Problem 1:

The hot-rolling of steel is a process that puts steel through plastic deformation at really
high temperatures to reduce its thickness and obtain large sheets of steel that can later be
processed into other materials, like long plates. The hot-rolling process consists of several stages.
In the first stage, the steel is sent to a reheating furnace where it is heated to a very high
temperature. Then, it goes through a process called millscale cleansing where the surface is
cleansed to remove any oxygen particles that may have reacted with the surface of the steel.
After that, the steel is passed through a rolling mill where its thickness is reduced from about 22
cm to about 3 cm. The steel is then cleansed again. Following that, the material passes through a
vertical rolling mill where the width of the material is adjusted to the desired dimension. Then,
the deformed specimen enters a coil box which coils the sheet up to minimize space. Then the
material enters a finishing mill which reduces the thickness further to between 1.8 and 16 mm.
Also, while reducing the thickness it also passes through an uplooper which measures, adjusts
and controls the profile and the flatness of the material. Lastly, each strip is cooled with an
appropriate cooling rate. After going through hot rolling, the steel is either sent to the market or
sent for cold-rolling.
Hot rolling increases the ductility of materials and allows them to be easily deformed.
Temperature control is critical to the properties of the final product during hot rolling. The
temperature while rolling always has to remain above the recrystallization temperature to allow
the deformation of the grains. Also, the cooling rate critically affects the strength of the
materials. If the cooling rate was too fast, the grains would not grow enough before re-combining
and would make the material too brittle. Similarly, the cooling rate was too slow, the material
will be too ductile. (References: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_(metalworking)#Hot_rolling)

Problem 2:
In several electronic and optical applications, the grain boundaries of a polycrystalline
material is considered a downside to the properties of a material since they stand in the way of
conduction of electricity and optical properties. Scientists thought that to optimize the
performance of several applications, single crystal materials would allow for the wanted
properties to be maximized. Monocrystalline Silicon is probably the most important single
crystal in the electrical industry. Its single-crystal nature allows for the maximization of optimal
semiconductor properties in localized areas in the circuit. Another major advancement in
technology, is the use of single-crystal turbine blades to optimize the mechanical properties of
blades under high temperatures. The absence of the grain boundary decreases the yield strength
of the materials. However, it also decreases the amount of creep which may happen on the blade
which is critical since the blade operates at high temperatures and is subject to creep. An
example of such a material is Nickel-Based superalloy single-crystal.
Many mechanisms have developed today for the growth of single-crystal materials. An
example of two common methods are: the Bridgman and Czochralski processes. The Bridgman
technique involves heating a material above its melting temperature and then cooling it slowly
from one edge to the other (horizontally or vertically). This division in cooling allows one single
crystal to grow throughout the whole material. In the Czochralski process, a single crystal in the
form of a rod is dipped into the molten material and then slowly pulled out while rotating. The
rate at which it is pulled out and rotated makes it possible to extract one single crystal out of the
material. (List of references is provided on the next page)

Problem 2 References:
-

The Science and Engineering of Materials 6th edition (Textbook) by Askeland, Fulay,

and Wright.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_(metalworking)#Hot_rolling
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_crystal#cite_note-spt-1
http://www.appropedia.org/Single_Crystal_Turbine_Blades
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgman%E2%80%93Stockbarger_technique
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czochralski_process#Production_of_Czochralski_silicon