Differential PSK (DPSK) and Its Performance

s(t) = A(t)cos(2 fct +(t) +)

A(t) = amplitude information
(t) = phase information
fc = the carrier frequency
= the phase shift introduced by the channel

In coherent communications, is known to receivers

In non-coherent communications, is unknown to receivers and
assumed to be a random variable distributed uniformly over (-, )

Coherent Detection of Differentially Encoded

M-PSK Signals

In coherent communications, phase estimation is required.

The receiver usually derives its frequency and phase demodulation references
from a carrier synchronization loop.

The synchronization loop may introduce a phase ambiguity =

where is the estimate acquired by the receiver through the synchronization
loop.

For M-PSK signals, the phase ambiguity may take any value in

{0,

2
2 ( M 1)
,
}
M
M

Thus any value of other than 0 will cause a correctly detected phase to be
erroneously mistaken for one of the other possible phases, even in the
absence of noise.

Solution: differential encoding while maintaining coherent detection

Differentially Encoded M-PSK Signals

Instead of encoding information into absolute phases, the
information is now encoded using phase differences between
successive signal transmission.
Example: 0 mapped to phase 0, 1 mapped to phase
Binary sequence {an}

Absolute phase
sequence {n}

Differentially encoded
Phase sequence

The actually transmitted

Phase sequence

Initial value

The information sequence {an} is now carried by phase difference

in {n}.

Differentially Encoded M-PSK Signals

Binary sequence {an}

Absolute phase
sequence {n}

Differentially encoded
Phase sequence

The actually transmitted

Phase sequence

0
0

Initial value

Assume the phase ambiguity introduced by the synchronization

loop is constant during successive signal intervals. In the absence
of noise, the receiver would convert the received phase sequence
into 0+, +, 0+, 0+, 0+, +, 0+.
The received sequence would be then differentially decoded into ,
, 0, 0, , .
Then we get the original binary sequence (110011) back.

Differentially Encoded M-PSK Signals

Example: M=4. Assume that the following Gray mapping is used
Binary sequence
00
10
11
01
absolute phase
0
/2

3/2
Binary sequence {an}
Absolute phase sequence {n}
Differentially encoded
phase sequence {n}

10
/2
/2

11
00
10

0
/2
3/2 3/2
0

01
3/2
3/2

11

/2

Estimated phase sequence

/2+ 3/2+ 3/2+ 0+ 3/2+ /2+
n
(in the absence of noise)
Differentially decoded sequence

0
/2
3/2

Decoded binary sequence an

11
00 10
01
11

{ 0, /2, , 3/2} is the phase ambiguity

The Structure of Differential Encoder and Decoder

Modulo 2 addition
{n}

{n}
Delay T

{n} = the absolute phase

sequence
{n} = the transmitted phase
sequence

Figure a. A differential encoder

{n }

{n }

Delay T

Figure b. A differential decoder

A digital comm. system that

employ differential encoding of the
inform. Symbols and coherent
detection of successive
differentially encoded M-PSK
signals is called a differentially
encoded coherent M-PSK system.

Optimal Coherent Receiver for Differentially

Encoded M-PSK

2 Es
r (t ) =
cos(2 f ct + n + )
T
nT t (n +1)T , n = 0, 1, 2,

r(t)

= phase shift introduced by the channel

= estimate of provided by carrier
synch. loop
= = the phase ambiguity

( n +1)T

dt

rn,c

nT

2 cos(2 f c t + )

90

Carrier
Sync. loop

n = tan

1 n , s

rn ,c

2 sin(2 f c t + )

n = n n1 ,

( n +1) T

dt

rn,s

nT

{n } represents the inform. sequence

|n-0|

Modulo 2 addition

{n }

{n }

Delay T

Select
the
smallest

|n-1|
Subtractor
|n-M-1|

Performance
Let Pi denote Pr{m = mi | m = m0 } in the optimal coherent
receiver fro M-PSK.
P0 = 1 -

M
0

e x p {

M }d
2
s in

E s s in 2
N

E s = e n e r g y / s y m b o l.

One can show that the prob. of correct decision in the optimal
coherent receiver for differentially encoded M-PSK is
M 1

Pc = Pi 2
i=0

M 1

Pe = 1 Pc = 1 Pi 2
i=0

Since Pi < P0 for i 0, it follows that

M 1

Pc < Po Pi = P0 = PC |coherent M-PSK

i=0

The symbol error

Pe > Pe|coherent M-PSK
M 1

Pe = 1 P Pi 2
2
0

i =1

M 1

= 2 Pe|M PSK ( Pe|M PSK ) Pi 2

2

i =1

Differential PSK (DPSK)

The phase shift is treated as a random variable distributed uniformly over

(-, ), and no phase estimation is provided at the receiver.

We are now concerned with non-coherent communications

The phase shift is the same during two consecutive signal transmission
intervals [(n-1)T, nT) and [nT, (n+1)T).

The information phase sequence {n} is still differentially encoded as

before.

The transmitted signal s(t) in the interval [(n-1)T, (n+1)T] is

2 E
s

cos(2 f c t + n1 + ), (n-1)T t<nT

T
s (t ) =
2 E
s

cos(2 f c t + n + ), nT t<(n+1)T
T
n= n- n-1. n and n-1 are independent. Both of them take values
uniformly over
2
2 ( M 1)
0,
,

{n} and {n} are i.i.d. sequences

Differential PSK (DPSK)

The received waveform is then r(t)=s(t)+n(t)

To derive the optimal receiver, the observation interval should be

taken as (n-1)T t <(n+1)T since is the same in this interval.

We have four orthonormal basis functions:

2

cos 2 f c t
( n -1)T t nT
1 (t)= T

nT < t ( n + 1)T
0

2 sin 2 f t ( n -1)T t nT
c
2 (t)=
T

nT < t ( n + 1)T
0
0
( n -1)T t nT

3 (t)= 2

cos 2 f c t
nT < t ( n + 1)T
T
0
( n -1)T t nT

4 (t)=
2 sin 2 f c t nT < t ( n + 1)T

Differential PSK (DPSK)

X
Waveform
channel

dt
nT

2
cos 2 f c t
T

r(t)

90

Delay
T

Local
Oscillator

Delay
T

2
sin 2 f ct
T

rn,c

( n +1)T

( n +1) T

dt

rn-1,c

rn-1,s

Vector
channel

rn,s

nT

rn ,c = Es cos(n + ) + n ,c , rn , s = Es sin(n + ) + n , s
n ,c , n , s , n1,c , n1, s are i.i.d
Each of them N(0, N 0 /2)
We estimate n from the new observation (rn,c, rn,s, rn-1,c, rn-1,s)

Differential PSK (DPSK)

2 i
, 0 i M 1.
M
Given n = i , n 1 , and
Let i =

P (rn ,c , rn , s , rn 1 , c, rn 1, s | n = i , n 1, )

=
exp

2
( N 0 )

2
2
[(
r

E
cos(
+
)]
+
[(
r

E
sin(
+
)]

j ,c
s
j
j ,s
s
j

j = n 1

N0

2 Es

j n
| rn e
= c exp
+ rn 1 | cos( )

N 0
1) c does not depend on , n-1 and n
2) rn = rn,c + jrn,s and rn-1=rn-1,c +jrn-1,s
3) is given by rne-jn + rn-1e-jn-1=| rne-jn + rn-1|ej

Differential PSK (DPSK)

is distributed uniformly over (-, ) and n-1 tales values uniformly
over {0,

2
2 ( M 1)
, ,
}
M
M

P (rn ,c , rn , s , rn 1,c , rn 1, s | n = i , n 1, )
=

1
2

= cI 0 (

c exp{

2 Es
N0

2 Es
| rn e jn + rn 1 | cos( )}d
N0

| rn e

j n

+ rn 1 |) = cI 0 (

2 Es
N0

| rn e ji + rn 1 |)

1 x cos y
where I0 (x)=
e
dy is modified Bessel function

2
The above formula is independent of n-1
P (rn ,c , rn , s , rn 1,c , rn 1, s | n = i ) = cI 0 (

2 Es
N0

| rn e ji + rn 1 |)

Differential PSK (DPSK)

Applying the MAP rule, we now

choose n as k iff
P (rn ,c , rn , s , rn 1,c , rn 1, s | n = k ) = max P (rn ,c , rn , s , rn 1,c , rn 1, s | n = i )
i

I0 (

2 Es
N0

| rn e

j k

+ rn 1 |) = max I 0 (
i

2 Es
N0

| rn e ji + rn 1 |)

( x > 0, I 0 ( x) is an increasing function)

| rn e jk + rn 1 |= max | rn e ji + rn 1 |
i

| rn || rn 1 | cos( n n 1 k ) = max[| rn || rn 1 | cos( n n 1 i )]

i

| n n 1 k |= min | n n 1 i |
i

where rn =| rn | e jn and rn 1 =| rn 1 | e jn1

Optimal Receiver for M-DPSK

X
2
cos 2 f c t
T

r(t)

90

rn,c

( n +1)T

dt
nT

Local
Oscillator

2
sin 2 f ct
T

n = tan

( n +1) T

1 n , s

rn ,c

rn,s

dt

nT

| -0|

Select
the
smallest

| -1|

Sub-
tractor

+
-

| -M-1|

Delay T

Difference from the receiver for differentially encoded M-PSK?

Performance of M-DPSK
rn ,c = Es cos( n + ) + n ,c = Es cos( n 1 + n + ) + n ,c
rn , s = Es sin( n 1 + n + ) + n , s
rn 1,c = Es cos( n 1 + ) + n 1,c
rn 1, s = Es sin( n 1 + ) + n 1, s

n ,c , n , s , n 1,c , n 1, s

N0
~ N(0,
I4x4 )
2

One way to calculate the performance of M-DPSK is to find first the pdf of
phase difference

= n n 1
n = tan

rn , s
rn ,c

, and n 1 = tan

rn 1, s
rn 1,c

Performance of M-DPSK
(rn,c, rn,s)
It follows that the pdf of is
noise vector (n,c, n,s)

(rn-1,c, rn-1,s)

noise vector
(n-1,c, n-1,s)
n-1 +

P (1 2 | n ) =

independent of the angle n-1+ .

It can be shown that the
conditional pdf of given n
satisfies the following equation

f ( | n )d

F (2 ) F (1 ) + 1
1 < n < 2
n
n

=
F (2 ) F (1 )
1 > n or n > 2
n
n
Es
[1 cos(n ) cos t ]}
exp{
sin(n ) 2
N0
Fn ( ) =
dt

4
1 cos(n ) cos t
2

Performance of M-DPSK
We then get
P ( n = i |

= P ( i

= 1

sin

i +

= Fi ( i +

Pe =

exp{

sin
Pc = 1

)+1

dt

cos t
M

Es
exp{
(1 cos
cos t ]}
N0
4

exp{

= i)

Es

(1 cos
cos t ]}
N0
4
1 cos

) Fi ( i

sin

= i)

1 cos

cos t

Es
(1 cos
cos t ]}
4
N0
1 cos

cos t

dt

dt

Special case
M=2
Pb=Pe=1/2e-Eb/N0
For large M, M-DPSK requires 3dB more Eb/N0 than coherent M-PSK

Comparison of Digital Modulation Methods

To make a fair comparison among different digital modulation
methods, one must investigate the tradeoff among the bandwidth
efficiency, bit error probability, and bit SNR.
The bandwidth efficiency of a modulation method is defined as the
bit rate (Rb) to bandwidth (W) ratio Rb/W
The bandwidth is calculated from the power spectral density function
of the transmitted waveform, which in turn depends on the signal set
used.

Comparison of Digital Modulation Methods

Assume that the optimal signal set is used.

Theorem 3.7.1: The maximum number N of dimension of the signal

source spanned by a set of signals of duration of T and bandwidth
W grows linearly with time T and bandwidth W, respectively:
N=KWT
where K is a constant around 2.

The value of K depends on specific definitions of bandwidth. We

normally choose K=2.

Examples
PAM signals: N=1

=>

W=1/(2T) (single sideband)

The bandwidth efficiency of M-ary PAM is

Rb log M / T
=
= 2 log M bits/second/Hz
W
1/ 2T

M-PSK: N=2

=>

W=1/T

Rb log M / T
=
= log M bits/second/Hz
W
1/ T

M2-QAM: N=2 => W=1/T

Rb log M 2 / T
=
= 2 log M bits/second/Hz
W
1/ 2T

M-FSK: N=M => W=M/(2T)

Rb log M / T 2 log M
=
=
bits/second/Hz
W
M / 2T
M

As M approaches infinity, Rb/W goes to 0

Comparison of Digital Modulation Methods

In the case of PAM, QAM, and PSK, increasing M results in a higher
bit rate-to-bandwidth ratio R/W.
However, the cost of achieving the higher data rate is an increase in
the SNR per bit.
Therefore, these modulation methods are appropriate for channels
that are bandlimited, where we desire R/W>1 and where there is
sufficient high SNR to support increases in M.
Example: Telephone channels

Comparison of Digital Modulation Methods

M-ary orthogonal signals yields R/W1. As M increases, R/W
decreases.
However, the SNR/bit required to achieve a given error probability
(10-5) decreases as M increases.
Consequently, M-ary orthogonal signals are appropriate for powerlimited channels that have sufficiently large bandwidth to
accommodate a large number of signals.
As M goes to infinity, Pe approaches zero provided that SNR/bit1.6 dB

Digital Communication Block Diagram

Information
source
Text, speech,
Audio, image,
video

Source
encoder
Natural
redundancy
removal

Channel
encoder

Modulator

Controlled
redundancy
insertion
noise

User

Channel

Source
decoder

Channel
decoder

Demodulator

Source coding

Channel coding

Discrete channel

Fig 1.1

Channel Capacity and Coded Modulation

Channel Models and Channel Capacity

Binary Symmetric Channels
{an}

s(t)
BPSK
Modulator

AWGN
Channel

Demodulator
and
detector

{an }

Assume that an=0 or 1, i.i.d, and symbol 0 and 1 are equally likely.
Then
2 E
b
Pb = P (an an ) = Q

N 0
1-q
0

q
1

1-q
Equivalent diagram

Binary Symmetric Channels

P (a1a2 an a1a2 an ) = 1 [1 pb ]n
For any fixed bit SNR Eb/N0, the block error prob. goes to 1 as n
approaches infinity.
In order to transmit information reliably over the BSC, one has to
employ channel encoders and decoders.
{an}

Channel
encoder

BSC

Channel
decoder

{an }

An important question: with the use of channel encoders and

decoders, how many number of bits of information can be reliably
transmitted over the BSC?
The answer is the channel capacity of the BSC.

Channel Capacity of the BSC

C = max I ( X ; Y )
X

X is the input random variable to the BSC, Y is the corresponding output.

The maximization is taken over all possible input random variable X.
For BSC, C = 1 H(q) with the maximum achieved by the equally likely
input X.

Channel Capacity of the BSC

{an} Channel
encoder

s(t) AWGN
BPSK
Modulator
Channel

Demodulator
and
detector

Channel
decoder

{an }

The concatenation of the channel encoder and BPSK modulator is a

binary coded modulation scheme and gives binary coded signals.
The BPSK detector is not optimal any more since coded signals are
correlated and the BPSK makes a hard decision (0 or 1) bit by bit.
To improve the performance, we may consider a detector that outputs
Q>2 outputs. That is, a detector quantizes the demodulator output into
Q>2 outputs (or no quantization). In this case, we say that the detector
has made a soft decision.
With a detector making a soft decision, we get an equivalent discrete
channel with two inputs and Q>2 possible outputs.

Discrete Memoryless Channels

m0

P(y0|m0)
Y0

m1

Y1

mM-1
P(yQ-1|mM-1)

YQ-1

A general discrete channel

With any M-ary modulator and a soft (or hard) decision detector, we get
an equivalent discrete channel with M inputs and QM possible outputs.
The maximum number of bits of information that can be reliably
transmitted over the channel is given by channel capacity

C = max I ( X ; Y )
X

Discrete Input, Continuous-Output Channels

{an}

s(t)

PAM
Modulator

AWGN
Channel

Demodulator

{yn}

The demodulator converts the received waveform into scalar vectors,

no estimation is made at this point. The corresponding composite
channel is then equivalent to the scalar channel
Y=X+n
X takes values in the amplitude set of the PAM modulator
n is a Gaussian random variable with n ~ N(0, N0/2)
Channel capacity
C = max I ( X ; Y )
X

The modulator is given, but coded PAM signal and their receiver
including the detector and channel decoder are left open.

Band-limited, power-limited AWGN channels

Assume the channel is band limited and power limited
r(t) = x(t) + n(t)
x(t) is the input waveform band-limited to W and power-limited to P
n(t) = the AWGN with Sn(f) = N0/2.
To compute the channel capacity, we first convert the waveform
channel into discrete time Gaussian channel.
+

x(t ) =

n=

xn = x(

xn g (t

n
)
2W

n
sin 2 wt
), g (t ) = sin c 2Wt =
2W
2 wt

This is equivalent to projecting x(t) into the space spanned by the

+
orthonormal basis { 2W g (t n )}
:

2W

xn = 2w

x(t )g (t -

n
)dt
2W

Band-limited, power-limited AWGN channels

1/2W x(t ) =

xn

-W

n=

xn g (t

n
)
2W

-W

{rn}

n(t)
+
{ni }

rn = xn + nn

1/2W

Sample at
t=

n
, n=0, 1, 2,
2W

is i.i.d and each ni is Gaussian, ni~N(0, N0W)

Since x(t) is power-limited to P, each sample xn is then energy limited

to P. The channel capacity CN per use of the discrete-time Gaussian
channel is

1
P
2
E
[
x
]

P
}
=
log(1
+
)
CN = max {I(Xn; rn: Xn is an input with
n
2
N 0W

During T seconds, we have 2WT samples, and the discrete-time channel

is used 2WT times. Thus, the channel capacity C in bits per second is

C = 2W C N = W log(1 +

P
) bits/second
N 0W

Bandwidth Efficiency versus Bit SNR

EC
C
P
) = log(1 + b )
= log(1 +
W
N 0W
N 0W
P = Energy/second = EbC
Eb
2 C / W 1

=
N0
C /W

Eb/N0 bit SNR

C/W bandwidth efficiency

C/W
10

-1.6

Eb/N0
dB

0.1
Shannon limit
Ideal diagram of bandwidth efficiency
versus bit SNR

Bandwidth Efficiency versus Bit SNR

1) Let W , we have
P
C =
log e bits/second
N0
Eb
2 C / W 1
= lim
= ln 2 1.6dB
C
/
W
>
0
N0
C /W
2) In order to achieve essentially error free transmission, Eb/N0 must
be -1.6 dB (Shannon limit)
3) An transmission rate Rb< C is achievable, any rate Rb>C is not
achievable (Shannon noisy channel coding theorem)
4) The proof of noise channel coding theorem involves the wellknown random coding argument

Achieving Channel Capacity with Orthogonal Signals

C

T ( Rb )
2i2 2
Pe =
T ( C Rb )2
2i 2

if 0 R b C /4
if C /4 R b C

The error probability can be made arbitrarily small as T goes to infinity (M

goes to infinity for a fixed bit rate Rb = log M/T ).

For a power-limited AWGN channel with unbounded bandwidth orthogonal

signaling (or M-FSK) is asymptotically optimal in the sense that the
corresponding (symbol) error probability goes to o exponentially as M goes
to infinity if the bit rate Rb = log M/T is less than the channel capacity.

Coded Modulation-A Probabilistic Approach

Although orthogonal signaling is asymptotically optimal, there is a
considerable gap between the performance of practical uncoded
communication systems and the optimal performance theoretically
achievable given by the noisy channel coding theorem.
To reduce the gap, one must resort to coded modulation.


Algebraic approach (specific coding design techniques)

Probabilistic approach (analysis of the performance of a general

class of coded signals)


Random Coding Based on M-ary Binary Coded Signals

Objective

Design a binary code C consisting of M binary codewords

Ci=(Ci1,Ci2,, Cin), 0 i M-1
The corresponding coded signals {si(t)} gives good error prob.
performance
2 c
si (t ) = (2Cij 1)
cos 2 f c t , 1 j n, t [( j -1)Tc, jTc]
Tb

si = [(2Ci1 1), , (2Cin 1)] c

The encoding bit rate is Rb bits/second

Blocks of k bits are encoded at a time into one of the M waveforms

{si (t )}iM=01 , M = 2k = 2RbT

Assume Rb<1/Tc, T=nTc. This implies that k < n, and

M 2k
T ( D Rb )
( nk )
=
=
2
=
2
, D = 1/ Tc
n
n
2
2

Random Coding Based on M-ary Binary Coded Signals

We consider the ensemble of (2n)M distinct ways in which we can
select M codewords from the total 2n possible binary sequences.
Associated with each of the (2n)M binary codes, there is a coded
communication system.
{an}

{an}

{an}

Channel
Code C1

Channel
Code C2

Channel
Code C2nM

BPSK
Modulator

{si1 (t )}

BPSK
Modulator

{si2 (t )}

BPSK { s
Modulator

2 nM
i

AWGN
Channel

Optimal
Receiver

AWGN
Channel

Optimal
Receiver

( t )} AWGN
Channel

Optimal
Receiver

{an }

{an }

{an }

Random Coding Based on M-ary Binary Coded Signals

Instead of evaluating the error prob. Pe {{sij (t )}} of each coded system
individually, we compute the average error prob. of the 2nM coded
communication systems:

1
Pe = nM
2

2nM

j
P
{{
s
e i (t )}}
j =1

This is equivalent to choosing a binary code C from the set of all possible
code Cj, 1j 2nM, and evaluate the average error prob. E[ Pe (C)] , where
P (C = C j ) =

1
, 1 j 2Mn
Mn
2
2nM

Pe = E[ Pe (C)] = Pe {{sij (t )}}P (C j )

j =1

Applying the union bound, we get

1
Pe {{Si j (t )}}
M

M 1 M 1

i =0 l =0,l i

Q(

|| sij (t ) slj (t ) ||
2 N0

1
)=
M

j
j

2 c d (Ci , Cl )
Q

2 N0

i ,l
i l

where Ci j denotes the ith codeword of the jth codebook C j .

Random Coding Based on M-ary Binary Coded Signals

x2

Since Q( x) e

c d (Ci j , Cl j )
1
for any x > 0, Pe{{si (t )}} exp{
}
M i ,l
N0
j

il

1
Pe nM
2

2nM

c d (Ci j , Cl j )
1
exp{
}

N0
j=1 M i ,l
il

c d (Ci j , Cl j )
1
1
= [ nM exp{
}]
M i ,l 2
N0
il

c d (Ci , Cl )
1
E
[exp{

}]

M i ,l
N0
il

where Ci and Cl are the ith and lth codeword of the random codebook C
respectively.

Random Coding Based on M-ary Binary Coded Signals

Ci and Cl are independent, each taking values uniformly over the
set (0,1)

n
P ( d (Ci , Cl ) = d ) = 2
d
n

d
n
c

n
c d ( C i , C l )
}] = 2 n e N 0
E [exp{
d
N0
d =0

c
c

= 2 n 1 + e N 0 = 2 n [1 log(1 + e N 0 )]

Pe ( M 1)2n [1 log(1 + e

where R0 = 1 log(1 + e

C
N0

C
N0

)] < 2R bT TDR0 = 2T ( DR0 R b )

), D =

1
, n = TD
Tc

Random Coding Based on M-ary Binary Coded Signals

Since Pe is the average error prob. of the 2nM coded comm. Systems,
There exists at least one binary code Cj such that the corresponding
error prob.
Pe(Cj)<2-T(DR0-Rb)< 2-n(R0-Rc)
where Rc = k/n = Rb/D is referred to as the code rate.
When Rb<DR0 (or Rc<R0), one can always design a binary coded
system so that the block error prob. goes to 0 exponentially fast as
the block length n approached infinity.

Random Coding Based on M-ary Binary Coded Signals

If one selects a code at random, then this code is good with a very
high probability.
The probability that the error probability of the randomly chosen code

Pe Pe

is less than 1/.

As the dimension n is large enough, good codes are abundant. But the
implementation complexity is high.

bits/dimension

The rate R0 is called the cutoff rate.

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

R0

dB
-5

10

Ec/N0SNR per dimension

Review of Finite Fields

Group Structures
Definition 1 A group is a set G together with a binary operation *
on G such that the following three properties hold:

1) * is associative, that is,

for any a,b,c G, (a*b)*c=a*(b*c)

2) There is an identity or (unity)

element e in G such that for all a G,
a*e = e*a = a

3) For each a G, there exists an

inverse element a-1G such that
a*a-1 = e

Sometimes, we denote the group

as a triple (G, *, e). If the group
also satisfies
4) for all a, b
a*b=b*a
Then the group is called abelian
or commutative.

Example 1 Let
Z, the set consisting of all integers
Q, the set of all rational numbers
+ and are ordinary addition and multiplication.

Then (Z, +, 0), (Q, +, 0), (Q*, , 1)

are all groups where Q* is the all nonzero rational
numbers.
Furthermore, they are abelian
How about (Z*, , 1) ?

Let n be a positive integer (n>1)

and Zn represent the set of
remainder of all integers on
division n, i.e.,
Zn = {0, 1, 2, , n-1}
We define a+b and ab the
ordinary sum and product of a
and b reduced by modulo n
respectively.
Let Zn* = { a

Zn| a 0}

Proposition 1
(a) (Zn, +, 0) forms a group
(b) (Zp*, ., 1) forms a group
for any prime p

Definition 2 A multiplicative group

b=ai

is said to be cyclic if there is an

element a G such that for any b G
there is some integer i with b = ai.
Such and element is called the
generator of the cyclic group, and we
write
G = <a>

a2

a
1

Examples
(Z3*,,1) is a cyclic group with generator 2.
Z3 = {1, 2} = <2> , 20 = 1, 22 = 1 mod 3

(Z7*,,1) is a cyclic group with generator 3.

31 = 3, 32 = 2, 33 = 6, 34 = 4, 35=5, 36 = 1 mod 7

(Z5*,,1) is a cyclic group with generator 2.

21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 3, 24 = 1 mod 7
Every element in Z5* can be written in a power of 2

Finite Groups

Definition 3 A group G is called finite if it contains a finite

number of elements. The number of elements in G is called
the order of G, denoted as |G|

Rings
Definition 4 A ring (R,+, ) is a set R, together with two binary
operations, denoted by + and such that
1) R is an abelian group with respective to +
2) is associative, that is
( a b) c = a (b c ) for all a, b, c R.
3) The distributive law holds:
a (b + c ) = a b + a c
(b + c ) a = b a + c a
(Z, +, ) and (Q, +, ) are rings
(Zn, +, ) forms a ring, called residue class ring modulo n
(Z4, +, ) is a ring.

Fields
Let (F,+, ) be a ring, and let
F* = { a F| a 0}
The set of nonzero elements in F.

Definition 5 A field is a ring (F ,+, ) such that F* together

with the multiplication forms an abelian group.
(Q ,+, ),
(R ,+, ), and
(C ,+, ) are fields
where R is the set of all real numbers,
and C is the set of all complex numbers

Finite Fields
Definition 6 A finite field F is a field that contains a finite
number q of elements. This number is called the order of the
field. F is also called a Galois field, denoted by GF(q).

Proposition 2 Let P be a prime, then (Zp ,+, ) is finite field with

order p. This field is denoted as GF(p).
The addition and multiplication are carried out modulo p.

Examples: GF(2) and GF(3) on page 266

Polynomials
Let R be an arbitrary ring. A polynomial over R is an expression of
the form
f(x) = a0 + a1x + anxn
where n is an nonnegative integer, the coefficients ai are elements
of R. x is a symbol not belonging to R, called an indeterminant
over R.
f(x) is said to to be irreducible if f(x) cannot be factored into a
product of lower degree polynomials over R
x2+x+1 is irreducible in GF(2)

Construction of GF(2n) and GF(qn)

Step 1 Selcet n, a positive integer and p a prime.
Step 2 Choose that f(x) is an irreducible polynomial over GF(p) of
degree n.
Step 3 We agree that is an element that satisfies f() = 0.

Let GF(pn) = {a0 + a1 + an n| ai GF(p) }

Construction of GF(2n) and GF(pn)

For two elements g() and h() in GF(Pn),
g()=a0 + a1+ + an-1 n-1
h()=b0 + b1+ + bn-1 n-1
Define two operations:
a) Addition
g()+ h()= a0+b0+(a1+b1)++(an-1+bn-1) n-1
b) Multiplication
g() h()= r()
where r(x) is the remainder of g(x)h(x) divided by f(x)
Theorem: The set GF(pn) together with the two operations above forms
a finite field, and the order of the field is pn

Example: Let p=2 and f(x) = 1+x+x3. Then f(x) is irreducible

over GF(2). Let be a root of f(x). That is, f()=0. The finite
field GF(23) is defined by
GF(23)={a0 + a1 + a2 2| ai GF(2) }
As a 3-tupe

As a polynomial

As a power of

000=

=0

001=

=1

010=

100=

=2

011=

1+

=3

110=

+ 2

=4

111=

1+ + 2

=5

101=

1+ 2

=6

7 = 1

Primitive Elements and Primitive Polynomials

Fact: For any finite field F, its mutliplcative field F*, the set of
nonzero elements in F is cyclic.
Definition: A generator of the cyclic group GF(pn)* is called a
primitive element of GF(pn). A polynomial has a primitive element
as zero is called a primitive polynomial
Example: x3+x+1 is primitive polynormial over GF(2)
x7-1 = (x+1)(x3+x+1)(x3+x2+1)