EDEXCEL NATIONAL CERTIFICATE/DIPLOMA

UNIT 67 - FURTHER ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES

NQF LEVEL 3
OUTCOME 3
TUTORIAL 1 - SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUITS

Unit content
3. Understand the behaviour of single-phase alternating current (AC) circuits
Series R, L and C alternating current (AC) circuits: current and phase angle in series
combinations of RLC circuits (RL, RC, RLC); construction of phasor diagrams and relationship
with voltage and impedance triangles for each of the three types of R, L and C combinations;
power factor (cos ) and power triangle e.g. apparent power (S = VI), true or active power (P =
VI cos ) and reactive power (Q = VI sin ); conditions for series resonance e.g. inductive
reactance equals capacitive reactance (XL = XC); Q factor (voltage magnification) e.g
1 L
V
,and its importance in high and low frequency circuits.
Q = L ,Q =
R C
V
Parallel: evaluation of the voltage, current and phase angle in parallel combinations of
resistance, inductance and capacitance e.g. RL, RC, LC and RLC; construction of phasor
diagrams for impedance and phase angle; conditions for parallel resonance in an RLC circuit
e.g. supply current and voltage in phase;
L
Impedance at resonance e.g. dynamic resistance R D =
; Q factor (current magnification)
CR
I
e.g. Q = C ; filter circuits e.g. high pass, low pass, band pass, band stop.
I

It assumed that the student has studied the Electrical and Electronic principles module.

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

1. POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Industrial users of electric power often place inductive loads on the supply in the form of large
motors and transformers. This may be regarded as an inductor in series with a resistor and produces
a current that lags the supply voltage. The true power is that developed across the resistive load and
is given by P = I2R and is measured in Watts.
Consider a resistor in series with an inductor. The inductive voltage phasor leads the resistive
voltage phasor by 90o. The resultant voltage is the supply voltage.

The apparent power is the product of V and I and often stated as

S = VI. This is not measured in Watts but in Volt Amps.
V/I is the impedance Z and is given by Z = R 2 + X 2

The POWER FACTOR is the ratio of the true power to the

apparent power and is defined as
P I 2 R IR R
P.F. = =
=
= = cos( ) hence P = VI cos()
S VI
V Z
In order to reduce the power factor a series capacitor is needed to produce capacitive reactance
equal and opposite to the inductive reactance. Ideally XC = XL
This is obtained from the relationship XL /R = tan
X
Reactive power is defined as Q = L = VI sin ( )
Z

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 1

An ac load takes 2.5 kW of power from a supply 110V at 60 Hz. The current is 30 A. Determine
the power factor and the size of a capacitor needed in series to correct it.
SOLUTION

P.F. = True Power /Apparent Power = 2500/(110 x 30) = 0.758

= cos-1(P.F.) = cos-1 0.758 = 40.71o
True Power = I2R = 302 R = 2500 W
R = 2500/900 = 2.777
XL/R = tan = 0.86
XL = 0.86 R = 2.392
XC = 2.39 = 1/(2fC)
C = 1/(2 x 60 x 2.39) = 0.00111 F
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 1

1. A consumer takes 20 kW of power from an ac supply at 240 V and 50 Hz. Due to an inductive
power factor, the current is 100 A. Determine the power factor and the size of a capacitor
required to correct it. (0.0024 F)
2. An electrical load comprises of a resistance of 100 and an inductor of 0.6 H in series. The
supply is at 240 V and 50 Hz. Determine the Power factor. (0.47 )
3. An ac supply to a consumer is at 220V and 50 Hz with a current of 20 A. It is found that there is
a lagging phase angle of 20o. Determine the Power Factor, the true power and the size of a
capacitor that would make the power factor 1. (0.364, 1.6 kW and 795 F)

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

2.

SERIES CIRCUITS

We know from previous studies that the relationship between current and voltage for any
component is related as a ratio X = V/I. For a resistor this ratio is resistance R but for an inductor it
is called inductive reactance XL and for a capacitor capacitive reactance XC.
Inductive reactance increases with frequency and is given by XL = 2 f L
1
2 f C
When current flows in an RLC circuit, the relationship between it and the resulting voltage is called
the IMPEDANCE Z.
V
Z=
I
V and I are the resulting r.m.s. volts and current.
Capacitive reactance decreases with frequency and is given by X C =

Since reactance is V/I it follows that it is also a phasor. The phasor diagram for a series R L C
circuit may be drawn as shown with R drawn horizontally to make it easier.

Z=

(X L X C )2 + R 2

X XC
and = tan 1 L

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 2

A resistor of value 470 is connected in series with a capacitor of 22 F and an inductor of 50

mH and a voltage is applied across it. A current of 100 mA (rms) is produced.
Determine the impedance, the phase angle between the voltage and current and the applied
voltage when the frequency is 50 Hz
SOLUTION

XL = 2fL = 2 x 50 x 50 x 10-3 =15.71

XC = 1/2fC = 1/(2 x 50 x 22 x 10-6) =144.6
Z=

(X L X C )2 + R 2

(15.71 144.6)2 + 470 2

= 487.4

XL XC
1 15.71 144.6
o
= tan
= 15.3
470
R

VS = I Z = 0.1 x 487.4 = 48.7 V rms

= tan 1

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 2

1. A resistor of value 4 is connected in series with a capacitor of 47 F and an inductor of 20

H and a voltage is applied across it. A current of 50 mA (rms) is produced.
Determine the impedance, the phase angle between the voltage and current and the applied
voltage when the frequency is 100 Hz. (34 , -83.3o and 1.7 V)
2. A resistor of value 0.2 is connected in series with a capacitor of 4.7 F and an inductor of 5
mH and 0.5 V rms is applied across the ends.
Determine the impedance, the phase angle between the voltage and current and the rms current
when the frequency is 1000 Hz. (2.455 , -85.3o and 204 mA)

3.

PARALLEL CIRCUITS.

The main point about parallel circuits is that the voltage is common to each and the current is
different. It is often easier to use the idea of ADMITTANCE and CONDUCTANCE so this is
defined next.
ADMITTANCE and CONDUCTANCE
These are mainly used in the solution of parallel circuits.
Conductance is the inverse of resistance and is denoted G.
1
G=
R
It follows that IR = V G

Admittance is the inverse of impedance and is denoted Y.

1
Y=
Z
It follows that I = V Y
Susceptance is the inverse of reactance and is denoted B.
1
B=
X
It follows that IC = V BC for a capacitor and IL = V BL for an inductor.
The units of Y, G and B are Siemens symbol S. 1 S = 1 -1
PARALLEL RESISTORS

The circuit shows two resistors in parallel. The parallel rule tells us
1
1
1
1
=
+
or Y = G 1 + G 2
Z=
Alternatively
1
1
Z
R
R
1
2
+
R1 R 2

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

PARALLEL RESISTOR, INDUCTOR AND CAPACITOR

Consider the parallel circuit below. The voltage is common to all components but the current in the
inductor is reactive and leads the voltage by 90o and the current in the capacitor lags by 90o. Since
the current in the resistor is in phase with the voltage, the phasor diagram for the currents is like
this.

It is convenient to draw the phasors with IR horizontal and the resultant current is as shown.
The resultant current = I =

(I L I C )2 + I 2R

I XC
The phase angle is = tan 1 L

R
If we substitute IR = V G and IL = V BL and IC = V BC
B BC
2
Y = (B L B C ) + G 2 = tan 1 L

G
It also follows that we may represent G, B and Y as phasors.
You should decide which method you prefer to use.
The parallel circuit may be represented with G, B and Y as shown.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 3

For the three circuits shown below, determine the supply current and phase angle between the
supply voltage and current when 50 V rms is applied.

SOLUTIONS

(a) Y =

(B L BC )2 + G 2

(0 0.2)2 + 0.52

= 0.539 S

I = VS x Y = 50 x 0.539 = 26.926 A
B BC
1 0 0.2
o
= tan 1 L
= tan
= 21.8
G
0.5

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

(b) Y =

(B L BC )2 + G 2

(0.125 0)2 + 0.252

= 0.28 S

I = VS x Y = 50 x 0.28 = 13.98 A
B BC
1 0.125 0
o
= tan 1 L
= tan
= 26.6
0.25
G
(c) Y =

(B L BC )2 + G 2

(0.04 0.05)2 + 0.052

= 0.108 S

I = VS x Y = 50 x 0.108 = 5.385 A
B BC
1 0.04 0.05
o
= tan 1 L
= tan
= 21.8
0.1

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 3

1. In a parallel R L C circuit, R = 75 k , L = 5 H and C = 0.2 nF. The voltage supply is 0.5 V at

2 Mz. Calculate the admittance, impedance of the circuit, the current and the phase angle.
(0.016 S, 61.7 , 8.1 mA and -34.7o)
2. In a parallel R L C circuit, R = 2 K , L = 40 mH and C = 20 nF. The voltage supply is 2 V at
100 kHz. Calculate the admittance, impedance of the circuit, the current and the phase angle.
(0.03 S, 33 , 61 mA and 63.9o)

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

4. RESONANT CIRCUITS.
SERIES
A series circuit is resonant when the inductive reactance is equal and opposite of the capacitive
reactance. It follows that the phase angle is zero. At this condition the reactance is equal to R and is
a minimum value. For a given circuit, there will be a frequency fo where this occurs.

For resonance, XC = XL
Rearranging we have:

2foL = 1/2foC where fo is the resonant frequency.

(2 f 0 )2 LC = 1

(2 f o L)(2 f o C) = 1

f o2 =

1
1
fo =
2
(2 ) LC
2 LC

Q FACTOR

It is quite possible to obtain voltages across a capacitor or inductor larger the supply voltage. We
get a magnification. To define this we use the Q factor defined as follows.
Q = VC /V for a capacitor and VL /V for an inductor. The Q factor may also be based on the current
ratio, especially for parallel circuits.
At resonance V = IR since the capacitive and inductive components are equal and opposite so
1
VC = I XC = I/2fC
QC =
2 f o RC
QL =

VL = I XL = I 2fL

2 fo L
R

At any other frequency the Q factor is lower and needs to be worked out the hard way. Note that in
both cases, the smaller the value of R the larger the Q factor.
Lets take some typical values VS = 10, C = 2mF and L = 2 mH R = 0.1 . The resonant frequency
is
1
1
QC = 1/2foRC = 10 QL = 2foL/R = 10
=
= 79.6 Hz
fo =
2 LC 2 2x10 -3 x 2 x 10 -3
If we calculate VL and VC over a range of
frequencies we get the following result.
We see that the voltages peak at resonance is
100 giving Q = 10 as predicted. If R is zero,
then in theory we get an infinite voltage at
resonance. If we increase R, we reduce the
peak.

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

PARALLEL
Resonance in a parallel circuit occurs when BL = BC and the
resulting admittance is G = 1/R

We will find the result is the same and

1
fo =
2 LC

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 4

A series circuit comprises of a resistance of 5 , a capacitor of 2 nF and an inductor of 5 H.

Calculate the resonant frequency and the current at resonance when 1 V rms is applied.
Calculate the Q factor at resonance.
SOLUTION
1
1
=
= 1.592 MHz
fo =
2 LC 2 5 x 10 -6 x 2 x 10 -9

I = V/Z = V/R = 1/5 = 0.2 A

QC = 1/2foRC == 1/(2 x 2.59 x 106 x 5 x 2 x 10-9) = 10
QL = 2foL/R = 10

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 4

1. A series circuit has L = 60 mH, R = 15 and C = 15 nF. The supply is 2V ac. Calculate:
i. the resonant frequency (5.3 kHz)
ii. the voltage over each component. (VR = 0.266 A, VC = 266 V, VL = 266 A)
iii. the Q factor for the capacitor and inductor at resonance. (133.3)
2. A parallel circuit has L = 40 mH, R = 1 k and C = 10 nF. The supply is 2V ac. Calculate:
i. the resonant frequency (7.96 kHz)
ii. the current in each component. (IR = 2 mA, IC = 1 mA, IL =1 mA)

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

5. DYNAMIC RESISTANCE

Any inductor is made from a coil of conducting material, usually copper

and so has a resistance. We can idealise such an inductor as a resistance
in series with pure inductor. This also applies to a series R and L circuit.
The phasor diagram is as shown and it follows that the impedance of the
coil is: (ZS )2 = R 2 + X L 2
1
The admittance of the coil is YS =
ZS
The phase angle is found from tan() = XL/R
Now suppose that a capacitor is placed in parallel with the circuit. The phasor diagram using the
admittance is shown.
At resonance the inductive and capacitive admittance are equal so the impedance of the circuit is
resistive. This is called the DYNAMIC RESISTANCE RD.
At resonance capacitive and inductive components are equal so
the conductance is G = YS cos()
1
BC =
= YSsin( )
XC
1
YS =
X C sin( )
1
cos( )
1
= YS cos( ) =
=
G=
RD
X C sin( ) X C tan( )
X X
2f L
L
R D = X C tan( ) = C L
=
RD =
R
2 f C R CR

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 5

A pure inductance of 150 H is connected in series with a resistance of 5. A capacitance of

470 nF is connected in parallel as shown. Determine the dynamic resistance and the resonant
frequency. If a sinusoidal voltage of 5 V rms is applied at the resonant frequency, what are the
rms currents in the inductor and the capacitor? Determine the current Q factor for each.

SOLUTION
L
150 x10 6
RD =
=
= 63.83
CR 470 x10 9 x 5
1
1
At resonance Xc = XL so f o =
=
= 18 955 Hz
2 LC 2 150x10 6 x 470 x 10-9
1
1
XC =
=
= 17.865
2 f o C 2 (18955)(470 x10-9 )
IC = 5/17.865 = 0.28 A rms

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

10

For an inductor and resistor in series (ZS )2 = R 2 + X L 2

X L = 2 f o L = 2 (18955)(150 x10-6 ) = 17.865
resonant.
(ZS )2 = R 2 + X L 2 = 52 + 17.8652 = 344.149

This is no surprise because the circuit is

Zs = 18.551
IL = 5/18.551 = 0.27 A rms
The impedance of the whole network is the dynamic resistance so I = 5/63.83 = 0.078 A rms
QC = 0.28/0.078 = 3.573
QL = 0.27/0.078 = 3.441

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 5

A pure inductance of 200 H is connected in series with a resistance of 0.5. A capacitance of

900 nF is connected in parallel as shown. A sinusoidal voltage of 10 V rms is applied at the
resonant frequency.
Determine the resonant frequency, the dynamic resistance and the current Q factor for the
capacitor and inductor.

(Answers 11 863 Hz, 444.4 , 29.81 and 29.8)

D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

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FILTERS

You have seen that capacitors and inductors produce reactance that varies with frequency. If we use
a suitable circuit containing both we can filter out unwanted components of mixed signals. The
diagram shows a LOW and HIGH PASS FILTER.

The high pass filter allows frequencies above a certain value to pass while those below are
attenuated. The low pass filter allows low frequencies through but attenuates high frequencies.
Remember capacitive reactance reduces with frequency but inductive reactance increases. The
design of the filter depends on the frequencies of interest. One use of a low pass filter is to smooth
out direct current with an ac ripple on it and remove mains hum from an audio signal.
Low and high pass filters may be designed with a capacitor and resistor as shown. The time
constant RC is important in determining the useful frequencies.

The characteristics of a typical low pass filter are shown. How fast the voltage drops away after the
cut off point depends on the design and in particular the Q factor.
Other filters are used to either stop a band of frequencies within a range or either side of a range.
These are called BAND PASS and BAND STOP. The diagram shows a band pass filter design and
characteristic. The band width is the frequency range between the cut off point on either side of the
filter. The sharpness of the filter depends on the steepness of the sides.

An example of a band pass filter is in radios where the frequencies either side of the frequency
required are removed. Another example is in signal multiplexing like multiple telephone signals on
one line might be removed leaving only the one required.
A band stop filter does the opposite by filtering out a particular
range of frequencies. For example a notch filter used in radios
will be tuned with a high Q factor to prevent one particular
frequency interfering with the rest. The diagram opposite shows
a high Q notch filter.
D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk

12