TEXTBOOK

Landing Gear

020 00 00 00 AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

021 04 00 00 LANDING GEAR

RH

LH
ELEVATOR

RUDDER
AILERON

NU

TRIM
AIL

RUD

E
L
E
V

ND
ROLL

ROLL
GND

GND
FLAPS

12
12

20

10

32

FLIGHT HYDR
CONTROL

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Landing Gear

Table of Contents:

Landing Gear Systems......................................................................................................3

Landing gear Classification .............................................................................................6
Fixed Gear.......................................................................................................................6
Retractable Gear.............................................................................................................8
Tail-wheel/Nose-wheel Arrangements ............................................................................8
Retractable Wheel-type Landing Gear / Operation.......................................................10
Energy Absorption.........................................................................................................17
Oleo-Pneumatic Shock Struts .......................................................................................19
Landing Gear Bracing ...................................................................................................20
Main Landing Gear Wheel Configuration......................................................................20
Landing Gear Locks ......................................................................................................21
Landing Gear Doors......................................................................................................21
Extension and Retraction ..............................................................................................24
Landing Gear Control and Indication ............................................................................26
Landing Gear Warning System .....................................................................................27
Nose wheel Steering .......................................................................................................27
Turning Radius ..............................................................................................................28
Wheel Braking Systems..................................................................................................29
Operation.......................................................................................................................30
Powered Brake System.................................................................................................31
Brake Energy Capacity .................................................................................................33
Anti-Skid Systems .........................................................................................................33
Parking Brake................................................................................................................35
Indications .....................................................................................................................36
Auto Brakes...................................................................................................................36
Fading / Loss of braking action .....................................................................................37
Dragging / Failure of the brakes to release completely ................................................37
Chattering or Squealing ................................................................................................37
Overheating...................................................................................................................37
Aquaplaning ..................................................................................................................38
Wheels and Tyres ............................................................................................................40
Wheels ..........................................................................................................................40
Tyres .............................................................................................................................41
Creep.............................................................................................................................47
Temperature..................................................................................................................47
Wear..............................................................................................................................47
Cuts ...............................................................................................................................48
Contamination ...............................................................................................................48
Tyre Checking Procedures - Tyre Inflation ...................................................................48
Tyre Venting ..................................................................................................................49

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Landing Gear

Landing Gear Systems

The landing gear of a fixed wing aircraft supports the weight of the aircraft while it is on
the ground and is made up of the main and auxiliary landing gear. The main gear
provides the principal support. The auxiliary gear is in the form of a nose or tail wheel
installation, almost invariably the former, especially in large aircraft.

The landing gear contains shock absorbers to withstand the landing forces and the
effects of taxiing over uneven surfaces, and brakes to stop and assist in controlling the
aircraft on the ground. Most modern aircraft with tricycle (nose-wheel) layouts are
equipped with nose-wheel steering for ground manoeuvring, some very large aircraft also
have main wheel steering (known as body steering). In aircraft designed for flight at high
speeds/altitudes the landing gear is retracted into the fuselage or wings in flight, to reduce
profile drag. In low performance aircraft this is less important and the landing gear is often
fixed in the extended configuration. Most civil transport aircraft are equipped with a
double nose wheel landing gear arrangement. Main gears of smaller and medium weight
civil transport aircraft are equipped with two wheels.

The advantages of tricycle landing gear during ground Operation are:

4 No risk of the aircraft `nosing over' during hard braking.
4 Better visibility for the pilot during taxiing.
4 Less likelihood of ground looping during take-off or landing in cross-wind conditions.

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Landing Gear

Many aircraft are equipped with a tricycle gear arrangement to achieve a stable position
on ground.

Apart from the advantage of increased

stability the advantages of a nose
wheel
tricycle
landing
gear
arrangement include easier loading
with a level floor line; improved pilot
visibility making landing and taxiing
easier; aerodynamic drag on take off
is reduced

TAIL WHEEL

NOSE WHEEL

The visibility for the pilot during landing and taxiing varies with the gear location.

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Landing Gear

Landing devices may be simple or complex in construction, depending on the weight and
the category of aircraft. Any type of landing device is an airframe component. Complex
landing devices may even constitute an airframe sub-system.

Basically there are 5 main types of landing gear according to the surface from which the
aircraft is designed to operate. These types are:
-

wheel-type landing gear

float-type gear

ski-type landing gear

skid-type landing gear

flotation-type gear.

Various configurations for landing gears have been adopted in the past, but many of them
where designed for special purposes.

Wheel-type Landing Gear

A wheel-type landing gear is fitted to fixed-wing and rotary-winged aircraft which are
designed to operate from hard surfaces.
Note:

A hard surface may be a conventional runway or the deck of a ship.

Float-type Gear
Float-type gear may be found on fixed-wing (e.g. sea planes) or rotary-wing aircraft which
are designed to operate from the surfaces of rivers, lakes or the sea.

Ski-type Landing Gear

Ski-type landing gear is fitted to fixed-wing land planes to enable operation from surfaces
covered with ice or snow. This type of gear is normally fitted in addition to a wheel-type
gear.

Skid-type Landing Gear

Skid-type landing gear is commonly fitted to helicopters to enable operation from almost
any type of surface except water.

Flotation-type Gear
Flotation-type gear is sometimes fitted to helicopters in addition to the skids. The floats
are inflatable to enable landing on water.

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Landing Gear

Landing gear Classification

Wheel-type landing gear may be classified into 2 main types:

-

fixed gear

retractable gear.

Fixed Gear

The term fixed gear applies to landing gear which remains, by design, in a fixed position
to the fuselage/wing structure of an aircraft throughout the aircraft operation, whether on
ground or in flight. This type of gear is commonly fitted to light single- or twin-engined
fixed-wing aircraft designed for low airspeeds and to many types of helicopter.
Fixed landing gears are often equipped with cowlings or fairings to reduce the drag. They
may be externally braced or of the cantilever type without bracings.

The parasite drag will differ between an aircraft with a retractable landing gear and an
aircraft equipped with a fixed gear.

The advantages of this type of gear are the simplicity of design, its structural stiffness and
ease of maintenance.

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Landing Gear

A fixed gear unit is made up of a main strut for taking the major loads, a fork and axle,
and a wheel. The main strut may be designed as:
-

tubular spring-steel strut

flat spring-steel strut

spring oleo strut

oleo-pneumatic strut.

The first 3 types are fitted to light single-engined aircraft.

The oleo-pneumatic type of strut is widely used on light single- and multi-engined aircraft.
It consists of an upper strut containing hydraulic fluid and nitrogen and a lower telescopic
strut. The upper and lower struts are interconnected by a torque link. The axle is
sometimes fitted to the lowest end of the telescopic strut on a fork. Single wheels
containing brake units are normally fitted to the axles.
Both, the spring oleo strut and oleo/pneumatic strut (torque links) are used on rotary-wing
aircraft.

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Landing Gear

Retractable Gear

The term retractable gear is applied to landing gear which is designed for retraction (and
stowage) in wing or fuselage compartments during flight. This type of gear is fitted to all
high-performance fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft.
The advantage of this type of gear is the total elimination of drag caused by the gear
during climb-out and cruising phases of the flight. The climb/cruise and maximum speeds
of the aircraft will be higher for a given power/thrust rating of the engine(s).
Retractable landing gear is made up of an oleo-pneumatic shock strut, one or more
actuators and one or more axles to which one or more wheels may be mounted.

Tail-wheel/Nose-wheel Arrangements

Additional to the classification of wheel-type landing gear into fixed and retractable,
such gear may be divided into tail-wheel and nose-wheel landing gear.

Tail-wheel Landing Gear

Although this type of landing gear was the conventional landing gear during the first 3
decades of aviation, it must now be regarded as obsolete for most designs.
The main wheels are located at each side of the centreline ahead of the centre of gravity.
A steerable tail wheel is located at the aft near the rudder (originally, a fixed tail skid was
used).

The advantages of the tail-wheel landing gear are as follows:

The tail wheel is:
-

small,

light in weight and

simple in design.

The attachment of the main-gear legs to the wings can easily be accomplished.

A so-called 3-point landing can be carried out at high angles of attack. The
aerodynamic drag provides a retarding force, which is particularly needed when
the brakes can not be fully applied, e.g. on wet grass or on ice.

When brakes are applied, the vertical load on the main gear increases.

This reduces the risk of skidding.

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Landing Gear

The following disadvantages are the reason why the tail-wheel landing gear has almost
completely been replaced by the nose-wheel gear:
-

Violent braking tends to tip the airplane onto its nose.

The braking force acts ahead of the centre of gravity. It thus has a destabilizing
effect when the airplane is moving at a certain angle of yaw relative to its track.
This may cause a ground loop.

During a so-called 2-point landing a tail down moment is created by the impact
force on the main landing gear. This results in an increase of lift which will cause
the airplane to bounce.

On the ground, the attitude of the wings makes taxiing difficult under strong
winds.

The steep ground angle inclines the cabin floor. In case of airliners this is
uncomfortable for passengers. Additionally, loading/unloading operations are
inconvenient.

In the tail down attitude the inclination of the fuselage will limit the pilots view
over the nose of the airplane,

During the initial take-off run the drag is high until the tail can be raised.

Nose-wheel Landing Gear

The main wheels of a nose-wheel (or: tricycle) landing gear are located at each side of
the centreline behind the centre of gravity. A free-swivel or steer-able nose wheel is
mounted on the centreline in the forward section of the fuselage (in many smaller
airplanes just behind the propeller).
The advantages and disadvantages of the nose-wheel gear are roughly the opposite of
those for the tail-wheel type. The principal advantages are as follows:
-

The breaking forces act behind the centre of gravity.

They have a stabilizing effect, thus enabling the pilot to make full use of the
brakes.

On the ground, the fuselage (and consequently the cabin floor) of the aircraft are
(almost) levelled.

The pilots view is good.

The nose wheel is a safeguard against turning over (protection of the

propeller(s)).

During the initial part of the take-off the drag is low.

During a 2-point landing the main gear creates a positive pitching moment.

Because of the steady increase in landing speeds of modern airplanes these advantages
have compensated the following disadvantages by far:
The nose-wheel unit must take 20 % to 30 % of the airplanes weight in a steady braking
condition. Therefore, it must be comparatively heavy.

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Landing Gear

The landing gear must be fitted at a position where special structural provisions have
been made.
In the case of retractable nose-wheel gears on light airplanes, it may be difficult to find
any stowage space at all in the compartment.

Retractable Wheel-type Landing Gear / Operation

Main Landing Gears

Retractable landing gears were developed to eliminate as much as possible the drag
caused by the exposure of the landing gear to airflow during flight. Usually, the landing
gear is completely retractable. There are airplanes in which a portion of the wheels is still
exposed to the airstream after the gear is retracted (semi-retractable landing gear).
There are almost as many different gear retraction systems as there are different airplane
designs. The direction of retraction may be fore or aft, sideways or a combination of
either. The main wheels are retracted inboard whenever possible, because outboard
retraction places the weight of the gear further out in the wings. This, in turn, will increase
the wing lateral mass moment (known as the lateral inertia). The increase of the lateral
inertia must be compensated by larger and more powerful ailerons to maintain a specified
rate of roll or acceptance of a reduced rolling rate for a given wing configuration.

Manual retraction used on smaller airplanes is the simplest type of retraction system.
Manual retraction can be accomplished by direct hand lever action or by use of a
hydraulic hand pump. No alternate (emergency) retraction method is required with
manual systems.

The landing gears of large airplanes are power-operated. This is normally accomplished
with hydraulic power, sometimes with electric or pneumatic power.

In addition to the normal operating system, it is necessary to provide emergency systems

to ensure that the landing gear can be lowered if the primary system fails. Emergency
systems consist of stored air or gas which can be directed into actuating cylinders or
mechanical systems that can be operated manually.
The operation of the landing gear doors is made by linkages with the gear struts or
braces so that the doors follow the gear extension and retraction. Mechanical locks
engage the landing gear automatically in the down and up positions to ensure that the
gear will hold its position.
Landing gear systems are normally provided with safety switches or locks which make it
impossible to retract the gear when the airplane is on the ground.

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General, on
modern jet
transport
aircraft, the
landing gear
can be
extended
mechanically in
case of a
complete
hydraulic
system failure.

Landing Gear

Most retraction mechanisms are derived from the 4-bar linkage. A suitable pivot point is
required for the leg. At the same time, the linkage provides the required wheel position
and allows adequate length of the leg. The mechanical parts of the retraction system
must be designed in such a way that minimum space is required when the landing gear is
retracted.

Note:

Due to the fact that the majority of modern aircraft have a retractable landing gear
with nose wheel, only this type will be discussed more detailed in the this Lesson.

Retractable Main Landing Gear with Single Wheel

The main landing gear (MLG) of the direct type includes an oleo-pneumatic shock
absorber for each leg. It supports an aluminium alloy wheel (hub) with a tubed tyre and a
hydraulic disk-brake.
The inner cylinder of the shock absorber is prevented from rotating inside the outer
cylinder by torque links.

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Landing Gear

As for the auxiliary leg, each main leg is actuated and locked by a slanted-strut hydraulic
jack.
The tricycle landing gear improves the performance envelope of the aircraft because of
the following reasons:
-

The auxiliary leg is mounted laterally within the front box structure of the
fuselage. It is retracted rearwards.

Both main legs are mounted on the fuselage. They are retracted rearwards into
appropriate fairings.

Retractable Main Landing Gear with Double Wheels

The main landing gear with double wheels has 2

twin wheels with tubeless tyres and multiple disk
brakes. Such gears are usually of the direct
type as well. This means, they have a built-in
oleo-pneumatic shock absorber. The bracing is
provided by 2 struts.
Operation of the gear, i.e. extending and
retracting, is by means of a double-acting
hydraulic actuating cylinder. The landing gear
up

and

landing

gear

down

locking

is

mechanical by means of spring boxes.

Unlocking of the gear from the up and down
positions is done by means of single-acting
hydraulic actuating cylinders.
Usually, the 2 main landing gears of a civil
airliner are mounted laterally at the wings.
Many main landing gears retract towards the
nose

into

the

engine

nacelle

under

the

combined action of struts and a hydraulically

controlled actuating cylinder.
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A main
landing gear
is said to be
locked down
when the
strut is
locked by an
over-centre
mechanism

Landing Gear

Retractable Main Landing Gear with Trailing Arm

The main landing gear shown here is of trailing arm type. It has an independent oleopneumatic shock absorber. It is equipped with twin wheels with tubeless tyres and
multiple disk brakes. The bracing is provided by 2 struts.

The type of brake

unit found on most
transport
aeroplanes is a
multiple disk brake

To prevent the
landing gear from
collapsing when
the aircraft is
parked on the
ground, locking
pins with flags are
used

Side loads imposed on an undercarriage unit on loading are absorbed by the side load
strut or link.

The gear is operated by means of a double-acting hydraulic cylinder.

Locking the gears is done mechanically:
-

locking in the up position by means of an up-lock box,

locking in the down position by 2 spring boxes.

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Landing Gear

The gear is unlocked from the up and down positions by means of single-acting
hydraulic cylinders.
During emergency operation, an assisting actuator allows extension of the gear down to
the locked position.

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Landing Gear

Nose Landing Gears

Here you can see an example of a retractable nose landing gear (NLG).

The operation of these gears is similar to that of main gears. The gears move in a straight
line in fore and aft direction.

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Landing Gear

Important for the operation of the nose gear are the torque links and the shimmy damper.
The torque links hold the nose wheel aligned.
Torque links come under most stress when tight turns are made during taxiing

Landing gear torque links are used to prevent rotation of the

landing gear piston in the oleo strut
The shimmy damper is a hydraulic snubbing unit which reduces the tendency of the
wheel to oscillate to both sides.
Shimmy dampers are usually designed as piston or vane types. Both may be modified to
provide power steering as well as shimmy damper action.

Nose wheel shimmy may be described as a possible damaging

vibration of the nose wheel when moving on the ground

NLG Centring Device

Nose gear shock struts are provided with an upper locating cam attached to the upper
cylinder and a mating lower locating cam attached to the lower cylinder. These cams line
up the wheel-and-axle assembly in the straight ahead position when the shock strut is
fully extended. This prevents the nose wheel from being cocked to one side when the
nose gear is retracted. Possible structural damage to the aircraft is prevented.

The mating cams also keep the nose

wheel in the straight ahead position
prior to landing when the strut is fully
extended.

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Landing Gear

Generally, nose gear struts are equipped with a locking (or disconnect) pin to enable full
turning of the aircraft when it is on the ground or in the hangar. Disengagement of this pin
will allow the wheel fork spindle to rotate 360, thus enabling the aircraft to be turned in a
very small area.
Nose (as well as main gear) shock struts are usually provided with jacking points and
towing lugs. The jacks should always be placed under the correct points. When towing
lugs are provided, the towing bar should be attached only to these lugs.

Energy Absorption

Various methods have been used to absorb the kinetic energy of the airplane when
touching down (i.e. to absorb the so-called landing shocks).

Shock Cord
A shock cord is a simple and cheap way of controlling wheel deflection to absorb vertical
velocity. The energy is absorbed by the friction developed between elastic components.
Axle displacement permitted by the shock cord plus tyre deflection reduces vertical
impact velocity. This means that the shock cord itself does not absorb any impact energy.

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Landing Gear

Rubber Disc
The principle of rubber discs is similar to that of shock cords. They absorb some energy
by developing internal friction (by compressing the rubber block inside). Because of the
contact between the rubber block and the wall of the container, surface friction may be
developed as well.

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Landing Gear

Oleo-Pneumatic Shock Struts

The landing gear shock struts are designed to absorb the shock loads of landing and
taxiing over uneven ground, preventing them from being transmitted to the airframe. The
upper (outer) cylinder of the strut is attached to the airframe and contains a lower (inner)
cylinder which is free to slide up or down (and rotate in the case of the nose strut) within
the outer cylinder. The cylinders are partially filled with oil and pressurised with
compressed air or nitrogen. This compressed gas absorbs the shocks of normal taxiing
and balances the weight of the aircraft when it is stationary on the ground, so that the
inner cylinder takes up an approximate mid-stroke position.

The purpose of the oil and the nitrogen in an oleo-pneumatic strut are:
-

the oil supplies the damping function and

the nitrogen supplies the spring function

Under the increased shock of landing the inner cylinder moves up, shortening the strut
length. To prevent excessive upward movement, transference of oil from lower to upper
cylinder is progressively restricted by either a metering pin or a snubber valve. As the
volume of the gas space in the upper cylinder decreases with the upward movement, the
gas pressure increases to Balance the upward force.

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Nitrogen and
a viscous
liquid are the
damping
element(s) in
a landing
gear shock
absorber
used on
larger aircraft.

Landing Gear

To prevent aircraft bounce on landing, the shock absorber damping on rebound is greater
than the damping on compression.

During a walk round pre-flight inspection, a main oleo leg is observed to

be lower than the other leg with no sign of leakage and the aircraft is
parked on a plan level you should check the load extension requirement
and have the leg charged with air.
It is important that the struts are inflated to the correct gas pressure. If the pressure is too
high the shock absorption is reduced, if the pressure is too low the strut extension will be
inadequate, leading to `bottoming' and complete loss of shock absorption under shock
loading. Checking the strut gas pressures is a job for an engineer, however a check of the
amount of the inner cylinder which is visible (the amount of extension) is a good indication
to the pilot on a walk around inspection that the gas pressure is approximately right.
Tables or graphs may be available which enable the pilot to determine the appropriate
extension for a given weight and loading configuration.
A scissor is a component found on landing gears. Its function is to
prevent any rotation of the oleo strut in the undercarriage shock
absorber.

Landing Gear Bracing

During take-off, landing and taxiing, the landing gear is subject to considerable side-for/aft
loads. To prevent damage, breaking or possible collapsing of the leg, additional support is
provided by fitting side Ioad struts/stays and drag struts to the gear assembly. Torsion
links maintain the wheel alignment with the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. They join the
inner and outer cylinders but allow the shock strut to compress for damping.

Main Landing Gear Wheel Configuration

Heavy aircraft need to spread the

weight of the aircraft over a wide
area to achieve an acceptable
pavement loading. The four basic
configurations
wheel

of

arrangement

landing
are

double, tandem and bogie.

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Page 20

gear
single,

Landing Gear
Landing Gear Locks
Landing gear up locks and down locks are provided. The locks are engaged by spring
Force and broken during retraction/extension by hydraulic pressure.

Landing Gear Doors

Landing gear doors are used to enclose the retracted landing gear to reduce drag in
flight. The doors may be mechanically operated by gear movement or hydraulically
operated and sequenced with the landing gear.

During landing gear extension and retraction the gears are moving through openings in
the fuselage, the wing or the engine nacelle.
The gear bays, where the gear is stored when retracted, are closed with different types of
gear doors:
-

One type is mounted to the gear.

Another type is fitted with a rod which is fixed to the gear.

The door may be driven directly or indirectly by the gear.

The door may be driven as a separate assembly (hydraulically).

Main and nose

wheel bays
are unpressurised

Some of these doors are also closed when the gear is down and locked in order to
reduce noise and air resistance. Such doors need a separate unlocking mechanism to
open them on the ground for maintenance purposes.

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Landing Gear

Lowering the gear using the free fall system will result in the main landing gear doors
remaining open.

Mechanically Driven Doors

An overheat / fire warning may be provided in the Wheel / Undercarriage bay.

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Landing Gear

Gear Retraction
When the gear retracts, the movement of the NLG leg is transmitted to the rear door by a
push-pull rod (rear-door rod) and to the split-lever assembly by a second push-pull rod
(front-door rod).
The rear-door rod acts directly on the rear door which closes as soon as the NLG leg is
retracted. The front-door rod is the input rod to the split-lever assembly. It acts indirectly
on the front door through the assembly.
The split lever provides a link between the NLG leg and the front door. Actually, it is a
bellcrank whose input and output cranks can be manually separated.
During initial movement, the NLG leg drives the split lever input rod forward. At the same
time, it drives the output crank of the bellcrank down. The front-door rod is pushed down
and the door is opened.

When the NLG leg has moved through approx. 45 the dead point of the split lever input
rods travel is reached and the bellcrank reverses its direction of movement. The output
crank now starts to pull on the door. When the gear is fully retracted the door is fully
closed. In this situation, it is pressed firmly against a fuselage stop.

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Landing Gear

Hydraulically Operated Doors

The inner main landing gear door forms a separate sub-system of the landing gear
extension and retraction system together with the door actuator and the door up-lock. The
door is controlled from the gear control unit according to the position of the landing gear.
The door is closed when the gear is down and locked. The door can be opened
mechanically for ground maintenance.

Extension and Retraction

Raising and lowering the retractable landing gear of an aircraft is, almost invariably,
achieved by hydraulic systems. Since the landing gear is essential to safe landing of the
aircraft, it is of vital importance that there should be an alternate means of extending the
gear in the event of hydraulic system failure. In many aircraft an emergency pneumatic
system can be selected to actuate the landing gear. An alternative method of lowering the
landing gear in an emergency is a gravity extension or free-fall system. In this type of
system, hydraulic pressure to the retraction system is shut off, the raise and lower lines

A back-up to
the normal
landing gear
extension
system may
be a high
pressure air
from air
storage
bottles

are open to return and the gear and door up-locks are mechanically released. The gear
extends under the influence of gravity and the down locks are engaged by spring action.
A selector valve directs hydraulic system pressure to the appropriate side of the operating
jacks (up or down) - at the same time connecting the other side of the jacks to the
reservoir return line.
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Page 24

If there is a
fluid leakage
from a jack
an oil seal
has failed

Landing Gear

Up selection
The selector valve spool moves to the right, directing hydraulic pressure to the up lines,
releasing the main landing gear (MLG) and nose landing gear (NLG) down locks.
Pressure is also applied to the MLG and NLG operating jacks to retract the gears. As the
NLG reaches the fully retracted Position the spring-loaded NLG up lock engages with a
spigot on the torsion links. As the MLG reaches the fully-retracted position the springloaded MLG up lock engages the detent on the MLG shock strut and a pinsle on the main
gear opens the sequence valve (SV1). This directs up line pressure to the inner door jack,
which operates to close the inner door.

Down selection
The selector valve spool moves to the left, directing hydraulic pressure to the down lines,
releasing the NLG up lock and pressurising the NLG operating jack to extend the nose
gear. Before the main gear is extended the inner doors must be opened by the door jack.
When the door reaches the full open position a pintle contacts sequence valve 2 (SV2),
opening it and allowing hydraulic pressure to release the MLG up lock and extend the
main gear. It will be noted that a one way restrictor valve is fitted in the up line between
the selector valve and the MLG jack. This restricts the flow of fluid returning from the jack
to the reservoir during MLG extension, thus limiting the rate of travel of the heavy main
gear which, with gravity added to hydraulic force, would otherwise be excessive. During
retraction the one-way restrictor permits full fluid flow.

Accidental retraction of the landing gear, due to inadvertent UP selection with the aircraft
on the ground, is prevented by weight-on safety switches, commonly called squat
switches, (which isolate the selector switch when aircraft weight is on the wheels) or by
mechanical locking devices inserted by ground maintenance staff.
In some aircraft, there is a protection device to avoid the landing
gear being inadvertently retracted on the ground. It consists of a
latch located in the landing gear lever

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Page 25

Landing Gear

Landing Gear Control and Indication

The landing gear control panel contains a selector handle with a knob in the shape of a
wheel for UP or DOWN and indications of landing gear position - down and locked,
travelling (unlocked) and up and locked. The gear operating handle may be locked when
the gear is down and the aircraft weight is on the wheels. It will only be unlocked when
the aircraft is airborne and its weight is off the wheels. In order to compare Operator
demands wich aircraft conditions (airborne or on the ground) a logic circuit is provided.
Three-position selector handles (UP/OFF/DOWN) are often used for additional safety.
The OFF position permits depressurisation of the landing gear retraction system in flight.

Landing gear position is displayed by means of one indicator for each gear (nose, left
main, right main) and often takes the form of three lights which illuminate green when the
gears are down, and locked in the down position. Whilst the gears are travelling from UP
to DOWN, or vice versa, a red light
illuminates to indicate `gear unlocked'.

The illumination of the green lamp

indicator corresponding to a landing
gear means that the landing gear is
locked down

This sometimes takes the form of a flashing red light in the gear operating handle. When
the gear is locked up, all lights are extinguished. The three gear indicators show:
4 up and locked
4 unlocked (travelling)
4 down and locked

The landing gear lever has three

positions. When the landing gear
lever is placed in the OFF position the
landing gear hydraulic system is
depressurised

The unlocked condition is accompanied by a red warning light.

Infowerk / Amend1

Page 26

Landing Gear

Landing Gear Warning System

The warning system provides visual and aural warning that an unsafe landing condition
exists. The red landing gear warning lights come on and a warning horn sounds
whenever the gear is not down and locked and the aircraft is not safe to land. Under
certain conditions the warning horn can be cancelled. The landing gear red lights
illuminate when the throttles are retarded. The warning horn sounds with a combination of
flap extension and throttles retarded.

In the event of an approach to land being made with the throttle levers
retarded towards idle and the flaps down and the gear up, the warning
given to the pilot will be a horn

Nose wheel Steering

Practically all tricycle aircraft incorporate a steering mechanism for the nose wheel.
Larger aircraft invariably do, and some very large ones have also main (body) gear
steering. In most aircraft, exceptions exist specially for light aircraft, the nose-wheel
steering commands are transmitted hydraulically to a yoke, or steering arm, attached to
the nose-wheel shock strut. Light aircraft are steered by push pull rods connected to the
rudder pedals.

Rotation of the pilot's steering wheel is transmitted by cables to a steering drum which,
through a system of pulleys and linkages, moves the hydraulic control valve. This directs
hydraulic pressure to the steering jacks which rotate the yoke attached to the lower
cylinder of the NLG shock strut. As the yoke rotates, its motion is transmitted through the
pulley system to return the control valve to the neutral position when the desired degree
of turn has been reached by the nose wheel. In many transport aircraft the steering wheel
or tiller is only used for large steering inputs, small inputs being transmitted through the
rudder pedals. For aircraft ground towing, when the nosewheel must be able to caster
freely through wide angles, the connection between upper and lower shock strut
cylinders, provided by the torsion links, is broken by the removal of a quick-release pin. It
is an essential pre-taxiing check to ensure that this pin is engaged. Nose-wheels,
especially single wheels, have a natural tendency to caster, that is a natural self-centring
stability. Camping is required however to prevent oscillation about the centre line, a
condition known as 'shimmy'.

Infowerk / Amend1

Page 27

An essential
requirement in
a Nose Wheel
Steering
System is a
follow-up
mechanism

Landing Gear

Nose-wheel shimmy would exert considerable force on the steering mechanism and
make steering the aircraft difficult. The castering tendency is snubbed by means of a
shimmy damper. This is usually in the form of a hydraulic cylinder containing a piston and
filled with hydraulic fluid. The piston rod is connected to a fixed part of the airframe and
the cylinder is attached to the nose-wheel leg. A small orifice in the piston allows
restricted flow of fluid from one side to the other, dampening piston movement. More
complex dampers are sometimes used in large transport aircraft, consisting of a system
of rotary vanes and known as a vane-type damper.
Note that when the control valve is in the neutral (mid) position, the steering jacks are
connected to the return line and therefore the nosewheel is free to caster. This is
necessary to permit directional control by rudder at high speeds whilst on the ground.

Turning Radius
An important feature of nose-wheel steering is its effect upon aircraft turning radius, and
particularly wing tip clearance. When the aircraft is turned by means of the nose-wheel,
the path followed by the outer wing tip will pass well ahead of the Crack of the nosewheel, and therefore of the pilot, whose seat position is also forward of the nose-wheel.
Consequently the pitot must allow sufficient clearance from ground obstructions to
accommodate this. On the Embraer 170 for example, both outer wing and tailplane tip
radius are greater than nose radius.

R. 16.17

R. 16.49

R. 5.80

76
17.05 m

R. 15.02
R. 11.25
R. 10.97
R. 5.28

Factors which will affect the turning radius of an aircraft are taxi speed, gross weight,
centre of gravity position, nosewheel steering angle, distance between nose and main
wheel centres and track width between main wheels.

Infowerk / Amend1

Page 28

The cause of
rather violent
vibration of the
nose wheel,
described as
shimmy, is
often tyre
imbalance and
looseness of
the nose wheel
support
mechanism

Landing Gear

Wheel Braking Systems

Almost without exception, aircraft wheel brakes are of the disc type, only a few light
aircraft remain fitted with drum brakes. Larger aircraft use multiple disc brakes, whereas
light general aviation aeroplanes often require only single disc brakes. To avoid disc
distortion, very large aircraft often use a variation of the multiple disc system known as a
segmented rotor brake.

If the gas
pressure in a
brake
accumulator is
too low the
energy for
braking is low

On light aircraft an independent or unboosted brake system may be used. A brake pedal
attached to each rudder pedal permits the application of differential braking. The applied
brake pressure is proportional to pedal pressure. The brakes may be locked on by
applying a parking brake.

The single disc brake comprises a polished steel disc which is keyed to the landing gear
wheel. When the brake is applied, hydraulic pressure on a piston forces high friction pads
to clamp on either side of the disc. The greater the force applied, the greater the braking
friction.

Multiple disc brakes use a number of discs mounted parallel to each other with more
hydraulically operated pads, to increase the braking friction. This is necessary when
stopping a large, heavy aircraft. The brake plate is splined to the aircraft wheel and

Infowerk / Amend1

Page 29

Landing Gear
rotates with it. The torque plate carrying the brake operating pistons is attached to the
axle and is stationary.

The majority of large aircraft have main landing gears that retract inwards towards the
aircraft centre-line. To reduce the stress on the wheel spinning before gear retraction
takes place, the main wheels are braked. This braking function is achieved by an auto
retract brake system. Nose gears that retract fore/aft usually have de-spin friction pads
contacted by the tyres when the gear reaches the up Position.

Operation
We can divide between following braking systems:
-

Directly Controlled Brake System, and

Powered Brake System.

Directly Controlled Brake System

A typical hydraulic brake system comprises 2 separate brake circuits, each affecting an
individual wheel. The pressure duct is routed from the main brake cylinder via a shuttle
valve and a parking brake valve to the disc brake assembly.
When the pressure within the brake housing is increased, the brake pistons will be
pressed against the inner fixed disc. When applying brake force during rotation of the
wheel, friction is generated - this in turn causes the braking effect.
A shuttle valve is built into each hydraulic brake circuit. These valves prevent hydraulic
pressure from entering the other duct, when the pilots or co-pilots brake pedal is
actuated. 2 spring-loaded return pins compensate for the wear of brake discs and serve
for measuring the rate of wear. They also ensure free motion of the discs.

Infowerk / Amend1

Page 30

If the braking
system shuttle
valve gets
jammed in the
normal
position main
braking would
not be
available.

Landing Gear

Powered Brake System

As these systems vary between aircraft type we will take as example the powered brake
system of the DH8.
The brake system is controlled by the pilot's and co-pilot's brake pedals and is powered
by the No. 1 hydraulic system.
The system consists of left and right hydraulic brake control valves, a dual skid control
valve for each pair of main wheels, a quantity limiting valve and shuttle valve for each
main wheel, and four disc brake units, one at each main wheel.

The brake control valves are mounted on the wing front spar. Each valve is controlled by
a lever and cable system from the interconnected pilot's and co-pilot's left and right brake
pedals. The linkage attached to the base of the brake pedals is spring-loaded to return
the pedals to the off position when released. Two spring rods are designed to relieve
braking loads.
The hydraulic lines are routed from each brake control valve into the appropriate nacelle
to the dual skid control valve. In addition, two lines directly from the No. 1 main hydraulic
system are routed to each dual skid control valve. From the dual skid control valve a
separate line for each wheel is routed through a quantity limiting valve and shuttle valve
to the wheel brake unit.

Infowerk / Amend1

Page 31

On large
aeroplanes
equipped
with power
brakes, the
main source
of power is
derived from
the
aeroplane's
hydraulic
system

Landing Gear

When a brake pedal is pressed, the associated tie rod operates the brake control lever,
either by pushrod directly from the pilot's brake pedal, or through the interconnect cable
from the co-pilot's brake pedal. Operation of the pilot's brake pedals does not operate the
co-pilot's brake pedals, but operation of the co-pilot's brake pedals will drive the pilot's
brake pedals. Movement of the brake control lever extends the lever spring and pulls the
control cable to actuate the lever of the related brake control valve. The brake control
valve acts as a variable pressure reducing valve to vary the pressure according to the
amount of brake pedal movement, thereby providing progressive braking.

Operation of the valve control lever allows pressurized fluid from the No. 1 hydraulic
system to be directed through the dual skid control valve to an independent outlet for
each brake. From the dual skid control valve, pressure is delivered independently through
a quantity limiting valve and shuttle valve to the associated brake unit.

Each quantity limiting valve is a hydraulic fuse which closes to shut off the line to the
brake unit if the fluid passing through the valve exceeds a predetermined quantity. Thus,
fluid loss is reduced in the event that excessive leakage occurs downstream of the valve.
When the brake pedal is released, the lever spring returns the pedal to the off position. A
spring in the brake control valve returns the valve to the off position, brake pressure is
released to return and the valve inlet port closes.
Infowerk / Amend1

Page 32

Landing Gear

Brake Energy Capacity

Stopping a high speed aircraft either after landing or on a rejected take-off involves the
conversion of considerable kinetic energy into heat at the brake units and main wheels.
This energy may be expressed in foot-pounds or joules. An aircraft may have a brake
limitation chart to provide flight crew and maintenance personnel a means of determining
how to deal with hot brakes safely and effectively.

The specific purpose of the chart is to avoid in-flight fires and to ensure adequate brake
capacity at all times for a rejected take-off. The chart determines the amount of energy to
be absorbed by the brakes by considering the aircraft gross weight, indicated airspeed
and density altitude at the time the brakes are applied. A condition zone for a braking
event may be classified as normal, caution or danger.

Anti-Skid Systems
The function of the wheel brakes is to convert the kinetic energy of the aircraft into heat
energy, through the friction in the brakes. If the wheel stops rotating (locks) and the tyre
skids on the runway, the brakes have ceased to function and the energy transfer is now
only between tyre and runway. Furthermore, on a wet runway directional control of the
aircraft may be lost. To prevent the wheels locking during braking, transport aircraft
braking systems include skid control, or anti-skid systems. The principle of Operation of
such a system requires a device to measure wheel rotational speed (the skid-control
generator) and to apply the brakes in proportion. As rotational speed diminishes, braking
force is reduced sufficiently to just prevent wheel-locking.

The operating principle of an anti skid system is as follows:

The brake pressure will be decreased on the slower turning wheels

Infowerk / Amend1

Page 33

A wheel brake
anti-skid unit is
sensitive to
angular
deceleration

Landing Gear

The skid-control generator consists of a small DC or AC generator mounted in the wheel

axle. The voltage output of the generator (and frequency in the case of AC) will be directly
proportional to wheel rotary speed. This is fed as a signal to the skid control unit which
compares it with the pilot's braking demands. If there is no wheel skid developing, the
braking action is proportional to the pilot's pressure on the brake pedals. If a skid is
developing, the skid control unit activates valves to release some of the brake actuating
pressure to prevent the skid developing further.
Clearly, the anti-skid sensing system can only function if the wheels are rotating in the
first place. If, for example, the aircraft were to touch down with wheel brakes applied, the
wheels would skid and the anti-skid system would have no way of sensing this, so the
wheels would remain locked. A protection circuit in the control unit prevents the brakes
from being applied during the landing approach. This circuit is called touch down
protection or touch down control.

Should any wheel lock fully when the aircraft is rolling, as can happen on a patch of ice,
the anti-skid system will release the brakes fully on that wheel until it spins back up. This
is known as locked-wheel skid control and is only functional at aircraft speeds above 15
to 20 mph. In the case of failure of the anti-skid system a warning light or caption is
activated on the flight deck and the brake system becomes fully manual.

The modern anti-skid processes are based on the use of a

computer whose input data is:
idle wheel speed (measured);
braked wheel speed (measured);
desired idle wheel train slipping rate

The output of the wheel speed sensor is fed to a deceleration rate controller, which
compares actual deceleration rate of wheel rotation with a preset reference value. If the
wheel deceleration rate (spin-down) is within limits there is no output from the rate
controller and a permanent magnet holds a flapper valve in its mid-position. This allows
hydraulic pressure from the spool valve to escape equally from the jets on either side of
the flapper and maintains equal pressure at either end of the spool valve, centralising it.
In this position, hydraulic pressure from the pilot's brake pedals is transmitted directly to
the wheel brake cylinders. If the deceleration rate exceeds the preset value the rate
controller produces an output signal which biases the permanent magnet field and causes
the flapper valve to tilt. This results in an increased pressure on the left side of the spool
valve and a decrease on the right, which causes the spool to move over, relieving the
brake cylinder pressure and releasing the brakes, thus preventing the wheels
decelerating to a locked condition. Once the deceleration rate is back within limits the
controller will restore normal brake operation.

Infowerk / Amend1

Page 34

With the antiskid system

unserviceable,
brake
application
should be
made with an
ON and OFF
braking action

Landing Gear

Parking Brake
The purpose of the parking brake is to hold the aircraft stationary while the pilot is not
operating the brake pedals. Applying the parking brake routes brake hydraulic pressure to
the wheel brakes to hold them firmly ON so long as brake hydraulic pressure is available.
Operation varies with aircraft types, but in general the procedure is to depress the two
brake pedals fully and apply the parking brake, which holds the brake control valves in
the fully ON position. It should be noted that, in many aircraft, application of the parking
brake (even partial application) cuts out the anti-skid system by closing the return line
from the anti-skid valves.

With parking brake applied a warning indication is illuminated on the flight deck, together
with anti-skid failure warnings. Parking brakes usually only operate main wheel brakes,
and in aircraft with multiple main wheels often only some of the main wheel brakes are
operated by the parking brake.

Normal, Alternate and Reserve Systems

The power for operating the wheel braking system is provided by the aircraft hydraulic
system. Normal braking hydraulic pressure is supplied by one of the main hydraulic
systems (for example system A) and alternate braking by another (for example system
B).

The brake hydraulic system(s) always include an accumulator and a non-return valve. In
the event of loss of hydraulic supply the non-return valve prevents pressure loss from the
brake system to main system and the accumulator holds sufficient reserve pressure for a
number of brake applications. In many modern transport aircraft reserve braking is also
available by connecting an electric hydraulic pump to a reserve supply of fluid in the event
of loss of main hydraulic systems. In some cases emergency brake operation employs
pneumatic pressure.

In a hydraulic braking system, the accumulator is an

accumulator designed to restore brake energy in the event of a
hydraulic failure

Infowerk / Amend1

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Landing Gear

Indications
Flight deck brake system indications are usually of brake system (accumulator) pressure,
and brake temperature. Warning indications of failure of normal supply and the anti-skid
system are always provided and may include aural as well as visual warnings. Aircraft
with electronic instrument systems may have tyre pressures displayed. The system has a
pressure transducer in each wheel which sends a signal corresponding to tyre pressure
to a computer for display on a page showing landing gear information.

Brake wear is indicated at the brakes. A protruding wear indicator pin shows brake life
remaining, the pin retracts as wear progresses. Where no wear indicator is provided,
wear of the brake pads can be determined by measuring the distance between brake
piston and disc with the brakes applied. Brake temperature indications are usually

Light aircraft
brake pad wear
is measured by
individual pad
thickness

numerical, increasing with increased temperature. Above a certain value a warning

indication is activated, since brake efficiency decreases with increasing temperature.

On some aircraft with 'conventional' displays a brake temperature monitoring system is

fitted which includes temperature sensors at each wheel, which feed to a central monitor
and warning unit on the flight deck. The monitor has a single temperature gauge and an
illuminating selector button for each wheel. The monitor is calibrated to a predetermined
temperature level and the gauge normally displays the highest of the brake temperatures.
If any of the individual wheel brake temperatures exceed the predetermined temperature
the selector button associated with that wheel will illuminate. Pressing any of the selector
buttons will cause the gauge to indicate the temperature of the brake unit on that
particular wheel.

Auto Brakes
Modern large transport aircraft incorporate an auto-braking facility which enables the pilot
to pre-select various deceleration rates. The maximum auto-brake deceleration rate is
less than that available from manual braking. Anti-skid protection is maintained during
auto-brake operation. The system is armed by selecting a deceleration rate, but it will only
apply the brakes when the engine thrust levers are at IDLE. The auto-brake system then
maintains the selected deceleration rate in conjunction with the aerodynamic speed
brakes and thrust reversers. It will continue to provide braking to a complete stop or until
disarmed.
The Auto Brake System (ABS) is being disconnected after
landing by pilot action
If an anti-skid or auto-brake system fault develops, the auto-brakes disarm automatically
and a warning light is displayed on the instrument panel. Brake application by the pilot will
also disarm the auto brake system.

Infowerk / Amend1

Page 36

The auto brake

system
modulates
hydraulic
pressure to the
brakes to obtain
a constant
deceleration
during the
landing roll

Landing Gear

The auto-brake system includes a rejected take-off (RTO) selection, which can only be
armed with the aircraft on the ground. With RTO selected, the auto-brake system applies
maximum brake if the engine thrust levers are retarded to idle above a certain aircraft
speed (typically 80 to 90 knots).
With RTO (rejected take-off) selected and armed, the brakes will in addition be
automatically applied if reverse thrust is selected at any time.

Fading / Loss of braking action

This occurs in drum type brakes when they are hot and is due to expansion of the drum
away from the brake shoes. Disc brakes are designed to resist brake fade; however this
may occur with a fully worn brake during a severe rejected take-off.

Dragging / Failure of the brakes to release completely

This is caused by a variety of factors including weak or broken return springs, distorted
discs and air in the brake hydraulic system.

Chattering or Squealing
Instead of maintaining an even friction the brake friction varies during one revolution of
the wheel. This causes a 'charter' sound to come from the segmented brake discs. If the
frequency of this chattering is high enough the brakes emit a squealing noise. The causes
are warped or glazed discs or deposits of brake lining material on the discs, leading to
uneven friction.

Overheating
The function of the brakes is to convert kinetic energy into heat energy. The greater the
kinetic energy to be converted, the greater the heat generated in the brakes. The major
single cause of brake overheating is high taxiing speeds. Overheating brakes may cause
the disc to warp or cause the friction material to break up and adhere to the disc. Aircraft
with very hot brakes should not be parked with the brakes applied to prevent fusing of the
heat pack.

Infowerk / Amend1

Page 37

Brake "fade"
is ineffective
braking due
to heating

Landing Gear

Aquaplaning
Aquaplaning is caused by a layer of water beneath the tyre, which can build up into a
wedge and lift the tyre away from contact with the runway, thereby negating the effects of
braking. It can occur in water depths as little as 0.1 of an inch and is dependent upon
aircraft speed and tyre pressure.

A simple formula has been derived which states that the minimum speed for initiation of
aquaplaning is approximately:
9 x (tyre pressure in lb/in)
Thus, for a tyre pressure of 200 psi the aquaplaning speed is (9 x 200 which is 127
knots)

The formula which gives the minimum speed (Vp) at which aquaplaning may occur is:
Vp = 9 x sqrt(P) where P is kg/cm3 and Vp is in knots

Now try an example:

An aircraft has a tyre pressure of 225 psi, its minimum aquaplaning speed will be ...
The correct answer will be 135 kts.

There are three distinct types of aquaplaning:

4 Dynamic
This is due to standing water where the tyre is lifted off of the runway and completely
supported by the water.
4 Viscous
This occurs when the runway is damp and provides a very thin film of water which cannot
be penetrated by the tyre. Viscous aquaplaning can occur at, or persist down to, much
lower speeds than simple dynamic aquaplaning. Viscous aquaplaning is particularly
associated with smooth surfaces such as the touch-down zone of the runway which is
smoothed by rubber deposits.

Infowerk / Amend1

Page 38

When a landing
gear wheel is
hydroplaning,
it's friction
factor is equal
to 0.1

Landing Gear

4 Reverted rubber
When reverted rubber aquaplaning occurs the affected tyre(s) become tacky and takes
on the appearance of uncured rubber. It is normally the consequence of a long skid
occurring on a wet runway, during which the friction between the tyre and the wet surface
boils the water and reverts the rubber. As a consequence a seal is formed which delays
water dispersal. The resulting steam then prevents the tyre from making contact with the
runway surface.

Infowerk / Amend1

Page 39

Landing Gear

Wheels and Tyres

Wheels

Aircraft wheels are usually constructed from forgings or castings made from aluminium or
magnesium alloy to minimise aircraft weight. The most critical part of a wheel is the bead
seat area which is rolled, pre-stressing its area, thus increasing its strength to protect
from tensile loads applied by the tyre.
Most large aircraft use tubeless tyres mounted on split-hub wheels.

The two halves of the wheel are separated for installation and removal of the tyre.
Obviously when assembled they make an airtight seal to contain the tyre pressure. The
surface condition of the wheel flange is also a vital factor in preventing air escaping from
the tyre. The high pressure used to inflate large aircraft tyres makes the structural
integrity of the wheels extremely important. Corrosion and cracking are conditions to be
guarded against. Aircraft wheel hubs are made from aluminium alloy, but in some cases
magnesium alloy, a material prone to rapid corrosion. Aircraft tyres must withstand
aircraft loads of many tons at speeds up to 250 mph. Consequently their construction is
designed to withstand these loads whilst the tyre is constantly flexing during wheel
rotation.

Infowerk / Amend1

Page 40

Aircraft wheels
are usually
made of
magnesium or
aluminium

Landing Gear

Tyres

Design, Manufacturing, Testing and Classification

Aircraft operating conditions require a wide variety of tyre sizes and constructions. The
modern aircraft tyre is a highly engineered composite structure designed to carry heavy
loads at high speeds in the smallest, lightest configuration practical.
Tyres are selected according to the aircrafts weight, its take-off speed, operating surface
(runway) requirements and the landing weight of the aircraft. Tyres with tubes are
generally made as low-pressure tyres for light aircraft or for nose gears. Most of the
heavier aircraft are fitted with tubeless (high-pressure) tyres.
In many cases, the ability to retread is another design requirement. Most tyres used in
military, general and commercial aviation are designed to be re-treaded. Re-treading an
existing casing provides many more landings per tyre at significantly lower costs.
The worn tyres are buffed to a specific contour, new materials are applied, and the tyre is
cured. After passing a thorough inspection, the re-treaded tyre is returned to service. Retreaded tyres must pass the same airworthiness authority testing requirements and
quality assurance procedures as new tyres.
The bias-ply tyre construction and the radial tyre construction are the most commonly
used types of tyres for aircraft.

Tyres are classified by Ioad, ply and speed rating. The term ply rating is used to identify
a tyre with its maximum recommended load and pressure. It is the index of the tyre
strength and does not necessarily represent the number of cord piles used in its
construction. The marking may be imprinted in full, e.g. 10 PLY RATING or abbreviated,
e.g. 10PR. The speed rating is included for tyres used above 160 mph. The tyre tread

If the profile
grooves or
the tread of a
new aircraft
tyre are worn,
the tyre can
be repaired
several times

The "ply
rating" of a
tire is a
parameter
indicating the
tire relative
strength

rubber is the material in contact with the ground and may be patterned to achieve
particular characteristics. The most common pattern is the ribbed tread. The ribs provide
directional stability and the grooves between the ribs enable the tyre to disperse water,
reducing the risk of aquaplaning. Tyre tread pattern is generally limited to a ribbed or
patterned variety for aircraft tyres. The tread of the tyre refers to the area forming the
crown and shoulder. The most popular tread pattern is the ribbed variety which is formed
from circumferential grooves around the tyre. A ribbed tread provides good traction, long
tread wear and directional stability mostly suited for hard surface runways.

Patterned (diamond) tread tyres are particularly suitable for unpaved airfields.
Some nose wheels are fitted with a water deflector (or chine) on the upper sidewall to
deflect water away from rear mounted engines. Twin contact tyres are used on nose
wheels or tail wheels to prevent shimmy. Tyre flexure and friction due to contact with the
ground, are causes of tyre wear and deterioration. The condition of the tyre must be
sufficient to withstand the dynamic and static loads of supporting the aircraft.

Infowerk / Amend1

Page 41

The purpose
of a Twin
Contact Tyre
is to reduce
shimmy

Landing Gear

Bias-ply Aircraft Tyre Construction

The tread is made of rubber which is compounded for toughness and durability. The tread
pattern is designed according to the aircrafts operational requirements. Nowadays, the
circumferential ribbed tread is widely used to provide good traction under varying runway
conditions.
The sidewall consists of a protective layer of flexible, weather-resistant rubber covering
the outer carcass ply. It extends from the tread edge to the bead area.
Tread reinforcement is obtained by one or more layers of nylon fabric which strengthen
and stabilize the tread area for high-speed operation. The reinforcement also serves as a
reference for the buffing process in re-treadable tyres.

Infowerk / Amend1

Page 42

Landing Gear

Reinforcing plies of nylon or aramid fabric, called breakers, are placed under the tread
rubber to protect the carcass plies and to strengthen and stabilize the tread area. They
are an integral part of the carcass construction.
Alternate layers of rubber-coated nylon fabric, so-called plies, provide the strength of a
tyre. They completely encompass the tyre body. The carcass plies are wrapped around
the wire beads and back against the tyre sidewalls (ply turn-ups).
The beads are high tensile strength steel wires embedded in rubber. They anchor the
carcass plies and provide firm mounting surfaces on the rim.
A wedge of rubber called apex strip is fixed to the top of the bead bundle. It serves as a
filler.

The flippers are layers of rubberized fabric. They fix the bead wires to the carcass and
improve the durability of the tyre.
The chafers (protective layers of rubber and/or fabric) are located between the carcass
plies and the rim to prevent chafing.
The inner bead edge closest to the tyre centre line is called bead toe. The bead heel is
the outer bead edge which touches the wheel flange. In tubeless tyres, the inner layer of
low permeability rubber (inner liner) acts as a built-in tube and prevents air from seeping
through casing plies. For tube-type tyres a thinner rubber liner is used to prevent tube
chafing against the inside ply.

A tubeless tyre is a tyre:

-

which requires solid or branched wheels;

which does not burst in the event of a tire puncture;

which eliminates internal friction between the tube and the tire

Compared to a tube tyre a tubeless tyre offers following advantage:

Tubeless tyres are cooler in operation when subjected to high speeds and high loads.

Radial Aircraft Tyre Construction

The following components are of the same materials and provide the same functions as
those of the bias-ply tyre:
-

sidewall

breakers

plies

chafer

bead heel

inner liner.

Infowerk / Amend1

Page 43

Compared to a
tyre fitted with an
inner tube, a
tubeless tyre
presents the
following
characteristics:
- lower risk of
bursting;
- better
adjustment to
wheels

Landing Gear

Radial tyres feature a rigid belt and a flexible carcass to provide an increasing number of
landings and a reduction of the rolling resistance. The efficient use of high strength
materials results in lighter-weight tyres with improved performance.
The tread is made of rubber, compounded for toughness and durability. It is similar in
form and function to the bias-ply tyre tread.
The carcass plies are layers of rubber-coated fabric which run radially from bead to bead.
The carcass plies provide the tyre strength in the sidewall area. The belt plies form a
composite structure which stiffens the tread area for increased landings. The belt plies
provide the tyre strength in the tread area.
The beads are hoops of high tensile strength steel wire which anchor the carcass plies
and provide a firm mounting surface on the wheel.

The overlay is a layer of reinforcing fabric placed on top of the belts to aid in high speed
operation.
The chippers are layers of rubber coated fabric applied at a diagonal angle which improve
the durability of the tyre in the bead area.

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Tyre Markings
All commercial aircraft tyres are clearly marked with the following information:
-

manufacturer

size

load rating

speed rating

skid depth

manufacturers part number

serial number

Manufacturers plant identification plus TSO (Technical Standard Order) marking

and AEA code (which defines new tyre casing and tread construction). In
addition, tyres are marked with the ply rating and other markings as required by
airframe manufacturers or other organizations.

Military tyres carry markings required by the appropriate military specification.

Re-treaded tyres are marked in the shoulder with the following information:
-

size

ply rating

speed category

retread plant and/or country of re-treading

retread level (R-level)

date of re-treading

retread AEA code (if appropriate).

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Landing Gear

Creep
During braking and when the wheels spin up on touch-down the tyres may creep' around
the wheel, which leads to wear of the tyre head and can damage the inner tube in tubed
tyres (fitted to some light aircraft). White creep indication marks are painted on tubed and
tubeless tyres at the wheel rim (flange). These marks are one inch in width for tyres of up

A red band
painted on the
wall of a tyre is
a balance mark

to 24 inches outside diameter and one and a half inches in width for tyres over 24 inches
outside diameter. The tendency of the tyre to creep is greater when the tyre is newly
fitted, and/or when the tyre pressure is too low.
Tyre creep may be described as the circumferential movement of the
tyre in relation to the wheel flange.
It is most likely occurs when the tyre is newly fitted.
It can be measured by painting marks on the tyre and wheel rim.

Temperature
Build up of high wheel temperature during prolonged braking could result in overheating
of the tyre head, and an increase in tyre inflation pressure which could result in explosive
fracture of the wheel. Fusible plugs are fitted in high performance aircraft wheels. These
plugs melt at a predetermined temperature and release tyre pressure.
A green fusible plug is designed to deflate the tyre if a temperature of 177C is reached.

The function of
a fusible plug
is to protect
the tyre against
explosion due
to excessive
temperature

On a modern aeroplane, to avoid the risk of tyre burst from

overheating, due for example to prolonged braking during an
aborted take-off, there is a hollow bolt screwed into the wheel
which melts at a given temperature (thermal fuse) and deflates the
tyre.

Wear
If a tyre is over-inflated it suffers excess wear on the crown. If the tyre is under-inflated it
wears on its shoulders. Locked wheels and the spin up on touch-down cause scuffing of
the tread.

On an aircraft
landing gear,
an under
inflated tyre
will wear at the
shoulders

It is recommended that tyres be removed when wear has reached the limits defined
below:
4 Patterned tread tyres may be used until the tread is worn to the depth of the pattern.
4 Ribbed tyres with marker tie bars may be used until worn to the top of the tie bars.

Ribbed tyres without marker tie bars may be worn to within 2mm of the bottom of the
wear indicator groove.

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Page 47

A ribbed tyre is
worn
to
its
limits when it is
worn to 2 mm
from the bottom
of the wear
indicator
grooves

Landing Gear

Twin contact tyres may be used until the centre of the crown shows sign of contacting the
ground.
Tyre wear can be reduced while taxiing by taxiing at 50 knots or less

Cuts
Foreign objects on the runway/taxiway can cut into the tyre tread.

Contamination
Leakage of oil (especially some hydraulic oils) and solvents onto tyres will destroy the
rubber casing.

Tyre Checking Procedures - Tyre Inflation

Tyre inflation pressure is given in the aircraft operating manual. This is always the
inflation pressure with the wheel not supporting the aircraft weight. When tyre pressure is
adjusted with aircraft weight on wheels an allowance of 4% should be added to the rated
inflation pressure. A tolerance of 5% to 10% above this loaded inflation pressure is
generally specified and tyre pressures up to this maximum are permitted. Tyres should be
inflated with nitrogen for safety. If tyre pressures increase as a result of heating, due to
prolonged taxiing or heavy braking, the excess pressure should not be released as this
could result in under-inflation at normal temperatures.

When checking the pressure of cold tyres which are at ambient temperature, any tyre
which is more than 10% below loaded inflation pressure should be rejected, together with
the companion tyre on the same axle. Any tyre which is between 5% and 10% below
loaded inflation pressure should be re-inflated to the correct pressure and checked at the
next daily check; if the pressure is again more than 5% low the tyre should be rejected.
When it is necessary to check the pressure of tyres that are still hot following a landing

When
inflating
a
tyre fitted to
an
aircraft,
the pressure
indicated on
the
gauge
should read
4% above the
rated
inflation
pressure.

The rated
pressure of
an aircraft
tyre is the
unloaded
pressure
when the tyre
is cold

the pressure of each tyre should be checked and noted and compared with the pressures
of the other tyres on the same undercarriage leg. Any tyre with a pressure 10% or more
below the maximum recorded on the same leg should be re-inflated to that maximum
pressure, but should be rejected if a similar loss is apparent at the next check. A typical
tyre pressure for a commercial aircraft is in the range 150-250 PSI. Aircraft with electronic
instrument systems (glass cockpit) may include a tyre pressure indication system.

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Page 48

A high
pressure tyre
would
typically be
inflated to
between 120
and 250 psi

Landing Gear

Tyre Venting
Tubeless tyres are vented to release air trapped in the casing during manufacture or by
normal permeation through the inner liner. The awl hole vent positions are marked by
green or grey dots on the lower side wall.

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Page 49