hoard of copper gures of (somewhat controversially) c. 1500 BCE from Daimabad.[95]
Thus the great tradition of Indian monumental sculpture
in stone appears to begin relatively late, with the reign of
Asoka from 270 to 232 BCE, and the Pillars of Ashoka
he erected around India, carrying his edicts and topped by
famous sculptures of animals, mostly lions, of which six
survive.[96] Large amounts of gurative sculpture, mostly
in relief, survive from Early Buddhist pilgrimage stupas,
above all Sanchi; these probably developed out of a tradition using wood that also embraced Hinduism.[97]
The wooden image (9th century) of Shakyamuni, the

historic Buddha, enshrined in a secondary building at
the Mur-ji, is typical of the early Heian sculpture, with
its ponderous body, covered by thick drapery folds carved
in the hompa-shiki (rolling-wave) style, and its austere,
withdrawn facial expression. The Kei school of sculptors,
particularly Unkei, created a new, more realistic style of The pink sandstone Hindu, Jain and Buddhist sculptures
of Mathura from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE reected
sculpture.
6.10
Asia
21
Rock-cut temples at Ellora
Hindu, Chola period, 1000
Typical medieval frontal standing statue of Vishnu,
9501150
In Khajuraho
Marble Sculpture of female yakshi in typical curving
pose, c. 1450, Rajasthan
Gopuram of the Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, densely packed with rows
of painted statues
Sculpture of Guardian at the entrance of the Mandapam of Sri Jalagandeeswarar Temple, Vellore,
Tamil Nadu
6.10.5 South-East Asia
Hindu Gupta terracotta relief, 5th century CE, of Krishna Killing

the Horse Demon Keshi
both native Indian traditions and the Western inuences

received through the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara,
and eectively established the basis for subsequent Indian religious sculpture.[97] The style was developed and
diused through most of India under the Gupta Empire (c. 320-550) which remains a classical period for
Indian sculpture, covering the earlier Ellora Caves,[98]
though the Elephanta Caves are probably slightly later.[99]
Later large-scale sculpture remains almost exclusively religious, and generally rather conservative, often reverting
to simple frontal standing poses for deities, though the
attendant spirits such as apsaras and yakshi often have
sensuously curving poses. Carving is often highly detailed, with an intricate backing behind the main gure
in high relief. The celebrated bronzes of the Chola dynasty (c. 8501250) from south India, many designed
to be carried in processions, include the iconic form
of Shiva as Nataraja,[100] with the massive granite carvings of Mahabalipuram dating from the previous Pallava
dynasty.[101]
9th century Khmer lintel
The sculpture of the region tends to be characterised

by a high degree of ornamentation, as seen in the great
monuments of Hindu and Buddhist Khmer sculpture (9th
to 13th centuries) at Angkor Wat and elsewhere, the
enormous 9th-century Buddhist complex at Borobudur
in Java, and the Hindu monuments of Bali.[102] Both
of these include many reliefs as well as gures in the
round; Borobudur has 2,672 relief panels, 504 Buddha
statues, many semi-concealed in openwork stupas, and
many large guardian gures.
In Thailand and Laos, sculpture was mainly of Buddha

images, often gilded, both large for temples and monasteries, and small gurines for private homes. Traditional
sculpture in Myanmar emerged before the Bagan period.
As elsewhere in the region, most of the wood sculptures
The dancing girl of Mohenjo Daro", 3rd millen- of the Bagan and Ava periods have been lost. In later periods Chinese inuence predominated in Vietnam, Laos
nium BCE (replica)
and Cambodia, and more wooden sculpture survives from
Ashoka Pillar, Vaishali, Bihar, c. 250 BCE
across the region.
Stupa gateway at Sanchi, c. 100 CE or perhaps earlier, with densely packed reliefs
Buddha from Sarnath, 56th century CE
The Colossal trimurti at the Elephanta Caves
Apsara and Gandarva pedestal, Tr Kiu, Cham art,

Vietnam, c.7th8th century
Relief sculpture from Borobudur temple, Indonesia,
c. 760830
22
Vairocana Buddha from
Indonesia, c. 760830
Borobudur
temple, Islamic animal gure known, the Pisa Grin. In the

same way, luxury hardstone carvings such as dagger hilts
and cups may be formed as animals, especially in Mughal
Bronze Avalokiteshvara torso from Chaiya, art. The degree of acceptability of such relaxations of
Southern Thailand, Srivijayan art, c. 8th century
strict Islamic rules varies between periods and regions,
relax Bronze Avalokiteshvara from Bidor, Perak, with Islamic Spain, Persia and India often leading
[104]
ation,
and
is
typically
highest
in
courtly
contexts.
Malaysia, c. 8th-9th century
Vishnu from Prasat Rup Arak, Kulen, Khmer art,
Cambodia, c. 800-875
The Mshatta Facade, from a palace near Damascus,

740s
Dragon head palace decoration from the L dynasty,

Vietnam, c. 10091225
The Pisa Grin, 107 cm high, probably 11th century
Buddha in Ananda Temple, Bagan, Myanmar, c.

1105
Part of a 15th-century ceramic panel from

Samarkand with white calligraphy on a blue
arabesque background.
Stone bas-relief of apsaras from Bayon temple,

Cambodia, c. 1200
Prajnaparamita Singhasari art, East Java, Indonesia,
c. 13th century
Mughal dagger with hilt in jade, gold, rubies and

emeralds. Blade of damascened steel inlaid with
gold.
Phra Achana, Wat Si Chum, Big Buddha image in

6.12
Sukhothai, Thailand, c. 14th century
Africa
the Buddha calling the earth to witness, The Buddhas hands are in the bhmisparsa mudr (subduing
Mra) position. Ho Phra Kaeo temple, Vientiane,
Laos
6.11 Islam
Ivory with traces of paint, 11th12th century, Egypt
Islam is famously aniconic, so the vast majority of sculpture is arabesque decoration in relief or openwork, based
on vegetable motifs, but tending to geometrical abstract
forms. In the very early Mshatta Facade (740s), now
mostly in Berlin, there are animals within the dense
arabesques in high relief, and gures of animals and men
in mostly low relief are found in conjunction with decoration on many later pieces in various materials, including Mask from Gabon
metalwork, ivory and ceramics.[103]
Figures of animals in the round were often acceptable for
works used in private contexts if the object was clearly
practical, so medieval Islamic art contains many metal animals that are aquamaniles, incense burners or supporters
for fountains, as in the stone lions supporting the famous
one in the Alhambra, culminating in the largest medieval
Historically, with the exception of some monumental

Egyptian sculpture, most African sculpture was created in
wood and other organic materials that have not survived
from earlier than a few centuries ago; older pottery gures
are found from a number of areas. Masks are important
elements in the art of many peoples, along with human
6.13
The Americas
23
Populations in the African Great Lakes are not known for
their sculpture.[105] However, one style from the region is
pole sculptures, carved in human shapes and decorated
with geometric forms, while the tops are carved with
gures of animals, people, and various objects. These
poles are, then, placed next to graves and are associated with death and the ancestral world. The culture
known from Great Zimbabwe left more impressive buildings than sculpture but the eight soapstone Zimbabwe
Birds appear to have had a special signicance and were
mounted on monoliths. Modern Zimbabwean sculptors in
soapstone have achieved considerable international success. Southern Africas oldest known clay gures date
from 400 to 600 AD and have cylindrical heads with a
mixture of human and animal features.
Two Chiwara c. late 19th early 20th centuries, Art Institute of

Chicago. Female (left) and male Vertical styles
Nok terracotta, 6th century BC6th century CE

Ife head, terracotta, probably 1214th centuries CE
Yoruba bronze head sculpture, Ife, Nigeria c. 12th
century
gures, often highly stylized. There is a vast variety of

styles, often varying within the same context of origin depending on the use of the object, but wide regional trends
are apparent; sculpture is most common among groups
of settled cultivators in the areas drained by the Niger and
Congo rivers" in West Africa.[105] Direct images of deities
are relatively infrequent, but masks in particular are or
were often made for religious ceremonies; today many
are made for tourists as airport art.[106] African masks
were an inuence on European Modernist art, which was
inspired by their lack of concern for naturalistic depiction.
The Nubian Kingdom of Kush in modern Sudan was in
close and often hostile contact with Egypt, and produced
monumental sculpture mostly derivative of styles to the
north. In West Africa, the earliest known sculptures are
from the Nok culture which thrived between 500 BC and
500 AD in modern Nigeria, with clay gures typically
with elongated bodies and angular shapes. Later West
African cultures developed bronze casting for reliefs to
decorate palaces like the famous Benin Bronzes, and very
ne naturalistic royal heads from around the Yoruba town
of Ife in terracotta and metal from the 12th14th centuries. Akan goldweights are a form of small metal sculptures produced over the period 14001900, some apparently representing proverbs and so with a narrative element rare in African sculpture, and royal regalia included
impressive gold sculptured elements.[107]
Sculpture of a 'Queen Mother' from Benin, 16th

century.
16th century ivory mask from Benin
One of the Benin Bronzes, 16th18th century, Nigeria.
Mask from Burkina Faso, 19th century
Mambila gure, Nigeria
6.13 The Americas

See also: Sculpture of the United States, Visual arts by
indigenous peoples of the Americas, Pre-Columbian art,
Northwest Coast art and Inuit art
Sculpture in what is now Latin America developed in
two separate and distinct areas, Mesoamerica in the north
and Peru in the south. In both areas, sculpture was
initially of stone, and later of terracotta and metal as
the civilizations in these areas became more technologically procient.[108] The Mesoamerican region produced
more monumental sculpture, from the massive block-like
works of the Olmec and Toltec cultures, to the superb low
reliefs that characterize the Mayan and Aztec cultures. In
the Andean region, sculptures were typically small, but
often show superb skill.
Many West African gures are used in religious rituals

and are often coated with materials placed on them for
ceremonial oerings. The Mande-speaking peoples of 6.13.1 Pre-Columbian
the same region make pieces of wood with broad, at
Olmec Baby Figure 1200-900 BCE
surfaces and arms and legs are shaped like cylinders. In
Central Africa, however, the main distinguishing charac Olmec Jadeite Mask 1000600 BCE
teristics include heart-shaped faces that are curved inward
Olmec Colossal Head No. 3 1200900 BCE
and display patterns of circles and dots.
24
La Mojarra Stela 1 2nd century CE

Chalchiuhtlicue from Teotihuacn 200500 CE
Teotihuacan mask 200600 CE
Teotihuacan- Detail of the Temple of the Feathered
Serpent 200250 CE
A funerary urn in the shape of a bat god or a
jaguar, Oaxaca, 300650 CE
Moche portrait vessel with stirrup spout, Peru, 100
BCE-700 CE
K'inich Janaab Pakal I of Palenque, Maya, 603683
Ahkal Mo' Naab III Of Palenque, 8th century
Upakal K'inich 8th century AD, Palenque
Jaina Island type gure (Mayan) 650800
Classic Veracruz culture face 600900
Atlante from Tollan-Xicocotitlan also known as
Tula 1000
Double-headed serpent, Turquoise, red and white St. James panel, from reredos in Cristo Rey Church, Santa Fe,
mosaic on wood, Aztec (possibly) Mixtec, c. 1400 New Mexico, c. 1760
1521,
6.14 Moving toward modern art

6.14.1
North America
In North America, wood was sculpted for totem poles,

masks, utensils, War canoes and a variety of other uses,
with distinct variation between dierent cultures and regions. The most developed styles are those of the Pacic
Northwest Coast, where a group of elaborate and highly
stylized formal styles developed forming the basis of a
tradition that continues today. In addition to the famous
totem poles, painted and carved house fronts were complemented by carved posts inside and out, as well as mortuary gures and other items. Among the Inuit of the far
north, traditional carving styles in ivory and soapstone are
still continued.[109]
The arrival of European Catholic culture readily adapted
local skills to the prevailing Baroque style, producing
enormously elaborate retablos and other mostly church
sculptures in a variety of hybrid styles.[110] The most famous of such examples in Canada is the altar area of
the Notre Dame Basilica in Montreal, Quebec, which
was carved by peasant habitant labourers. Later, artists
trained in the Western academic tradition followed European styles until in the late 19th century they began to
draw again on indigenous inuences, notably in the Mexican baroque grotesque style known as Churrigueresque.
Aboriginal peoples also adapted church sculpture in variations on Carpenter Gothic; one famous example is the
Church of the Holy Cross in Skookumchuck Hot Springs,

British Columbia.
The history of sculpture in the United States after Europeans arrival reects the countrys 18th-century foundation in Roman republican civic values and Protestant
Christianity. Compared to areas colonized by the Spanish, sculpture got o to an extremely slow start in the
British colonies, with next to no place in churches, and
was only given impetus by the need to assert nationality after independence. American sculpture of the midto late-19th century was often classical, often romantic,
but showed a bent for a dramatic, narrative, almost journalistic realism. Public buildings during the last quarter
of the 19th century and the rst half of the 20th century
often provided an architectural setting for sculpture, especially in relief. By the 1930s the International Style
of architecture and design and art deco characterized by
the work of Paul Manship and Lee Lawrie and others became popular. By the 1950s, traditional sculpture education would almost be completely replaced by a Bauhausinuenced concern for abstract design. Minimalist sculpture replaced the gure in public settings and architects
almost completely stopped using sculpture in or on their
designs. Modern sculptors (21st century) use both classical and abstract inspired designs. Beginning in the 1980s,
there was a swing back toward gurative public sculpture;
by 2000, many of the new public pieces in the United
States were gurative in design.
Gutzon Borglum and his son, Lincoln Borglum,
6.15
19thearly 20th century, early Modernism and continuing realism
25
Mount Rushmore, 19271941. L-R, George Washington, Thomas Jeerson, Theodore Roosevelt, and
Abraham Lincoln representing the rst 150 years of
American history.
Robert Gould Shaw Memorial by Augustus SaintGaudens, 18841897, plaster version
Lee Lawrie, The Sower, 1928 Art Deco relief on
Beaumont Tower, Michigan State University
Daniel Chester French, Abraham Lincoln (1920) in
the Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D.C.
The K'alyaan Totem Pole of the Tlingit Kiks.di
Clan, erected at Sitka National Historical Park to
commemorate the lives lost in the 1804 Battle of
Sitka
Frederic Remington, The Bronco Buster, limited
edition #17 of 20, 1909.
Paul Manship, Dancer and Gazelles, 1916,
Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington,
D.C.
Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, The Scout, 1924,
commemorating Bualo Bill in Cody, Wyoming
6.15 19thearly 20th century, early Modernism and continuing realism
Paul Gauguin, 1894, Oviri (Sauvage), partially glazed

stoneware, 75 x 19 x 27 cm, Muse d'Orsay, Paris
Franois Rude, a Romantic Jeanne d' Arc, 1852,

Louvre
Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux, Ugolino and His Sons,
18571860, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Edgar Degas, Little Dancer of Fourteen Years, cast
in 1922 from a mixed-media sculpture modeled ca.
187980, Bronze, partly tinted, with cotton
Auguste Rodin The Burghers of Calais 1889, Calais,
France
Alfred Gilbert, the so-called Eros, 1893, the worlds
rst aluminium statue, Piccadilly Circus, London
Detail of the grave of Cyprian Kamil Norwid in
Wawel Cathedral, Krakw by Czesaw Dwigaj
Sculpture on the Discoveries Age and Portuguese
navigators in Lisbon, Portugal
Antoine Bourdelle, Day and Night, marble, 1903,
Muse Bourdelle, Paris
Auguste Rodin, The Thinker, 1902, Muse Rodin, Paris
Jan tursa, Before the Bath, 1906, National Gallery

in Prague
26
MODERNISM
Constantin Brncui, Portrait of Mademoiselle

Pogany 1912, White marble; limestone block,
Philadelphia Museum of Art. Exhibited at the 1913
Armory Show
Some of the modern classical became either more decorative/art deco (Paul Manship, Jose de Creeft, Carl
Milles) or more abstractly stylized or more expressive
(and Gothic) (Anton Hanak, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Ernst
Barlach, Arturo Martini)or turned more to the Renais Amedeo Modigliani, Female Head, 1911/1912, sance (Giacomo Manz, Venanzo Crocetti) or stayed the
same (Charles Despiau, Marcel Gimond).
Tate
Aristide Maillol, The Night, 1920, Stuttgart
Modern classicism contrasted in many ways with the classical sculpture of the 19th century which was characterized by commitments to naturalism (Antoine-Louis
Barye)the melodramatic (Franois Rude) sentimentality (Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux)-- or a kind of stately
grandiosity (Lord Leighton). Several dierent directions
in the classical tradition were taken as the century turned,
but the study of the live model and the post-Renaissance
tradition was still fundamental to them. Auguste Rodin
was the most renowned European sculptor of the early
20th century.[111][112] He is often considered a sculptural Impressionist, as are his students including Camille
Claudel, and Hugo Rheinhold, attempting to model of
a eeting moment of ordinary life. Modern classicism
showed a lesser interest in naturalism and a greater interest in formal stylization. Greater attention was paid to the
rhythms of volumes and spacesas well as greater attention to the contrasting qualities of surface (open, closed,
planar, broken etc.) while less attention was paid to storytelling and convincing details of anatomy or costume.
Greater attention was given to psychological eect than to
physical realism, and inuences from earlier styles worldwide were used.
7 Modernism
Gaston Lachaise, Floating Figure 1927, bronze, no. 5 from an

edition of 7, National Gallery of Australia
Main article: Modern sculpture
Modernist sculpture movements include Cubism,

Geometric abstraction, De Stijl, Suprematism,
Constructivism, Dadaism, Surrealism, Futurism,
Formalism
Abstract
expressionism,
Pop-Art,
Early masters of modern classicism included: Aristide Minimalism, Land art, and Installation art among
Maillol, Alexander Matveyev, Joseph Bernard, Antoine others.
Bourdelle, Georg Kolbe, Libero Andreotti, Gustav Vigeland, Jan Stursa, Constantin Brncui. As the century
progressed, modern classicism was adopted as the national style of the two great European totalitarian empires: Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia, who co-opted the
work of earlier artists such as Kolbe and Wilhelm Lehmbruck in Germany[113] and Matveyev in Russia. Over
the 70 years of the USSR, new generations of sculptors
were trained and chosen within their system, and a distinct style, socialist realism, developed, that returned to
the 19th centurys emphasis on melodrama and naturalism.
Henry Moore, Reclining Figure, 1951, Fitzwilliam Museum,
Classical training was rooted out of art education in Western Europe (and the Americas) by 1970 and the classical variants of the 20th century were marginalized in the
history of modernism. But classicism continued as the
foundation of art education in the Soviet academies until
1990, providing a foundation for expressive gurative art
throughout eastern Europe and parts of the Middle East.
By the year 2000, the European classical tradition retains
a wide appeal to the public but awaits an educational tradition to revive its contemporary development.
Cambridge
In the early days of the 20th century, Pablo Picasso revolutionized the art of sculpture when he began creating
his constructions fashioned by combining disparate objects and materials into one constructed piece of sculpture; the sculptural equivalent of the collage in twodimensional art. The advent of Surrealism led to things
occasionally being described as sculpture that would
not have been so previously, such as involuntary sculp-
7.1
Gallery of modernist sculpture
27
Picasso (1967). His design was ambiguous and somewhat
controversial, and what the gure represents is not clear;
it could be a bird, a horse, a woman or a totally abstract
shape.
During the late 1950s and the 1960s abstract sculptors
began experimenting with a wide array of new materials
and dierent approaches to creating their work. Surrealist imagery, anthropomorphic abstraction, new materials and combinations of new energy sources and varied surfaces and objects became characteristic of much
new modernist sculpture. Collaborative projects with
landscape designers, architects, and landscape architects
expanded the outdoor site and contextual integration.
Artists such as Isamu Noguchi, David Smith, Alexander
Calder, Jean Tinguely, Richard Lippold, George Rickey,
Louise Bourgeois, and Louise Nevelson came to characterize the look of modern sculpture.
By the 1960s Abstract expressionism, Geometric abstraction and Minimalism, which reduces sculpture to its most
essential and fundamental features, predominated. Some
works of the period are: the Cubi works of David Smith,
and the welded steel works of Sir Anthony Caro, as well as
welded sculpture by a large variety of sculptors, the largescale work of John Chamberlain, and environmental inDavid Smith, CUBI VI, (1963), Israel Museum, Jerusalem.
stallation scale works by Mark di Suvero. Other Minimalists include Tony Smith, Donald Judd, Robert Morris, Anne Truitt, Giacomo Benevelli, Arnaldo Pomodoro,
ture in several senses, including coulage. In later years
Richard Serra, Dan Flavin, Carl Andre, and John Safer
Picasso became a prolic potter, leading, with interest
who added motion and monumentality to the theme of
in historic pottery from around the world, to a revival of
purity of line.[116]
ceramic art, with gures such as George E. Ohr and subsequently Peter Voulkos, Kenneth Price, and Robert Ar- During the 1960s and 1970s gurative sculpture by modneson. Marcel Duchamp originated the use of the "found ernist artists in stylized forms was made by artists such
object" (French: objet trouv) or readymade with pieces as Leonard Baskin, Ernest Trova, George Segal, Marisol
Escobar, Paul Thek, Robert Graham in a classic articusuch as Fountain (1917).
lated style, and Fernando Botero bringing his paintings
Similarly, the work of Constantin Brncui at the begin'oversized gures into monumental sculptures.
ning of the century paved the way for later abstract sculpture. In revolt against the naturalism of Rodin and his
late-19th-century contemporaries, Brncui distilled sub- 7.1 Gallery of modernist sculpture
jects down to their essences as illustrated by the elegantly
rened forms of his Bird in Space series (1924).[114]
Henri Matisse, The Back Series, bronze, left to right:
The Back I, 190809, The Back II, 1913, The Back
Brncuis impact, with his vocabulary of reduction and
III 1916, The Back IV, c. 1931, all Museum of Modabstraction, is seen throughout the 1930s and 1940s, and
ern
Art, New York City
exemplied by artists such as Gaston Lachaise, Sir Jacob
Epstein, Henry Moore, Alberto Giacometti, Joan Mir,
Julio Gonzlez, Pablo Serrano, Jacques Lipchitz[115] and
by the 1940s abstract sculpture was impacted and expanded by Alexander Calder, Len Lye, Jean Tinguely,
and Frederick Kiesler who were pioneers of Kinetic art.
Modernist sculptors largely missed out on the huge boom
in public art resulting from the demand for war memorials for the two World Wars, but from the 1950s the public and commissioning bodies became more comfortable
with Modernist sculpture and large public commissions
both abstract and gurative became common. Picasso
was commissioned to make a maquette for a huge 50foot (15 m)-high public sculpture, the so-called Chicago
Otto Gutfreund, Cellist, 191213

Alexander Archipenko, La Vie Familiale (Family
Life), 1912
Joseph Csaky, Tte, ca.1920 (front and side view),
limestone, 60 cm, Krller-Mller Museum, Otterlo,
Holland
Jacob Epstein, Day and Night, carved for the
London Underground's headquarters, 1928.
Kthe Kollwitz, The Grieving Parents, 1932, World
War I memorial (for her son Peter), Vladslo German
war cemetery
28
MODERNISM
Julio Gonzlez, Monsieur Cactus, 1939.
Also during the 1960s and 1970s artists as diverse as

Eduardo Paolozzi, Chryssa, Claes Oldenburg, George SeJacques Lipchitz, Birth of the Muses, (19441950) gal, Edward Kienholz, Nam June Paik, Wolf Vostell,
Duane Hanson, and John DeAndrea explored abstraction,
Barbara Hepworth, Monolith-Empyrean, 1953
imagery and guration through video art, environment,
John Chamberlain, S, 1959, Hirshhorn Museum and light sculpture, and installation art in new ways.
Sculpture Garden, Washington, DC.
Conceptual art is art in which the concept(s) or idea(s) inHenry Moore, Three Piece Reclining gure No.1, volved in the work take precedence over traditional aesthetic and material concerns. Works include One and
1961, Yorkshire
Three Chairs, 1965, is by Joseph Kosuth, and An Oak
Marcel Duchamp, Fountain 1917; 1964 artist- Tree by Michael Craig-Martin, and those of Joseph Beuys
authorized replica made by the artists dealer, Arturo and James Turrell.
Schwarz, based on a photograph by Alfred Stieglitz.
Porcelain, Tate Modern, London
Christo and Jeanne-Claude, Umbrellas 1991, Japan
[1]
Pablo Picasso, Public Sculpture, 1967, Chicago, Illinois

Isamu Noguchi, Heimar, 1968, at the Billy Rose
Sculpture Garden, Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Israel
Spiral Jetty by Robert Smithson from atop Rozel

Point, in mid-April 2005
1. ^ NY Times, Umbrella Crushes Woman
George Rickey, Four Squares in Geviert, 1969, terrace of the New National Gallery, Berlin, Germany, 7.3 Minimalism
Rickey is considered a Kinetic sculptor
Tony Smith, Free Ride, 1962, 6'8 x 6'8 x 6'8 (the
Alexander Calder, Crinkly avec disc rouge, 1973,
height of a standard US door opening), Museum of
Schlossplatz, Stuttgart
Modern Art, New York
Louise Nevelson, Atmoshere and Environment XII,
19701973, Philadelphia Museum of Art
Sir Anthony Caro, Black Cover Flat, 1974, steel, Tel
Aviv Museum of Art
Joan Mir, Woman and Bird, 1982, Barcelona,
Spain
George Segal, Street Crossing, 1992, permanently installed on a public sidewalk at Montclair State University, in Montclair, New Jersey
Mark di Suvero, Aurora, 19921993
Louise Bourgeois, Maman, 1999, outside Museo
Guggenheim
7.2
Contemporary movements
Site specic and environmental art works are represented

by artists: Andy Goldsworthy, Walter De Maria,[117]
Richard Long, Richard Serra, Robert Irwin,[118] George
Rickey and Christo and Jeanne-Claude led contemporary abstract sculpture in new directions. Artists created
environmental sculpture on expansive sites in the 'land
art in the American West' group of projects. These land
art or 'earth art' environmental scale sculpture works exemplied by artists such as Robert Smithson, Michael
Heizer, James Turrell (Roden Crater). Eva Hesse, Sol
LeWitt, Jackie Winsor, Keith Sonnier, and Bruce Nauman, among others were pioneers of Postminimalist
sculpture.
Larry Bell, Untitled 1964, bismuth, chromium, gold,

and rhodium on gold-plated brass; Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
Richard Serra, Fulcrum 1987, 55 ft high free standing sculpture of Cor-ten steel near Liverpool Street
station, London
Donald Judd, Untitled, 1991, Israel Museum Art
Garden, Jerusalem
7.3.1 Postminimalism
Bruce Nauman, Human/Need/Desire, 1983, Neon
sculpture
Richard Long, South Bank Circle, 1991 Tate Liverpool, England
Jean-Yves Lechevallier, Fettered wing. 1991
Rachel Whiteread, House, she won the 1993 Turner
Prize and the 1994 K Foundation award
Anish Kapoor, Turning the World Upside Down,
Israel Museum, 2010
Damien Hirst, The Physical Impossibility of Death in
the Mind of Someone Living. (1991)
Guardians of Time, light sculpture by Manfred
Kielnhofer at the Light Art Biennale Austria 2010
The Spire of Dublin ocially titled the Monument
of Light, stainless steel, 121.2 metres (398 feet), the
worlds tallest sculpture
29
7.3.2
Contemporary genres
Some modern sculpture forms are now practiced outdoors, as environmental art and environmental sculpture,
often in full view of spectators. Light sculpture and sitespecic art also often make use of the environment. Ice
sculpture is a form of ephemeral sculpture that uses ice as
the raw material. It is popular in China, Japan, Canada,
Sweden, and Russia. Ice sculptures feature decoratively
in some cuisines, especially in Asia. Kinetic sculptures
are sculptures that are designed to move, which include
mobiles. Snow sculptures are usually carved out of a single block of snow about 6 to 15 feet (4.6 m) on each
side and weighing about 2030 tons. The snow is densely
packed into a form after having been produced by articial means or collected from the ground after a snowfall. Sound sculptures take the form of indoor sound
installations, outdoor installations such as aeolian harps,
automatons, or be more or less near conventional musical instruments. Sound sculpture is often site-specic.
Art toys have become another format for contemporary
artists since the late 1990s, such as those produced by
Takashi Murakami and Kid Robot, designed by Michael
Lau, or hand-made by Michael Leavitt (artist).[119]
Conservation
and melted down for the relatively low value of the metal,
a tiny fraction of the value of the artwork.[120]
9 See also
10 Notes
[1]
[2] Gods in Color: Painted Sculpture of Classical Antiquity
September 2007 to January 2008, The Arthur M. Sackler
Museum
[3] See for example Martin Robertson, A shorter history of
Greek art, p. 9, Cambridge University Press, 1981, ISBN
0-521-28084-2, ISBN 978-0-521-28084-6 Google books
[4] NGA, Washington feature on exhibition.
[5] The Ptolemies began the Hellenistic tradition of rulerportraits on coins, and the Romans began to show dead
politicians in the 1st century BC, with Julius Caesar the
rst living gure to be portrayed; under the emperors portraits of the Imperial family became standard. See Burnett, 34-35; Howgego, 63-70
[6] Article by Morris Cox
[7] Cook, 147; he notes that Ancient Greek copyists seem to
have used many fewer points than some later ones, and
copies often vary considerably in the composition as well
as the nish.
[8] Flash animation of the lost-wax casting process. James
Peniston Sculpture. Retrieved 2008-11-30.
[9] Ravi, B. (2004). Metal Casting Overview. Bureau of
Energy Eciency, India.
[10] British Museum - The Lycurgus Cup
[11] V&A Museum, Sculpture techniques: modelling in clay,
accessed August 31, 2012
[12] Rawson, 140144; Frankfort 112113; Henig, 179180
Visible damage due to acid rain on a sculpture
Sculptures are sensitive to environmental conditions such

as temperature, humidity and exposure to light and
ultraviolet light. Acid rain can also cause damage to certain building materials and historical monuments. This
results when sulfuric acid in the rain chemically reacts
with the calcium compounds in the stones (limestone,
sandstone, marble and granite) to create gypsum, which
then akes o.
[13] Rawson, 134135

[14] Burford, Alison, Greece, ancient, IV, 1: Monumental
sculpture: Overview, 5 c)" in Oxford Art Online, accessed
August 24th, 2012
[15] Olsen, 150151; Blunt
[16] Jewish virtual library, History of Jewish sculpture
[17] Sandars, 816, 2931
At any time many contemporary sculptures have usually [18] Hahn, Joachim, Prehistoric Europe, II: Palaeolithic 3.
Portable art in Oxford Art Online, accessed August 24,
been on display in public places; theft was not a problem
2012; Sandars, 3740
as pieces were instantly recognisable. In the early 21st
century the value of metal rose to such an extent that theft [19] Sandars, 7580
of massive bronze sculpture for the value of the metal
became a problem; sculpture worth millions being stolen [20] Sandars, 253257, 183185
30
[21] Frankfort, 2437

[24] Frankfort, Chapters 25
[28] Frankfort, 6674; 167
[30] Smith, 33
[31] Smith, 1213 and note 17
[32] Smith, 2124
10 NOTES
[56] Kitzinger, 9 (both quotes), more generally his Ch 1;

Strong, 250257, 264266, 272280
[57] Strong, 287291, 305308, 315318; Henig, 234240
[58] Robinson, 12, 15
[59] Dodwell, Chapter 2
[60] Calkins, 7980; 90102
[61] Calkins, 107114
[62] Calkins, 115132
[63] Honour and Fleming, 297300; Henderson, 55, 82-84
[64] Olson, 1124; Honour and Fleming, 304; Henderson, 41
[65] Snyder, 65-69
[66] Snyder, 305-311
[33] Smith, 170178; 192194
[67] V&A Museum feature on the Nottingham alabaster

Swansea Altarpiece
[34] Smith, 102103; 133134
[68] Calkins, 193-198
[35] Smith, 45; 208209

[36] Smith, 8990
[37] images of Getty Villa 85.AA.103
[38] Cook, 72, 85109; Boardman, 4759
[39] Cook, 109119; Boardman, 8795
[40] Lapatin, Kenneth D. S., Phidias, Oxford Art Online, accessed August 24, 2012
[41] Cook, 119131
[42] Cook, 131141
[43] Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age, p. xiii.
Green P. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9
[69] Cherry, 25-48; Henderson, 134-141

[70] Olson, 4146, 6263
[71] Olson, 4552, and see index
[72] Olson, 114118, 149150
[73] Olson, 149150
[74] Olson, 103110, 131132
[75] Olson, Chapter 8, 179181
[76] Olson, 179182
[77] Olson, 183187
[78] Olson, 182183
[44] Cook, 142156
[79] Olson, 194202
[45] Cook, 142154
[80] Boucher, 134-142 on the Cornaro chapel; see index for

Bernini generally
[46] Cook, 155158

[47] Strong, 5863; Hennig, 66-69
[48] Hennig, 24
[49] Henig, 6669; Strong, 3639, 48; At the trial of Verres,
former governor of Sicily, Cicero's prosecution details his
depredations of art collections at great length.
[50] Henig, 2324
[51] Henig, 6671
[52] Henig, 7382;Strong, 4852, 8083, 108117, 128132,
141159, 177182, 197211
[81] Boucher, 1618

[82] Honour and Fleming, 450
[83] Honour and Fleming, 460-467
[84] Boardman, 370378; Harle, 7184
[85] Boardman, 370378; Sickman, 8590; Paine, 2930
[86] Rawson, Chapter 1, 135136
[87] Rawson, 138-138
[88] Rawson, 135145; 145163
[53] Henig, Chapter 6; Strong, 303315
[89] Rawson, 163165
[54] Henig, Chapter 8
[90] Rawson, Chapters 4 and 6
[55] Strong, 171176, 211214
[91] Rawson, 135
31
[92] Middle Jomon Sub-Period, Niigata Prefectural Museum [119] Art Army by Michael Leavitt, hypediss.com, December
of History, accessed August 15, 2012
13, 2006.
[93] Paine & Soper, 3031
[94] Paine & Soper, 121
[120] BBC: Barbara Hepworth sculpture stolen from Dulwich

Park, 20 December 2011. Example of theft of large
bronze sculpture for the value of the metal.
[95] Harle, 1720

[96] Harle, 2224
[97] Harle, 2638
[98] Harle, 87; his Part 2 covers the period
[99] Harle, 124
[100] Harle, 301-310, 325-327
[101] Harle, 276284
[102] Honour & Fleming, 196200
[103] Piotrovsky and Rogers, 23, 26-27, 33-37
[104] Piotrovsky and Rogers, 23, 33-37
[108] Castedo, Leopoldo, A History of Latin American Art and
architecture, Frederick A. Praeger, Publisher, New York,
1969
[110] Neumeyer, Alfred, The Indian Contribution to Architectural Decoration in Spanish Colonial America. The Art
Bulletin, June 1948, Volume XXX, Number two
[111] Elsen, Albert E. (2003). Rodins Art: The Rodin Collection of the Iris & Gerald B. Cantor Center for the Visual Arts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19513381-1.
11 References
Boucher, Bruce, Italian Baroque Sculpture,
1998, Thames & Hudson (World of Art), ISBN
0500203075
Blunt Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italy, 14501660,
1940 (refs to 1985 edn), OUP, ISBN0198810504
Boardman, John ed., The Oxford History of Classical Art, 1993, OUP, ISBN 0198143869
Burnett, Andrew, Coins; Interpreting the Past, University of California/British Museum, 1991, ISBN
0520076281
Calkins, Robert G.; Monuments of Medieval Art,
Dutton, 1979, ISBN 0525475613
Cherry, John. The Holy Thorn Reliquary, 2010,
British Museum Press (British Museum objects in
focus), ISBN 0-7141-2820-1
Cook, R.M., Greek Art, Penguin, 1986 (reprint of
1972), ISBN 0140218661
Dodwell, C. R., Anglo-Saxon Art, A New Perspective, 1982, Manchester UP, ISBN 0-7190-0926-X
Frankfort, Henri, The Art and Architecture of the
Ancient Orient, Pelican History of Art, 4th ed
1970, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), ISBN
0140561072
[112] Rodin to Now: Modern Sculpture, Palm Springs Desert

Museum
Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian

Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press
Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176
[113] Curtis, Penelpoe, Taking Positions: Figurative Sculpture

and the Third Reich, Henry Moore Institute, London,
2002
Henderson, George. Gothic, 1967, Penguin, ISBN

0-14-020806-2
[114] Visual arts in the 20th century, Author Edward LucieSmith, Edition illustrated, Publisher Harry N. Abrams,
1997,Original from the University of Michigan,ISBN 08109-3934-7, ISBN 978-0-8109-3934-9
[115] The Oxford dictionary of American art and artists, Author Ann Lee Morgan, Publisher Oxford University Press,
2007,Original from the University of Michigan,ISBN 019-512878-8, ISBN 978-0-19-512878-9
[116] National Air and Space Museum Receives Ascent
Sculpture for display at Udvar-Hazy Center
[117] Guggenheim museum
[118] Dia Foundation
Henig, Martin (ed), A Handbook of Roman Art,

Phaidon, 1983, ISBN 0714822140
Paine, Robert Treat, in: Paine, R. T. & Soper A,
The Art and Architecture of Japan, 3rd ed 1981,
Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN
0140561080
Hugh Honour and John Fleming, A World History of
Art, 1st edn. 1982 (many later editions), Macmillan,
London, page refs to 1984 Macmillan 1st edn. paperback. ISBN 0333371852
Howgego, Christopher, Ancient History from Coins,
Routledge, 1995, ISBN 041508993X
32
12
EXTERNAL LINKS
Kitzinger, Ernst, Byzantine art in the making: main

lines of stylistic development in Mediterranean art,
3rd7th century, 1977, Faber & Faber, ISBN
0571111548 (US: Cambridge UP, 1977)
Corning Museum of Glass
Olson, Roberta J.M., Italian Renaissance Sculpture,

1992, Thames & Hudson (World of Art), ISBN
978-0-500-20253-1
Cass Sculpture Foundation, a charity dedicated to

commissioning monumental sculpture.
Rawson, Jessica (ed). The British Museum Book of

Chinese Art, 2007 (2nd edn), British Museum Press,
ISBN 9780714124469
Archive.org The Encyclopdia Britannica Eleventh

Edition, Sculpture, pp. 488 to 517
Piotrovsky M.B. and Rogers, J.M. (eds), Heaven on

Earth: Art from Islamic Lands, 2004, Prestel, ISBN
3791330551
Robinson, James, Masterpieces of Medieval Art,
2008, British Museum Press, ISBN 978-0-71412815-3
Sandars, Nancy K., Prehistoric Art in Europe, Penguin (Pelican, now Yale, History of Art), 1968 (nb
1st edn.; early datings now superseded)
Scholten, Frits (2011). European sculpture and metalwork. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of
Art. ISBN 9781588394415.
Sickman, Laurence, in: Sickman L & Soper A, The
Art and Architecture of China, Pelican History of
Art, 3rd ed 1971, Penguin (now Yale History of
Art), LOC 70-125675
Smith, W. Stevenson, and Simpson, William Kelly.
The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt, 3rd edn.
1998, Yale University Press (Penguin/Yale History
of Art), ISBN 0300077475
Snyder, James. Northern Renaissance Art, 1985,
Harry N. Abrams, ISBN 0136235964
Strong, Donald, et al., Roman Art, 1995 (2nd edn.),
Yale University Press (Penguin/Yale History of Art),
ISBN 0300052936
Williams, Dyfri.
Masterpieces of Classical Art, 2009, British Museum Press, ISBN
9780714122540
12
External links
Sculpture hub at the Victoria and Albert Museum

Essays on sculpture from Sweet Briar College, Department of Art History
International Sculpture Center
Stone Carvers Guild of America (ocial website).
Sculpture artists listings from the-artists.org
Weird, Wonderful Modern Sculptures, a slideshow

by Life magazine
Public sculpture in Perth Australia
33
13
13.1
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text
Sculpture Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpture?oldid=642533605 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Magnus Manske, Kpjas,

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[1] Original artist: antmoose
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2x'
data-le-width='128'
data-leheight='128' /></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/6305' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png'
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height='20' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='620'
data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Miyasaka Hakuryu II (Japanese, active mid 19th century)
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jpg/50px-Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg' width='50' height='67' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Moai_
Rano_raraku.jpg/75px-Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg/
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glazed_stoneware%2C_75_x_19_x_27_cm%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Orsay%2C_Paris.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Coldcreation photographed this sculpture by Paul Gauguin at the Muse d'Orsay, Paris, 17 April 2013 Original artist: Paul Gauguin, Oviri,
photograph by Alex Mittelmann, aka, Coldcreation
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Sculpture

Sculptor redirects here. For other uses, see Sculptor

The Dying Gaul, or The Capitoline Gaul [1] a Roman marble

in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable

Assyrian lamassu gate guardian from Khorsabad, c. 721800

The Western tradition of sculpture began in Ancient BCE

2 PURPOSES AND SUBJECTS

Netsuke of tigress with two cubs, mid-19th century Japan, ivory

The term sculpture properly covers many types of small

Modern and contemporary art have added a number of

A basic distinction is between sculpture in the round,

sal statues of deities which characterized Ancient Greek

Moai from Easter Island, where the concentration of resources

of some 4,500 years ago. In archaeology and art history

Medal of John VIII Palaeologus, c. 1435, by Pisanello, the rst

Portrait sculpture began in Egypt, where the Narmer

Materials and techniques

MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES

cylinder seals and engraved gems), and cast metals such

Sumerian male worshipper,

Alabaster with shell eyes,

The materials used in sculpture are diverse, changing

Modern reconstruction of the original painted appearance (based

Stone sculpture is an ancient activity where pieces of

tic purposes of semi-precious stones such as jade, agate,

Glass may be used for sculpture through a wide range of

A carved wooden Bodhisattva from the Song Dynasty 9601279,

Trecento onwards in Italy, with gures such as Arnolfo di

Wood carving has been extremely widely practiced, but

Ancient Near East

6.2 Ancient Near East

Venus of Willendorf, c. 24,00022,000 BC.

and wealthier state than the region had known before,

Egyptian pharaohs were always regarded as deities, but

Thutmose, Bust of Nefertiti, 1345 BC, Egyptian Museum of

See also: Art of ancient Egypt and Amarna art

Menkaura (Mycerinus) and queen, Old Kingdom,

Charioteer of Delphi, ancient Greek bronze statue, 5th century

Main article: Ancient Greek sculpture

Bulls head, Mycenaean rhyton Terra cotta, 1300

There are fewer original remains from the rst phase of

The Hellenistic period is conventionally dated from the

maining successor-state to Alexanders empire after the

Europe after the Greeks

most work was free-standing, and group compositions

The Winged Victory of Samothrace, c. 190 BC,

Section of Trajans Column, CE 113, with scenes from the Dacian

Europe after the Greeks

Main article: Roman sculpture

Augustan state Greco-Roman style on the Ara Pacis, 13 BCE

Tomb relief of the Decii, 98117 CE

them, of which those commemorating Trajan (CE 113)

Silver monster on a chape, Scottish or Anglo-Saxon, St Ninians

Europe after the Greeks

The Gero Cross, c. 965970, Cologne, Germany

Byzantine art, though producing superb ivory reliefs and

The Brunswick Lion, 1166, the rst large hollow casting of a

Main article: Romanesque art

Romanesque art was characterised by a very vigorous

still often varied in size in relation to their importance

Baptismal font at St Bartholomews Church, Lige,

Michelangelo and Donatello.[77] Originally a goldsmith,

Giambologna, The Rape of the Sabine Women,