by Lae aS 2s irey AY esas WE TWAS Cle alt ee Ly NG ie 3 | Pax’ DiaW Ixia 4 Leura Saco «Gavin Reeder c= WOU SU)connect inspire achieve Pee RR ME Mala @Q Kerboodle Books interactive (J) Interactive resources: Ne ence Ree Q support and Extension STMT Ere Ce Rd OO ale COL incense Peewee Des cy eee WebQuests. everett che Dae SUR ood Bee en Tt 1 1 Q Revision/assessment material . etm ericiie fl oni tenets it / 1 1 Q Teacher support - including Teacher and Technician Notes, “This ic the ful selactionof online resources available Product content may vary by subject Please note ony the content within the resources is exclusively endorsed Ly AQA, For more information visit and sign up for a FREE 30-day evaluation My Nelson ThornesAQA EVA ie: ETC) Jim Breithaupt Pauline Anning Gavin Reeder jes Editor tawri ie Ryan a aa Nelson Thornes‘Text © Jim Breithaupt, Pauline Anning and Gavin Reedor 2011 Crigiral tustratiors © Nelson Thornes Ltd 2011 ‘The right of Jim Brathaupt, Pauline Anning and Gavin Reeder to ba derifiec ag authors of this work has baen asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1983. [Aight rocoryd. No par o ha publicaton may be ropreduced Grier ay on erhy ey renna,oochorts or ‘rechasioa includ photsecey recon cr any naan Sorage andretreval Systm, witout permission wring rom ine pub isver orunder sree rom the Copynght Urensha Ageroy tented ofan owe, Oty Sted Lardin canes ‘Any porsen who commits any unauthariaed actin rotation to this publcaion may beable te cininl presceutor and del cars r damages. Published in 2011 by: Nelson Thomes Lid Bala Place, 27 Bath Roed (CHELTENHAM. 6153 77H United Kingdom 1219 1415/1098 75854 ‘catalogue record for this book i available from the Bish Library ‘AQA examination questions are reproduced by permission of the ‘Assesement ane Gualications Alience. ISBN 978 1 40a 08529 Corer prataranh Stockshote (backround); Davie DessGety Page make-up by Weersst Lid, Baldan, Tyne and Wear Printed in China Photo acknowledgements How Setence Works HI AFP/Getty Imagos; H1.2 iStockphoto; H24 Roger Bamber ‘Alam, H2.2 Martyn F Chilmalcy Hat ioskphote H9.2 Coty Images: HS:3 Martyr F. Chilmaid; H41 Bongars/Getty Imagos; H4.2 Gordlia Moloy?Sclence Phot Library; HOt NASA Hubble Space ‘oleszope Colestion: NASA, ESAand The Hubble Hevttage Team (SIScIAURA) 10-1 iStockphoto; HSQ1 iStockphoto; HSG2 Nartyn F chilmald; HSO3 Foto, unt PIit Toc Kinsman/Getty Images; P13 Tony Craddoct/Scionce Photo Library: PI 4.4 PhotolbraryiTsueo Nakamira: P24 APY PAAPhotos: #1 31 Charlae 0. Wintors/Selonce Photo Library: PI.44 Fotola;Pi.4.3 Gary OmblorGotly Images; P1.5.1Stockohotn; PI.6.2 Spohn MetthiouGatty mages; P16. 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Forman a al: Optical: DSS; 76.1 NASA/ESAUPL.ALizona State Universiy: P76 2 NASAJPLIComell University unts P1,4.1a AU PhataiHop Americain/Scionce Photo Library: P14 IStookphote: P11-2 iStockphoto: P11 4 Martyn F ChilimaldScionce } 2h Siaekphata: D424 Giphotosteek/Sciance Photo UbralysPI.4.5 David M Martin, MD/Sclaneo Phat Library, 1.5.2 [Stockphoto: P16,7Foiola:Pt\3.2 lan HactonyScionce Phato Library; P-8.4 Adam GaultSclence Photo Library; P2214 Amorisan ‘Stock Archive|Gaty images; P22 tb Fed DufoutAFPIGotty Images; P24. Isiocepnoto, P24.# Optare pl; P24.5istockphow; P21 IStockphote; P25 8a iStockphoto: P2.6.1 Hrvoje Po.an/AFP/Getty Images: P28 3a Goorae Rose/Geity Images; P2..3b Cordelia Malioy’Scienca Photo Library F274 Pia Novosti/Scienca Photo Library: Pa" Cardella Moloy/Scionce Photo Library: P32 lex Barta/Sclonce Phote Library: P3.3.1 B.Golscornet/Sclonco Prato Library: Pa.3.8 Gelonce Phote Library: P3.6.1ImageBrolornot! Photolibrary; 3.6.2 Stockphote; P33 Geoff Tonpknson/Science Photo Ubraty; EQ¢ Istockpncto.Physics A ee a Hi How does eolance werk? H2 Fundamental ideas about how sclence works H3 Starting an investigation Ha Planning an investigation HS Designing an investigation HE Making measurements H7 Presenting data HB Using data to draw conclusions H9 Scientific evidence and society Hio TheIsA ‘Summary questions 1 Energy transfor by heating 24 Infrared rediation 12 Surteces elton 13 States of matter 14 Conduction 15 Corvection 4.6 Evaporation and condensation 417. Eneroy transfer by design 118 Speotc heat copacity 119 Heating and insulatng buildings ‘Summary questions Exemination-style questions 2 Using eneray 24 Forms of energy 22 Conservation ot energy 23 Uselu energy 24 Energy andefficiensy ‘Summery questions Exemination-style questions 3 Electrical energy 24 Electrical appliances 32 Electrical power 33 Using electrical eneroy 2.4 Cost effectivenees matters ‘Summary questions Exerination-style questions 4 Generating electricity 4A. Fuel forelecricty 4.2 Energy from wind and water 43 Power trom the Sun and the Earth 4.4 Energy and the environment 45 TheNationel Grid 46 Big energy issues ‘Summary questions Exemination-style questions Contents 5 Waves. GA Thenature of waveo 52 Meesurng waves 52 Wave propertios: reflection 8.4 Wave properties: retraction 55 Wave properties: diffraction 5S Sound 5:7 Musical sounds ‘Summary questions Examination-style questions 6 Electromagnetic waves G4 Tho cloctromagnetic epoctrum 62 Light, infrared, microwaves and redio waves 22 63 Communications 6.4 Theexpanding universe 65 TheBigBang ‘Summary questions Examination-style questions End of unit examination questions (ae) 1 Motion 44. Distance-time graphs 112. Velockty anc acceleration 113 More about velocty-time graphs 1A Using graph ‘Summary questions Examination-style questions Bs 2 Forces 24 Forces between objects 2.2 Resultant force 22 Force and acceleration 24 Onine road a 2.5 Falling cbjecte 26 Sweiching and squeshing 2.7 Forceand speed lasuies ‘Summary questions Examination-etyle queations Be 3 Work, energy and momentum Energy and work 32 Gravina! potential energy 23 Kinetic energy 3.4 Momentum 25 Explosions 3.6 Impact forces 37 Carsefety ‘Summary questions Examination-style questions BBR wa 78 £88 104 105 106 116 17 18 192 193 134 148 149 6?4 Current electricity 44 Electrical charges 42 Electre circuits 43 Resistance 4.4 More current-potential diference graphs 45 Seriescircuts 48 Parallel clicults ‘Summary questions Examinaton-style questions 81 Altematng current 52 Cables and pluge 53 Fuses 5.4 Electrical power and potential cfference 85. Electrical eneigy and charge 56 Electrical issuss ‘Summary questions Examination-style questions Radioactivity Observing nuclear radiation oa The discovery of the nucleus 63 Nuclear reactions G4 More about alpha, beta and gamme raciation 65 Haltlte GG Radonctiity at work ‘Summary questions Exarination-style questions Energy from the nucleus 71 Nudear fission 72 Nuearfusion 72. Nuclearissues 74 Theearly universe 75. Thellfe history ofa star 78 How the chemical elements formed ‘Summary questions Examination-style questions End of unit examination questions 150 te2 163 176 4178 190 ist 192 204 plications of physics 14 Xays 12 Ubrecound 1.3. Refractive index 1.4 The endoscope 1.5. Lenses 1.8. Using lenses 17 Theeye 1.8 More about the eye ‘Summary questions Examination-style questions 2 Using physics to make things work: Moments 22 conte ot mass 2.3 Moments in balance 24 Stability 2.5 Hydraulies 218 Cireular motion 2.7 Thependulum ‘Summary questions Examination-style questions 3 Using magnetic flelds to keep things moving 34. Electromagnets 3.2 The motor effect 33 Electromagnetic induction 244 Transforners 3.5. Transformers in action 28 A physics case study ‘Summary questions Examination-style questions End of unit examination questions Glossary Index 295 226 240 2a 254 255Pe ecu ers keubed eset od Pe te col cad Wet Hints from the examiners who will mark your exams, giving you important advice on things to remember and what to watch outfor. ‘There are lots of interesting, and often strango, facts about ‘science. This feature tells you about many of them. GD links Links wil tell you where you can find more information about what you are learning. Activity ‘An activity is linked to a main lesson and could be a discussion or task in pairs, groups or by yourself. This feature highlights the ‘maths skills that you will need for your GCSE Physics exems with short, visual oxpianations. Me fed aoe Ne LMC er] ada ile This book has been written for you by the people who will be marking your ‘exams, vary experienced teachers and subject experts. It covers everything you need to know for your exams and is packed full o! features to help you achiave the vary best that you can. Questions in yallow boxes check that you understand what you are learning ‘as you go along. The answers are all within the taxt so if you don’t know the answer, you can go back and reread the relevant section. igure 1 Many ciagrams are as important for you to leam as the fest, 30 make sure you vie them earetly. Key words are highlighted in the text. You can look them up in the glossary at the back of the book if you are not sure what they mean. ', Where you see this icon, you will know that this part of the topic ! involves How Science Werks — a really important part of your GCSE and an Interesting way to understand ‘how science works’ in real life. Whara you sae this icon, there are supporting electronic rascurcas in our Kerboodle online service. roe “This feature helps you become familiar with key practicals. it may be simple introduction, a reminder or the basis for a prectical in the classroom, Anything in the Higher Tier boxes must be learned by those sitting the Higher Tier exam. If you'll be sitting the Foundation Tier exam, thase boxes can be missed out. ‘The same is true for any other places which are marked Higher or [H. Enno a toe) “These questions give you the chance to test whether you have leamed and understood everything in the topic. If you get any wrong, go back and have another look ‘And atthe end of each chapter you will find Summary questions ‘These will st you on what you have leamed throughout the whole chapter, helping you to vork aut what you have understood and where you need to go back and revise, PTT) important points that you must remember. They can be used AQA/ Examination-style questions “These questions are examoles ofthe types of questions you will answer in your actual GCSE exam, s0 you can get lots of practice during your course to help with revision and Se erHow Science Works How does science work? {« This firat chapter looks at ‘How Science Works. It isan important part of your Pe ee en nd Eee aed Ge ete hd Chae eed Pee CO links You can find out more about your ISA by looking at Hi0 The ISA atthe end of this chapter. buthe worked through seienuiic problems in the same way as you will in GCSE becauss the ideas introduced here will crop up throughout your cours. You will be expected to collect scientific evidence and to understand how wa use evidence. These concepts will be assessed as the major part of your internal school assessment. You will take one or more 45-minute tests. These tasts are based on data you have collected previously plus data supplied for you in the test. They are called Investigative Skills Assignments (|SA). The ideas in ‘How Science Works’ will also be assessed in your examinations. How science works for us Science worke for us all day, every day. You do net need to know how a mobile phone works to enjoy sending text massages. But, think about how you startad to use your mobile phone or yaur television remote control. Did you work through pages of instructions? Probably not! You knew that pressing the buttons would change something on the screen (knowledge). You played around with the buttons, to sce what would happon (observation). You had a guess based on yaur knowledge and observations at what you thought might be happening (prediction) and then tested your idea (experiment) Perhaps ‘How Science Works’ should really be called ‘How Scientisis Work’ ‘Science moves forward by slow, steady steps. When a genius such as Einstein comes along, it takes a giant leap, Those small steps build on knowledge and experience that wa already have. The steps dor't always lead in a straight line, starting with an observation and ending with a conclusion. More often than not you find yourself going round in circles, but each time you go around the logp you gain more knowledge and 980 can make better predictions. Observation Experimental test fe —| Predit Each small step is important in its own way. It builds on the body of knowledge that we have, but observation Is usually the starting point. In 1561 Galileo, during a long service at Pisa Cathedral, cbserved a lamp ewinging from a long chain attached to the ceiling. This started him thinking about what factors affect the time period of a pendulum. Alter many tests on pendulums, he was able to come up with a hypothesis that would enable him to predict what the time period would be for any civen length of pendulum. w. GCSEBouncing balls No matter how good a basketball player you are, i the ball is not properly inflated, you cannot play well. As the balls get used during the game itis possible that some of them will get soft. They should ell bounce the sama. How high the ball bounces will depend on lots of variables. It will depend aa © what the balls made of © how much air has been pumped in © what the temperature of the ball is © what the floor surface is made of, and @ how hard you throw it Its impossible to test all ofthese during a match. The simple way is to drop a ball from a certain height and see how high it bounces. Can you work out a way to see haw changing the height from which a ball is dropped can affect how high it bounces? This could then be used as a simplo tost during the match to see whether the balls aro good enough. You can use the following headings to discuss your ideas. One person should be writing your thoughts down, 0 that you can disouss thom with the rest of your class. © What prediction can you make about the height the ball is dropped from and the height it will bounce to? © What would you vary in each test? This is called the independent variable. © What would you measure to judge tho offoct of varying tho independent variable? This is called the dependent variable. © What would you need to keep unchanged to make this a feir test? © Write @ plan for your invostigation, © These are called control vanables. Figure 2 Pleying basketball Etre te 4 Copy and completa the paragraph using the words below: experiment knowledge conclusion prediction observation You hava leamed before that a cup of tea loses energy if itis loft standing. This is a piece of ‘You make an. coloured cups will cool fastor. So you make a... ‘a black cup, this will cool fastest of all. You carry out an ‘some results, and from these you make a ‘Tne Greeks were arguably the first rue scientists. They challenged traditional myths about life. They put forward ideas that they knew would be ‘challenged. They wore keen to argue the point and come toa reasoned conclusion. ‘Other cultures relied on long-established myths and argument was seen as heresy. Com rr ara tae the starting point for an as ee a) intended to explain certain Cee A prediction is an intelligent eect) Cas rent he kal Pec crocsHow Science Works Py Fundamental ideas about re) Mau ude) Science is too important for us to get it wrong ‘Sometimes it is easy to spot whan people try to use science poorly. ‘Sometimes it can be funny. You might have sean adver's claiming to give your PR ead ee ry Lill esselaltlell hair body’ or sprays that give your feat ‘ft ah dy’ or sprays that give yé Cn the other hand, poor scientific practice can cost lives. Rueda continuous and ostegorto ‘Some years ago a company sold the drug thalidomide to people 2s a sleeping poner pill, Research was carried out on animals to see whether it was safe. The research cid not include work on pregnant animals. The opinion of the people Dh bekanedidiseribihee fobs) in charge was that the animal research showed the drug could be used safely Cadell with humans. ‘© What is the difforonco ‘Then the crug was also found to help ease morning sickness in pregnant rater nica) women, Unfortunately, doctors prescribed tto many worten,seaufing in Ree ere) thousands cf babies being horn with deformad limbs. It was far fram safe, ‘These aro very ditfioult decisions to make. You need to be absolutely certain of i ebvaietedbdbemmeay| —whatthe scion isteling you ‘Why was the opinion of the people in charge of developing thalidomide based on poor science? OTE Read a newspaper article or tralch the neue on TY. Aske Deciding on what to measure: variables yourself whether any resoarch | Variables are physical, chemical or biological quantiles or characteristics. presented is vac. Ask yoursett : ° : ; whether you can trust that In an investigation, you normally choose one thing to change or vary. This is person's opinion and why. called the independent variable, When you change the independent variable, it may cause something alse to change. This is called the dependent variable. Accontrol variable is one that is kept the same and is not changed during the investigation, You need to know about two different types of these variables: © Acategoric variable is one that is best described by a label (usually a word). The ‘colour of eyes! is a categoric variable, ¢.g. blue or brown eyes. © Acontinuous variable is one that we measure, 90 its value could be any number. Temperatura (as measured by a thermometer or tamperature sensor) is a continuous variable, 2.g. 37.8°C, 45.2°C, Continuous variables can have values (called quantities) that can be found by making measurements (¢.0. light intensity, flow rate, etc). 'b Imagine you were testing a solar cell, what would be better: putting a light bulb into the circuit to see how bright it was, or using @ voltmeter to measure the potential difference? ea 1 Road sign that uses solar cells,Mal and valid ‘When you are designing an investigation you must make sure that other people can get the same results 2s you. This makes the evidence you collect reproducible. A measurement is repeatable ifthe original ‘experimenter repeats the investigation using the same methad and equipment and obtains the same results. Ameasurement is reproducible i the investigation isrepeated by another person, or by using different equipment or techniques, and the same g your evidence repeatable, reprodu RCQA Examiner's tip ‘When designing your investigation yu should always tty to measure continuous data whonever you can. This is not always possible, so then you have to use a label (categorie variable). You might still be able to put the variables in an order so that you can spot a pattern. For example, you could describe flow rate as ‘fast flowing’, ‘steady flow’ or ‘slow flowing’ results are obtained. You must also make sure you are measuring the aotual thing you want to measure. Ifyou don't, your data car't be used to answer your original question. This seams very obvious but itis not always quite so easy. You need tomake Figure 2 Student recording . sure that you have contralled as many other /STgE CH PONDS an variables as you can, so that no one can say that your investigation is net valid. A measurementis valdfit measures whet it is supposed to be measuring with an appropriate level of performanca, ye € State one way in which you can show that your results are valid. + + How might an Independent variable be linked to a +t dependent variable? oe Looking for a link between your independent and dependent variables is very important. The pattem ot your graph or bar chart can often help you to see whether there isa link. Figure 3: Which graph shows that there right be a ink between x end y? But beware! There may not be a link! If your results seem to show that there is no link, don't be afraid to say 60. Look at Figure 3. gta Cd Aristotlo, a brilliant Greak solentist, once proctalmed ‘that mon had moro tooth ‘than women! Do you think 1 Copy and complete the paragraph using the words below: that his data collection was reprocucible? continuous independent categoric dependent ‘Stefan wanted to find out which was the strongest supermarket plastic ‘carrier bag. Ho tested five different bage by adding weight to them until they broke. The type of bag he used was the ....... variable and the ‘weight that it took to break it was the... variable. The ‘type of bag’ is called a.........variablo and the ‘weight needed to break it wes a variable. © Continuous data give more A researcher claimed that the metal tungsten ‘alters the growth of eS LIED leukaemia cells in leboratory tests, A newspaper wrote that they would eke ‘wait until other scientists had reviewed the research before giving their ee ers opinion’ Why is this a good idea? peer aeD ‘The points on the top graph show a clear pattern, but the bottom graph shows random scatter. ‘Summary quesPR ead eed eet Bo! Dead How Science Works Starting an investigation Observation ‘As humans we are sensitive to the world around us. We can use our senses to detect what is happening. As scientists we use observations to ask questions. ‘We can only ask usaful quastions if we know something about the observed event. We will not have all of the answers, but we know enough to start asking relevant questions. It we observe that the weather has been hot today, we would not ask whether itwas due to global warming. If the weather was hotter than narmal for several yeers, we could ask that question. We know that glabal warming takes many years to show Its effect. ‘When you are dasigning an investigation you have to observa carefully which variables are likely to have an effect. a Would it be reasonable to ask whether the wind turbine in Figure 1 generates less electricity in the rain? Expiain your answar. Amjid was waiting to oross at a zebra crossing, A car stopped to let him cross when a second car drove into the first car, without braking, Being a scientist, Anji tried to work out why this had happened . .. while the two drivers argued! He came up with the following ideas: © Tha second driver was tired. © Tha second car had faulty brakes. @ The first car stopped too quickly. © The second car was driving too fast. © The second car was travelling too close. © ‘The second car had worn tyres. © The frst car had no brake lights. b Discuss each of these ideas and use your knowledge of science to decide which three are the most likely to have caused the crash. Observations, backed up by really creative thinking and good scientific knowledge can lead to a hypothesis. Testing scientific ideas ntists always try to think of ways to explain how things work or why thay bbahave in the way that they do. After their obsarvations, thay use thair understanding of science to come up with an idea that could explain what is going on. This idea is sometimes called a hypothesis. They use this idea to make a prediction. A prediction is like @ guess, but itis not just a wild guess — itis based on previous understanding, Acoiontist will say, fit works the way I think it does, | ehould be able to change this (the indepandent variable) and that will happen (the dependent variable)’[ _Staringan investigation Predictions are what make science so powerful. They mean that we can work out rules that fell us what will happen in the future. For example, electricians: ean predict how much current will flow through a wire when an eleciric cooker is connectad. Knowing this, they can choose the right thicknass of cable to use, When a steady wind blows against a structure like a bridge or tall chimney, it can cause ‘vortex shedding.’ This exerts an oscillating force on the structure, a force that can be predicted. © Lock at the photograph in Figure 2. Note down anything that you find Figure 2 The Tacorra Narrows Bricge in interesting. Use your knowledge and some creative thought fo suggest _—the USA twisting just before it caiapsed, a hypothesis based on your observations. Not all predictions are correct. Ii sclentists find that the prediction doesn’t work, ife back to the drawing board! They sither amond their original idea or of a completely new one. Starting to design a valld Investigation observation + knowledge —» hypothesis —» prediction —» investigation ‘We can testa prediction by carrying out an Investigation. You, as the scientist, predict that there is a relationship between two variables. ‘The independent variable Is one that 's selected and changed by you, the /estigator. Tho dependent variable is measured for each change in your independent variable, Then all other variables become control variables, kept constant so that your investigation is a fair test. Ityour measurements are going to be accepted by other people, they must bbe valid. Part of this is making sure that you are really measuring the effect of changing your chosen variable. For example, if other variaoles aren't controlled proverly, they might be affacting the data collected. Look at Figure 3. Darren was investigating the light given out by a {2V bulb. Ho used a light motor in the laboratory that was set at 100m from the bulb. What might be wrong here? Figure 3 Testing a light bub Eire etn Copy and complete the paragraph using the words below: Pry controlled dependent independent knowledge prediction us hypothesis Re Te) An observation linked with scientific ..... can be used to make a. ‘the starting point for an A links an variable to a variable. All other Lik Sasneahel variables need to be... SS ‘What is the difference between a prediction and a guess? Pe Pd ena ee eer ee Teen eerie eter Pcs resistance. The currert through the wire might cause tto get not. et ‘2 How could you monitor the tomporature? ort b What other control variables can you think of that might affect the BT at results? pareHow Science Works Planning an investigation Fair testing Afair test is one in which only the independent variable affects the dependent variable. All other variables (called control variables) should be kept the same. Ifthe testis not fir, the resuits of your investigation will nt be v Learning objectives eet re ag iihD karhschtebenibe ka) © Sometimes its very difficult to keep control variables the same. However, at STS TET TC SIN [cast you can monitor them, so that you know whether they have changed or Cbs enor ‘a How would you set up an investigation io see how the wing setting on Crete ard the rear of a car aifected its top spead down the straight? \OGW ne Ityou are asked about why it is important o keep control variables constant, you need to give a delalled explanation. Don't just answar, ‘To make it a fair test’. When you are asked to write 2 plen for your investigation, ako sure that you giv all the details, Ask yoursef, ‘Would Surveys somone olse bo aalo to follow mny unten planand use ttoco | Notell scientific investigation the investigation?” varable, Figure 1 How do wing settings on the rear wing ofa sports car affect its top spead? involve d jerately changing the independent Ifyou were investigating the effect that using a mobile phone may have on saith you wouldn't put a group of people in a racm and make them use th: mobile phones (o see whether they developed brain cancer! Instead, you might conduct a survey. You might study the health of a large number of people who regulatly use a mobile phone and compare their health with those who never uso a mobile phone. ‘You would have to choose people of the same age and same family history to test. Tho larger tho sample sizo you test, the bettor your results wil be. Control group Control groups are used in investigations to try to make sure that you are ‘measuring the variable that you intend to measure. Wnen investigating tho effects of a new drug, the control group will be civen a placebo. This is a ‘pretend’ drug that actually has no effect on the patient at all. The control group think thay are taking a drug but the placobo doos not contain the drug, ‘This way you can contro! the variable of ‘thinking that the drug is working’ and separate out the effect of the actual drug. Usually neither the patient nor the costor knows until after the trials have been completed which of the patients were given the placebo. This is known as a B double-blind trialLe Risks and hazards (One of the first things you must do is to think about any potential hazards and then assass the risk. Everything you do in lifa presents a hazard. What you have to do is to identify the hazard and then decide the dearee of risk that it cives. Ifthe risk is very high, you must de something to reduce it. For example, if you decide to go out in the pouring rain, lightning Is a possible hazard. However, you decide that the risk is 0 small that you will ignore it and go out anyway, Ifyou decide to cross @ busy road, the cars travelling along it at high speed represent a hazard. You decide to reduce the risk by crossing at a pedestrian crossing. Energy testing \ Imagine you were using an electric immersion heater te see how much energy it supplied to a beaker of water when switched on. ‘Bectnic immersion neater. Water © What are the hazards that are present? © What control measures could you take to reduce the risk irom these hazards? Aire cee 4 Copy and complete the paragraph using the words below: investigation hazards assessment risks Before you carry out any practical you need to carry outa risk = You can do this by looking for any potential and making ‘sure that the are as small as possible. 2 Explain the difference between a control group and a conwrol variable. 3 Brietly cescribe how you would go about setting up a fair test in a laboratory investigation. Give your answer as general advice. Figure 2 The hazerd is the busy road ‘we reduce the isk by using 2 pecestran crossing \@QW nel Before you start your practical work you must make sure ‘that itis safo. What aro tho likely hazards? How could you reduce the risk caused by these hazards? This is known as a risk assessment. You may wall be asked questions like this on your ISA paper. eed fair tosting - as far as is fs Teka Pu ul tee a Og ek hea Seay independent variable is changed. a eeu i) Ges ear Ce ua ua Rete reePeed Sr shea Peete piace i sek eu Sac i ska cunt Cea Oe ec od and precision? Figure 1. Meaatring the output vltage ‘from a solar cell How Science Works Designing an investigation Choosing values of a variable ‘Trial runs will tel you a lot about how your early thoughts are going to work out, Do you have the correct conditions? An experiment to measure the output voltage fram a solar cell might not give fan output at all. Perhaps the light isn’t bright enough, perhaps the surface area of the call is too small, or maybe the voltmeter that you are using cannot measure such a small voltage. Have you chosen a sensible range? Range means the maximum and minimum values of the independent or dependent variables. Itis important to choose a suitable range for the independent variable, otherwise you may not be able to see any change in the dependent variable. For example, if the results are alll very similar, you might not have chosen a wide enough range of light intensities. Have you got enough readings that are close together? “The gap between the readings is known as the Interval. For example, you might alter the light intensity by moving 2 lamp to different distances from the soler cell, A set of 11 readings equally spaced over a distance of 1 metre would give an interval of 10 centimetres. Ifthe results ave very different from each other, you right not see a pattem it you have large gaps betwoon readings over tho important part of tho range. Accuracy ‘Accurate measurements are very close tothe true value. ‘Your investigation should provide data that is accurate enough to answer your original question. However, it is not always possible to know what that true value is. How do you get accurate data? © You can repeat your measurements and your mean is more likely to be accurate, © Try repeating your measurements with a differen whether you get the same readings. © Use high-quality instruments that measure accurately © The more carefully you use the measuring instruments, the more accuracy you will gt. ‘strument and seePrecision, resolution, repeatability and reproducibility A precise measurement is one in which thara is very little spread about the ‘mean value. Ifyour repeated measurements are closely grouped together, you have precision. Your measurements must be made with an instrument trat has a suitable resolution, Resolution of a measuring instrument is the smallest change in the quantity being measured (input) thet gives a perceptible change the reading. It's no use measuring the time for a fast reaction to finish using the seconds hand on a clock! If there are big differences within sets of repeat readings, you will not be able to make a valid conclusion. You won't be able to trust your datal How do you get precise data? @ You have to use measuring instruments with sufficiently small scale divisions. © You have to repeat your tesis as often as necessary. © You have to repeat your tesis in exactly the same way each time. It you repeat your investigation using the same method and equipment anc. ‘obtain the same results, your results are seid to be repeatable. Itsomeone else repeats your investigation in the same way, ori you repeat it by using different equipment or techriques, and the same results are obtained, tis s2id to be reproducible You may be asked to compare your results with those of others in your group, or with data from other scientists. Research like this is a good way ‘of seeing whether your results are reproducible. A word of caution! Precision depends only on the extent of random errors - it gives no indication of how close resuits are to the true value. Just because your results show precision does not mean they are accurate, a Drawa thermometer scale reading 49.5" both accurata and precise. ‘showing four results that are Rte e teen 41 Copy and complete the paragrarh using the words below range repeat conditions readings rune give you a good idea of whether you have the correct to collect any data; whether you have chosen the correct forthe independent variable; whether you have enough ....; and ¥ you need todo... roacinge. 2 Use an example to explain how a set of repeat measurements could be accurate, but not precise. 3. Explain the difference bstwoen a set of results that are reproducible and 4 set of results that are repeatable. LL ACA Examiner's tip ‘You must know the difference between accurate and precise results, Imagine measuring the ‘temperature after a set time when a fuel is used to heat a fixed volume of water. “Two students repeated this, exporimont, four times each. “Their resuits are marked on the ‘thermometer scales below: © A precise act of repeat readings will be grouped closely together. @ An accurate set of repeat readings will have a mean (average) close to the true value. sec 4erc (but not acuratey ut ratprecise) oto Leer Cena Pes eee Cee ar Rees etter between the values of a variable, reeked Pe ate ase! pee ela © You should try to reproduce Pee anieT eka eee uke Me Ru Kea BR cd SC Sead Cee ea Eee eed Feu eu il and a random error? © How does human error affect eat sci) Send igure 1 Matttestng how fasta alley goes down a amp Qe Ifyou ara asked what may have caused an error, never answer simply ‘human error’ ~ you won't get any marks for this. ‘You need to say what the experimenter may have done to cause the error, or give more detail, e.. ‘Human reaction time might have caused an error in the timing when using a stopwatch. How Science Works Making measurements Using instruments ‘Try measuring the temperature of a beaker of water using a digital thermometer. Do you always get the same result? Probably nol! So can we say ‘that any measurements absolutely correct? In any experiment there wil be doubts about actual measurements, a Lock at Figure 1. Suppose, like this student, you tested the time it takes for one type of trolley to mun down a ramp. itis unlikely that you would get two readings exactly the same. Discuss all the possible reasons why. ‘When you choose an instrument you need to know that it will give you the ‘accuracy that you want. You need to be confident that itis giving @ tue reading Pothaps you have used a simple force meter in school for meeauring force. How corfident were you that you had measured the true force? You could use avery expensive force meter to calibrate yours. The expensive force meter is moro likely to show the truo reading that is accurate — but are you really cura? ‘You also need to be able to use an instiument properly. Instruments that measure the same thing can have different sensitivitias. ‘The resolution of an instrument refers to the smallest change ina value that can be detected. This is one factor that determines the precision of your measurements. Choosing tha wrong scale can cause you to miss important data or make silly conclusions, We would not measure the distance to Jupiter In centimetres we would use kilometres, |b. Match tho following timors to their bast uso: Used to measure Resolution of timer Time taken ‘0 sail around the world milliseconds Timing a ear rolling down a slope seoonde Time taken for @ bufet to vavel olts target__| minutes Timing a pizza to cook hours: Errors Even when an instrument is used correctly, the results can stil show differences. Results may differ because of random error. This is most likely to ba due to @ poor measurement being made. It could be due to not carrying out the method consistently. Ifyou repeal your measurements several times and then calculate a mean, you will raduce the affect of random errors.‘The error might be a systematic error. This means that the method was carried out consistently but an error was being rapeatad. A systematic error will make your readings be spread about some value other than the true value. This is bocause your results will differ from tho tua value by a consistant amount each time a measurement is made. No number of repeats can do anything about systematic errors. t you think that you have a systerralic error, you need to repeat using a different set of equipment (or 2 difforent technique. Then compare your results and spot tha differencel ‘Azzaro error is one kind of systematic error. Suppose that you were trying to measure the length of your desk with a metre rule, but you hadn't noticed thet ‘someone had sawn off half a centimetro from the end of the ruler. wouldn't matter how many times you repeated the measurement, you would never get any nearer to the true value, Look at the table, Itshows the two ses of data that were taken from the investigation that Matt did. Ho testod five difforont trollays. Tho bottom row is the time that was expected from calculations: ‘Type of trolley used atslilcloje Time taken for trolley torundownramp | 126 | 231 | 248 | 313 | 38.2 (seconds) yea | 152 | 24a | 20a | ave Calculated time (seconds) toa | 134 | 224 | aot | 950 Discuss whather there is any evidence of random error in these results. _Disouss whether there is any evidence of systematic error in these results. Anomalies Anomalous results are cleerly out of line. They are not those that are due to ‘the natural variation you get from any measurement. These should be looked al carefully. There might be a very interesting reason why they are so different You should always look for anomalous results and discard them before you calculate a mean, it necessary. @ Ianomalias can be dentified while you are doing an investigation, itis best ‘to repeat that part of the investigation. © If you find anomalies after you have finished collecting data for an Investigation, they must be discarded. Blue aoe 4 Copy and complete the paragraph using the words below: acourate discarded random resolution systematic use variation Thoro will always bo somo in rosults. You should always choose the best instruments that you can in order to get the most... results. ‘You must know how to ........the instrument properly. The... of an instrument refers to the smallast change that can be detacted. There are two types of error: should be... What kind of error will most likely occur in the following situations? a Asking everyone in the class to measure the length of the bench. 'b Using a ruler thet has a piece missing from the zaro end. ‘and... Anomalies due to random error “Two radio astronomers, Robert Wilson and Ama Perzias used radio telescopes to search cuter space. They wanted to cout out all background noise. ‘They ware troubled by low levels of ‘noise’ and could nol find its source, so they investigated this anomaly further, They thought the noise might be from a big city, but ‘that was ruled out. it wasnt any nearby electrical equipment. ‘They found and eliminated ‘some of the noise, but stil some remained. They found pigeons on the antenna ~ but having sent tham away by post they returned! Regrettabiy they had them shot — still the noise! The noise came from all directions, constantly. It would have been easy to ignore it—but they persisted and discovered that itwas ncisa left over from the Big Bang. ‘They had discovered evidence for the early stages of the universe! Peony Tee Te Pee ee tat et ud Se ety ce Guten eu enon aod Coo ‘We examine anomalies as ‘they might give us some interesting ideas. If they are re aad eet ee ‘them, we discard them,PR ead eHow do you calculate the facut etc teed eed Cd Se Bias Ce Ted ic) Figure 1 Student using an LOR with a light bub How Science Works Presenting data For this section you will be working with data from this investigation: ‘Mel shone a bulb on toa light-dependent resistor (LDR). She recorded how quickly energy was transforred to the bulb and the resistance of the LDR. Then she changed the rate of energy transterred to the bulb by altering the setting on the power supply and repeated the experiment. ‘The room was kept as dark as possible while she made the readings. Tables Tables are really good for getting your results down quickly and clearly. You should design your table before you start your investigation. Your table should be constructed to fit in all the data to be collected. It should ba fully labelled, including units. You may want to have extra columns for repeats, calculations of means or calouleted values. Checking for anomalies While filing in your table of resuits you should be constantly looking for anomalies, © Check to see whether any reading in a set of repeat readings is significantly different from the others. © Check to see whether the pattern you are getting as you change the independent variable is what you expected. Remember, a result that looks anomalous should be checked out to see whether it realy is @ poor reading, Planning your table Mel had decided on the values for her independent variable. We always put ‘these in tha first column ofa table. The dependent variable goas in the second column. Mel will find its values as she carrigs out the investigation. So she could plan a table like this Rate of energy transterred to the bulb (W) Rasistance of LDR (0) 05 4 (Or lke thi Rate ofenergytransierredtothe | 05 | 14 | 26 | 48 | a4 bulb (wW) Resistance of LDR (0) Al she had to do in the investigation was to write the correct numbers in the second column to complete the top table,[Presenting deta Met's resuits ere shown in the alternative format in the table below. WTI Rate ofenergytransterredtomne | 05 | 14 | 26 | 48 | 84 Vien you make a table for your pale OW) results, remember to inchide: Resistance of LDR (0) ‘zoa0_| 3000 | 1000 | 380 | 10 @ headings, including the units e aiitle, ‘When you draw a line graph or The range of the data Pick out the maximum and the minimum values and you have tha range of a boar chart, ramomizor to: variable. You should always quote these two numbers when asked for a range. | uso asensible scale that is For example, the range of the dependent variable is between 150.2 (the lowest easy 10 work out value) and 40000. (the highest valua) —and don't forget to inolude the units! tise as much ofthe graph ‘a Whatis the range for the independent variabe and for the dependent paper es possible; your data variable in Mel's set of date? Should occupy at least a third of each axis label both axes draw a line of best ft ‘The mean of the data line graph Cften you have to find the mean of aach repeated sat of measurements. label each bar ifitis a bar chart. ‘The first thing you should do is to look for any anomalous results. Ifyou find any, miss these out of the calculation. Then add together the remaining measurements and divide by haw many there are, For example an = ey @ Mel takes four readings, 350, 355, 420.0 and 3450. ps = - © 420.12is an anomalous result and so is missed out. $0350 + 355+345, Marks are often cropped in u's the lok by candlesosploting #10509 the number oval resus) = 8500. Frans incomerdy, Ato ‘The repeat aes and mean canbe recorded as shown below: appropri dont st on he porta otto dot! nace Resistance of (2) Se ean isttest | 2ndtest | 3rdtest Mean Displaying your results '® The range states the tone of your variables is categoric, you should use a bar chart. It you have a Se continuous independent and a continuous dependent variable, a line graph barpelly should be used. Plot the points as small ‘plus’ signs (1) Re ud Fe tag Ce Aurea 4 Copy and complete the paragraph using the words below: categorie continuous mean range Tho maximum and minimum values chow the. ent eeu Eis ke) ‘The sum of all the values in a set of repeat readings divided by the Lela f tho data. total number of these repeat values gives the.......... Bar chavts are TSC Ie used when you have a.......independent variable and a continuous Fadia e cascons aaicbiet dependant variable. Line graphs are used when you have indeperdent and dependent variables, tate CE he 2 Draw a graph of Mat's resulis from the top of this page. peer siresHow Science Works Using data to draw conclusions Identifying patterns and relationships Now that you have a bar chart or a line graph of your results you can begin to PR ead Och ahaa teh aaah look for pattems. You must have an open mind at this point. ae Peners ay perro) First, there could still be some anomalous results. You might not have picked these out earllr, How do you spot an anomaly? It must be a significant et distance away from the pattern, not just within normal vaition. ff you do have Lenealoablitbeeedanbibdl) any anomalous results plotted on your graph, circle these and ignore them BE Ld when drawing the line of best fit. Now look at your graph. Is there a pattern that you can see? When you nave from relationships? decided, craw e line of best ithat shows this pattern Se Alline of best fit is a kind of visual averaging process. You should draw the DSU cena ine so tha it leaves as many points slightly above the lie as there are points Cael dh Deal below. In other words itis a line that steers a middle course through the fiald of points. ‘The vast majority of rasuits that you get from continuous data require a line of best iit Remember, a line of best ft can be a straight line oritcan be a curve - you have to decide from your results. ‘You nead to consider whether your graph shows a linear relationship. This simply means, can you be confident about drawing a straight line of best fit on your graph? Ifthe answer is yes —is this lina positive or nagative? ‘a Say whether graphs i and iin Figure 1 show a positive or a negative linear relationship. Look at the graph in Figure 2. It shows a positive linear relationship. Italso goes through the origin (0, 0). We call this a directly proportional relationship. ‘Your results might also show a curved line of best fit. These can be predictable, complex or very complex! Look at Figure 3 below. Figure 1 Graphs showing inacr a b relationships z 2 g 3 22 s # Tine Tenparalue 4 g 5 = 0 Tine Figure 2 Graph showing adirecty Figure 3 a Grach stowing predictable esuts b Graph showing complexesuts a relationship ‘eGraph showing very complex restsSorte Drawing conclusions (QA Examiner's tip Ifthere is a pattern to be seen (for example as one variable gets bigger the ‘other also gets bigger), it may be that: claims, think carefully about the @ changing ene has caused the other to change evidence that should be there © tho two are rolatod, but ono is not necessarily the cause ofthe othor. to back up the claim. ‘When you read scientific. Activity Looking at relationships ‘Some people think that watching too much television can cause an increase in violence. ‘The table shows the number of television sets in the UK tor four different yeers, and the number of murders committed in those years. a aed Pythagoras of Samos declared that ‘Everything is number. He believed that everything in Year| Number ftelevisions (millions) | Number of murders the universe can be explained 1970 18 310 by simple materiel relationships. He went on ‘330 2 599 to dlecove ie eaenship 930 42 550 botwoen the length ofa string z000 60 150 and the sound it procuses Piot a graph to show the relationship. whon it vibrates, ‘@ Do you think this proves that watching televis He developed this Idea Into a Explain your answer. theory that the Sun, the Moon and the planets produced a ‘Your conclusion must go no further than the evidence thal you have. sort of music that kopt thom in their orbits! Poor science can often happen it a wrong decision is made here. Newspapars rave said that living near electricity substations can cause cancer. All that scientists would say is that thara is possibly an association Evaluation You wil often be asked to eveluaie either the method ofthe investigation or the Pom conclusion that has been reached. Ask yourself: Could the method have bean improved? ls the conclusion that has been made a valid one? er eeceberstaleual Ae) Bn mca) eu ce 1 Copy and complete the paragraph using the words below: ‘The possible relationships anomalous complex directly negative postive are linear, positive i aoe aaa BS nieaecad Lines of best ft can be used to identity... results. Linear “ Sof be proportional; predictable and ‘elationships can be. or fa straight line goes through the aaa origin of a graph, the relationship i... proportional, Otten a line of - best fit is a curve which can be predictable or Conclusions must go Nasra knew aboutthe possi Ink between canoer and ving near ia beac to eleotricity substations. She found a quote from a National Grid Company survey of substations: Se ee) ‘Measurements of the magnetic field were taken at 0.5 metre above CII eee) ground! level within 1 metre of fences and revealed 7.9 microtesias. After Ceo ee , im a op Ct 3 metres this cropoed to the normal levels measured in any house. Ca Discuss the type of experiment and the data you would expect to see to paneer ney support a conclusion that itis safe to build houses over § metres from different method or by others an electricity substation. checking your method.How Science Works Seu Ur RUL Reeling . at Now you have reached a conclusion about a piece of scientific research. So Learning objectives ‘what is next? ffi is pure research, your fellow scientists will went to look at it Se ery carefully. Ifitaifects the lives of ordinary people, society will also want to People totrustits research? [UiaMiliteana rere ‘You can help your cause by giving a balanced account of what you have ee eee found out. Itis much the same 2s any argument you might have. If you make paraaad ridiculous claims, nobody will beliave anything you have to say. py know why! Equally, it somebody is only telling you part of the truth, you cannot ee a ‘X-rays are safe, but should be limited’ is the headline in an American You must be on the lookout for people who research. When you ara told that a certain product is harmless, just check out who 's telling you. 'b Suppose you wanted to know about safe levels of noise at work. Would you ask tho scientist who helped to dovolop the machinary or a scientist working in the local university? What questions would you ask, so that you could make a valid judgement? ay ya ‘Acscientist who rejected the Idea of a causal link between ‘smoking and lung cancer was later found to be being paid by a tobacco company. Ora Ifyou are asked about bias in scientific evidence, there are ‘two types: ¢ The measuring inetruments may have introduced a bias because they were not | Equally, others might want to exaggerate the findings. They might make more calibrated corractly. of the results than the evidence suggests. Take as an exemple the siting of © The scientists themselves mobile phone masts. Local people may well present the same data in a totally may have a biased opinion difforont way from those with a wider viow of the need for mobile phones. ey are Oo © Check out some websites on mobile phone masts. Get the opinions of mbany fo promote thelr eopie who think they are dangerous and those who believe they are Product) safe. Try to identify any political bias there might be in their opinions. ‘We also have to be very careful in reaching Judgements according to who is presenting scientific evidence to us. For example, ifthe evidence might provoke public or political problems, it might be played down.[ Scientitc evidenceand soctety Science can often lead to the development of new materials or techniques. M ‘Sometimes thase cause a problam for society where hard choicas have to be VILLAGERS PROTEST made, (ASAIN WIND FARM | Revwetomaran eee epitome pain | fer tsaavere mada stra m aan oe nee one ° ered taste ‘ihe imitations of science ements aerectcees sel ease canes somal ea eit eno earns see se eg eee ens te a ren ete ee ates ae “eetboeo homes Scientists can give us the answers to many questions, but not to every question. Scientists have a contibution to make to a debate, but so do others such as onvironmentalists, economists and politicians, Science can help us in many ways but itcannot supply all tho answors. We are stil finding out about things anc developing our scientific knowledge. For example, the Hubble telescope has helped us to ravise our ideas about the boginninge of the universe. ‘There are some questions that we cannot answer, maybe because we do not have enough reproducible, repeatable and valid evidence. For Figure 1 The Hubble space telescope exemple, research into the causes of __c2n 00k deep into space and ielus {ings sboed the uniare's bagi cancer still neads much work to be Mahe natn oresry cere” ‘There are some questions that science cannot answer at all. These tend to bbe questions where beliefs, opinions anc ethics are important. For example, science can suggest what the universe was like when it was first formed, but cannot answer the question of why it was formed. 1 Gopy and complete the paragraph using the words below: status balanced bias political Evidence from scientific investigations should be given in a... Way. ee enn lt must be checked for any ....... from the experimenter. Evidence pense paiperrinent tee ‘can be given tao littl or toa much weight ifit is of _..... significance. that points out clearly how ‘The ....- Of the experimenter is likely to influence people in thelr valid the evidence is. judgement of the evidence. i idence is Seca) Collect seme newspaper articles to show how scientific evidence is Gee ea used. Discuss in groups whethar these articles are honest and ‘air Soot representations of the science. Consider whethar they carry any bias. Extract from a newspaper report about Sizewell nuclear power station: A radioactive leak can have devastating results but one small pill could ‘protect you. Our reporter reveals how for the first time these life-saving eee ae eared! Rene Cea ‘Suppose you were living near Sizewell power station. Who would you rote rer ‘rust to tell you whether these pills would protact you from radiation’? CeeRu eae rsa ened Cece Pie eects Or uy oreo ‘When you are making a blank table or drawing a graph er bar chart, make sure that you use full headings, eg, the length of the lea’, not just ‘length’ © the time taken for the reaction’, not just ‘time’ @ the height from which the ball was dropped’, not just ‘height’ and don't forget to include any units. How Science Works There are several different stages to the ISA. Stage 1 ‘Your teacher wil tal you the problem that you are going to investigate, and you will have to develop your own typothesis. “Thay wll also set the problem in context in otner words, whare in real life your investigation could ba useful. You should have a discussion about t, and tak about different waye in which you might solve the problem. Your teacher should show you the equipment that you can use, and you should research one or two possible methods for carrying out an experiment to test the hypothesis: ‘You should also research the contoxt and do a risk aseosemont for your practical work. You will be allowed to make one side of notes Figure 1. Doing practical work allows you to on this rosaarch, which you can develop the oil needed to do well nthe ISA take into the written part of the ISA. ‘You should be allowed to handle the equipment and you may be allowed to carry out a preliminary experiment. ‘Make sure that you understand what you have to do - nowis the time to ask questions if you are not sure. Section 1 of the ISA At the end of this atage, you will anewer Section 1 of the ISA. You will need c develop a hypothesis Identity one or more variables that you nead to control describe how you would carry out the main experiment Identify possible hazards and say what you would do to reduce any risk make a blank table ready for your results. What features should you include in your written plan? bh What should you include in your blank table?Stage 2 AC QA Examiner's tip ‘This is whore you carry out the experiment and get some rasuts. Dor'twory — P'when you are comparing your too much about soending a long time getting fantastically accurate results -it | conclusion with the Fypethesis, ie more important to get some results that you can analyee. make sure that you also tak about tho oxtent to which your results support the hypothasis. Which of these answers do ‘© How do you decide whather you should draw a bar chart or a lino graph? you think would score the most After you have got results, you will have to compare your results with those of others. You will also have to draw a graph or a bar chart. marks? ‘© My results suppor the Stage 3 hypothosie. ‘This ie whero you answor Section 2 of the ISA. Section 2of the ISA isall about | @ Inmy results, asx got your own results, so make sure that you look at your table and graph when bigger, y gotbigger, as you are answering this section. To get the best marks you will need to quote stated in the hypothesis. some data from your results. © Inmy results, ao x got oo bigger. y got bigger. as, stated in the hypothesis, but unlike the hypothesis, y stopped increasing after a while, Section 2 of the ISA In this section you will need to: © say what you were trying to find out © compare your results with those of others, eaying whether you think they are similar or different analyse data that is given in the paper. This data will be in the same topic area as your investigation ideas from your own investigation to answer questions about this © write a conclusion © compare your conclusion with tha hypothesis you have tested. ‘You may neod to change or oven reject your hypothesis in response to vyour findings. read ruc hi) Ci er es De ee cana Cu SE hd eos Seu! two possible hazards, and Arab baT oh eaten a en Aire cee ee Ed hypothesis that you are given Rr tral 4 Copy and complete the paragraph using the words below: contro! indepondont copendont When writing a plan, you need to state the variable that you are Sadar deliberately going to changa, called the... variable. You also need Ge to say what you expect will change because of this; this is called the ech ww Variable. You must also say what... variables you will keep hypothesis when you are constant in order to make ita fair test. Re eae osGCM) Summary questions ) Put these words into order. They should be in the order that you might use them in an investigation. design; prediction; conclusion; method; repeat; controls; graph; results; table; improve; safety; hypothesis 2) How would you tell the difference between an opin that was scientific and a prejuciced opinion? b Suppose you were investigating the lose of enargy from a beaker of hot water, Would you choose to investigate a categoric or a continuous variable? Explain why. a You might have noticed that different items of olectrical equipment in tho house use differant diameters of wire. You want to find out why. You use some accepted theory to try to answer the question. Expiain what you understand by a hypothesis. Vous it Figure 1 Different diameters of wire in a househeld b The diameter of the wire can affect the resistance ofthe wira. This is a hypothesis, Use this to make a prediction. © Suppose you have tested your prediction and have some data, What might this de for your hypothesis? Suppose the data does not support the hypothesis. ‘What should you do to the theory that gave you the hypothesis? @ a What do you understand by a fair test? b Suppose you were carrying out an investigation into how changing the current in an electromagnet affects the magnetic field. You would need to carry out a trial Descrite what a trial would tell you about how to pian your method, © How could you decide if your results showed precision? ¢ tis possible to calculate the theoretical magnetic fleld around a coil. How could you use this to check on the accuracy of your results? '® Suppose you were watching a friend carry out an investigation using the equipment shown in Figure 2. You have to mark your friend on how accurately ha is making his measurements. Make a list of points that you would be looking for. Figure 2 Student using an electromagnet to pick up iron flings @ a How do you dacide on the range ofa set of data? b How do you calculate the mean? ‘@ When should you use a bar chart? d When should you use a line graph? @ a What should happen to anomalous results? b What does a line of bast fit allow you to do? ¢ When making a conclusion, what must you take into consideration? d How can you check on the repeatability and roproducibilty of your rosults? @ a Why is itimportant when reporting scionce to ‘tell tho truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth’? b Why might some people be tempted not to be completely fair when reporting their opinions on scientific data? @ a ‘Science can advance technology and technology can advance science’ What do you think is meant by this slaiement? b Who answers the questions that start with ‘Snoulc we... 7{0 Wind turbines are an increasingly popular way of generating electricty. fis very important that thoy are sited inthe best place to maximise energy ourput. Cloarly they neod to be where there is plonty of wind Energy companies have to be confident that they gat value for money. Therefore they must consider the mast cooromic height at which to build them, Put thar too high and they might not get enough extra enercy to justi the extra cost of the turbine. Before decicing finally on a site they will cary cut an investigation o decide the best height. “The prediction is that increasing the heiaht wil increase the power output ofthe wind turbine. A test platform was rected and the turbine placed on it. The lowest height, that would allow the turbines to move wes 32 mates. “The correct weather conditions were waited for, and ‘the turbine began turning and the power output was: measured in kilowatts. “The results are in the table. Height of turbine | Power output ) Tost 1 (lea) 162 192 208 24 @ Silas glae Figure 8 Wind turbines End of chapter questions ‘a What was the prediction for this test? b What was the independent variable? © What was the dependent variable? What is the range of the heights for the turbine? @ Suggest a control variable that should have been used. ‘This is a fieldwork investation. Is it possible to control all of the variables? If not, say what you think the scientist should have done to preduce more accurate results. Is there any evidence for an anomalous result in this, investigation? Explain your answer. ‘What was the resolution of the power output measurement? Provide some ovidence for your answer from the data in the table. Draw a graph of the results for the second test Dravra lino of bost fit, Describe the pattem in these results, |. What conclusion can you reach? 'm How might this data be of use to people who want to stop a wind farm being built? A Who should carry out these tests for those who might cbject?Learning objectives end eet ted (out et cud Deicke depend on the temperature nats Figure 1 Keeping watch in darkness CO links For more information on infrared heaters, see P1 1.9 Heating and insulating buildings. ree ‘A passive infrared (PIR) detector in a burglar alarm Solaryng oreeang Figure 2 Change of state © What change of state occurs when hailstones form?ee Gere Changing state 11 Heat some water in @ beaker using a Bunsen burner, as shown in Figure. Notice that: ‘© steam or ‘vapour’ leaves the water surface before the water bolis ‘© when the water beils, bubbles of vapour form inside the water and rise to the surface to release steam. 2 Switch the Bunsen bumer off and hold a cold beaker or cold metal object above the bolling water. Observe condensation of steam from the boiling water on the cold object. Take care with bolling water. Figure 8 Changing state The kinetic theory of matter Solids, liquids and gases consist of particles. Figure 4 shows the arrangement of the particles in a solid, a liquid and a gas. When the temperature of the substanee is increased, the particles move faster. © The particles in a solid are held next to each other in fixed positions. They vibrate about their fixed positions so the solid keeps its own shape. ‘© Tho particles in a liquid ara in contact with each other. They move about at random, So a liquid doesn't have its own shape and it can flow. © The particles ina gas move about at random much faster. They are, on average, much further apart from each other than in a liquid. Se the density oa ofa gas is much less than that of a solid or liquid. pe © The particles in solids, liquids and gases have different amounts of energy. Random means ungredictable, In gonoral, tho particles in a gas have mora onargy than those in a liquid, Lottery numbors are choson at which have more eneray than those in a soli, random. x Zz Figure 4 The arrangemento! particles ‘2 sold, baliguid ardea gas, Te Ad 4 Copy and complata a to d using the words below. Each word can be used more than once. © Flow, shape, volume and gas liquid solid eneity are the properties Per 2 A... asa fixed shape and volume. es bA. has a fixed volume but no shape. . cA anda. can flow. RUE dA... does nothave a fixed volume. etek ‘State the scientific word for each of the following changes. fixed positions. a Arist appears on the inside of a window in a bus full of people. Scour ce b Steam is produced from the surface af the water in a pan when the about at random and are in water is heated before it boils. Cee ad ¢ Ico oubos taken from a froezor thaw out. Water put into a freezer aradually turns to ice. ea at ad Sao od Describe the changes that take place in the movement and arrangement much further apart than of the particles in an ice cube when the ice metts. Pee eee ateEnergy transfer by heating Conduction ‘When you have a barbecue, you need to know which materials are good conductors and which are good insulators. If you can't remember, you are See eT Ukely to bum your fingerst Cd Lu) Learning objectives Testing rods of different materials as conductors Rees ele ie Pro Look at Figure 2. The wax melts fastest on the rod that conducts best. = ea . =" i Figure 1 Ata barbecus~ the see! ‘cocking utensis have wooden or plastic handles Figure 2 Compering conductors @ Metals conduct energy better than non-metals. © Copperis a better conductor than steel. CO links ‘© Wood conducts bettar than glass. For more information on independent and clependent variables, look back at H3 Starting an investigation. a Why do steel pans have handles made of plastic or wood? b Name tho indepondont and the depandont variablos investigated in Figure 2. Practical Testing sheets of materials as insulators Use different materials to insulate identical cans (or beakers) of hot water. The volume of watar and its temperature at the start should be the same. Use a thermometer to measure the water temperature after a fixed time, The results should tall you which insulator was best.The table below gives the results of comparing two different materials using ‘the method explained in the practical, ater ‘Starting temperature (°c) | Temperature after 300s (‘C) paper 0 a2 fol 40 38 € Which material felt or paper, was the better insulator? Which variable shown in the table was controlled to make this a fair est? Conduction in metals Meials contain lots of free electrons. These elections move about at random inside the motal and hold the positive metal ions together. Thay collide with each other and with the positive ions. (lons are charged particies.) Bm © Ekcson @ Aon 2 5 Figure 4 Energy traneforin otal, ba non-metal ‘When a metal rod is heated at one end, the free elections at the hot end gain kinatic energy and move faster. © These electrons diffuse (Le. spread out) and collide with other tree electrons and ions in the cooler parte of the metal. © Asa result, thoy transfor kinotic enorgy to these electrons and ions. So energy Is transferred from the hot end of the rod to the colder end. In a non-metallic solid, all the electrons are held in the atoms. Eneray transfer only takes place because the aloms vibrate and shake each other. This is much lass effective than energy transfer by free electrons. This is why metals are much better conductors than non-metals. ‘Summary questions 1 Gopy and complete a to ¢ using the words below: fibreglass plastic steel wood a Amaterial called is used 10 insulate a house lott. b The handle of a frying pan is made of... of... ¢ Aradiator in a central heating systam is made irom 2 a Choose a matorial you would uss to lino a pair of wintor boots. Explain your choice of material. b How could you carry outa test on three cifferent lining materials? 3 Explain wny metals are good conductors of energy. Figure 2 Ineulaing aloft. Tho airtrapped between fbies make foraglass a good insulator. ta PPR aed Materials tke wool and fioreglacs are good inaulators. This is because they contain air trapped between the fibres. ‘Trapped air is a good insulator. ‘We use materials lke fioreglass for loft insulation and for \ lagging water pipes. rad Ce kekea ee aca) and fibreglass are the best feta’ © Conduction of energy ina ee ete electrons transferring energy inside the metal. ene ad acal Cee een) ot contain free electrons.Energy transfer by heating P11.5 Convection eee ice OR Oe oe tsecntd oe ‘The Gulf Stream is a current of warm water that flows across ‘the Atlantio Ooean from tho Gulf of Mexico to the British Iles. Fit ever turned amvay from us, our winters would be much colder! Figure 1A natural gider— bie use convection currents to soar high above the ground Gliders and birds use convection to stay in the air. Convection currents can keep them high above the ground for hours. Convection happens whenever Het sir ‘we heat tlulds. A fluid 1s a gas t or a liquid. Look et the diagram in Figure 2. It shows a simple demonstration of convection. © Ths hot gases from the uring candle go straight up the chimney above the candle. «Cal ire dawn downto \ other chimney to replace tha pt airleaving the box. — up Figure 2 Convection Using convection Hot water at home cle Many homes have a hot water tank. Hot water from the boiler rises and flows valet into the tank whare it rises to the top. Figura 3 shows the system. When you iG, use 2 hot water tap at home, you draw off hot water from the top of the tank. f ‘a What would happen if we connected the hot taps to the bottom of cold tho tank? water Sea breezes t ‘Soa breezes keep you cocl at the seaside. On a sunny day, the ground heats up faster than the sea. So the air above the ground warms up and rises. Cooler air from the sea flows in as a ‘sea breeze’ to take the place of the rising Heat a 8 Hot water at home: warm air (see Figura 4),$$ _____ ee ‘Air warmed by , © ea broaze cue to coclar ar ‘fom the see flowing into cathe —— Figure 4 Sea breezes How convection works Convection takes place: © only in fluids (liquids and gases) © due to circulation (convection) currents within the fluid. ‘The circulation currents are caused because fluids rise where they are heated {as hoating makos thom loss densa). Then thoy fall whore they cool down (as cooling makes them more densa), Convection currents transfer energy from the hotter parts to the cooler parts. So why do fluids rise when heated? ioe Most fluids expand when heated. This is because the particles move about "When you explain convection, more, taking up more space. Therefore the density decreases because the remember itis the hot fuic that ‘same mass of fluid now occupies a bigger volume. So heating part of a fluid rises, NOT ‘heat’. ‘makes that part less dense and therefore it rises, Emre tenn 1 Copy and complete a anc b using the words below: cools falls mixes rises ‘a When a fluid is heated, it.........and.........with the rest of the fluid. b The fluid circulates and then it Figure § shows a convector heater. It has an clociri heating elomont inside anc a metal Key points grille on top. oe eral @ What does the heater do to the air inside the heater? Ce kar) Why's there a metal grile on top of the Ce heater? _ Tot eked ¢ Whar does air flow into the heater? as Desoriba how you could demonstrate ‘convection currents in water using a strongly coloured crystal or a suitable dye. Explain in detail what you would see. igure 5 Aconvector heates SL hae makes it loss donso so it fei ramRu ead cco etre a en ee uke) ound etd evaporation from a liquid? © What factors affect the rate of Ce una tired Figure 2 Condensation [Vaud Figure 3 Explanation of cooing ‘evaporation gua Energy transfer by heating Evaporation and condensation ‘« Drying off Ityou hang wet clothes on a washing line in fine weather, they will gradually diy off, The water in the wet clothes evaporates. You can observe evaporation cf water if you leave a saucer of water in a roam. The watar in the saucer Gradually disappears. Water molecules escape fram the surface of the water and enter the air in the room. Ina well-ventilated room, the water moleculee in the air are not Ikely to re-enter the liquid. They continue to leave the liquid until all the water has evaporated. ‘ fo We Figure 1. Water molecules escaping fiom a iquid Condensation Ina steamy bathroom, a mirror is often covered by a film of water. There are lots of water molecules in the air. Some of them hit the mirror, cool down and stay thera. We say water vapour in the air condenses on the mirrcr. ‘Why does opening a window in a steamy room clear the condensation? Cooling by evaporation you have an injection, the doctor or nurse might ‘numb! your skin by dabbing itwith a iquid that easily evaporates. As the licuid eveporates, your skin becomes too cold to feel any pain. PEnrie ic Cooling by evaporation Watch your teacher carry out this experiment in a fume cupboard. © Winy is ether usad in this experiment? Fare cupboard 2 The steam of ar cartes etter vapour out of ‘eal Far salay epoca a fame cupboard as eke fs very farm bubbles trun the eter This liguld vapoes 3 Ascher erapoais, tts energy fom easly Is suoundhgs. The water bees he Deaker and he vc aes Figure 4 & demonstraton af coaling by evaparation[Evaporation and condensetion Figure 9 explaine why evaperation causes this cooling effect. «© Weak attractive forces exiat batwaen the molecules in the liquid. © The fastor molecules, whish have more kinetic energy, break aviay from he | Al conditioning attraction of the other molecules and escape from the liquid. An air conditioning unit in a. © After they leave, the liquid is cooler because the average kinetic energy of room transfers energy from the remaining molecules in the liquid has decreased. inside the room to the outside, ‘The unit contains a ‘coolant’ Factors affecting the rate of evaporation Te ovate Noveed ered Clothes dry faster on a washing line: coated circuit of pipos shat cach fomofwelcoting sspesdautwhen tishurgonthetae Ths | SoUuE he untand ne creases the area oft wot clothing thats in contact with dy a. ‘ne washing Ine sip uigit Wet hs cy tater ra wanes hoy xe, | * [Folin colar apes «if thora isa breeze to take away the molecules that escape from the waterin | Rueppasin’ the wet clotnes @ The evaporated coolant ‘The example above shows that the rate of evaporation from a liquid is condenses in the pipes Increased by: outside and transfers energy © increasing the surface area of the liquid to the surroundings. \creasing the temperature of the liquid © creating a craught of air across the liqui 's surface. Factors affecting the rate of condensation Ina steamy kitchen, water can often be seen trickling down a window pane, Tho glass pane is a cold surface so water vapour condenses on it. Tho air in Figure & An air conditioning unit the room is moist or ‘humid’. The bigger the area of the window pane, or the colder itis, the greater the rate of condensation. This example shows that the rate of condensation of 2 vapour on a surface is increased by’ © increasing the surface area @ reducing the surface temperature. errr) ts b Why does washing on a line take longer to dry on adamp day? ee at Binnre aoe Kidladlacdalalale eae (a Sarna used more than once. erage condenses cools ovaporates Se a Aliquic..........when its molecules escape into the surrounding ai. See ued b When weter.........0n glass, water molecules in the air form a liquid ree dec hid on the glass. Seek tim © When a liquid... it loses its faster-moving molecules and it...» by increasing the liquid’s Seca \Why co the windows on a bus become misty when there are lots of qe eas people on the bus? Parana Explain the following statements. ‘a Wot clothes on a washing line dry faster on a hot day than on a cold day. b A person wearing wet clothes on a cold windy day is likely to fee! ‘much colder than someone wearing dry clothes. akan’ ee eel) Ce aks et hd Petra oe‘Some electronic comoonents (get warm when thay are vrorking, but ifthey become too rot they stop working, Such components are often fixed to a ‘metal plate to keep them cocl. ‘The metal plate increases the effective surface area of the ‘component. We cal the metal plate a heat sink. Figure 3 Aheai sink na compucer Lots of things can go wrong if we don't control energy transfer. For example, ‘a.car engino that overhoats can go up in famos. © The cooling system of a car engine transfers eneray trom the engine toa radiator. The radiator is shaped so it has a large surface area. This increases the rate of energy transfer through convection in the ait and ‘through raciation, © A motorcycle engine is shaped with fins on its outside surface. The fins increase the surface area of the engine in contact with air so the engine transfers energy ta its surroundings faster than if it had no fins, ‘© Most cars also have a cooling fan that switches on when the engine is too hat. This increases the flow of air aver the surface of the radiator. @ Why do car radiators have a large surface area? b What happens to the rate of aneray transfer when the cooling fan ‘switches on? Ifyou are outdoors in cold weather, a Plast cap hot drink from a vacuum flask keeps: you warm, In the summer the same vacuum flask keeps your drinks cold — Double-walled slans (or past) Container In Figure 4, tho liquid you dink isin Patt: protethe ‘the double-walled glass container. cover f@ Tho vacuum between the two Hato col tua walls of the container cuts out Sponge ped energy transfer by conduction and or poeston) convention between the walls. Inde surfaces @ Glass is a poor conductor 20 siveredta stop there is little eneray transter by radaton conduction through the glass. Yacuum preven @ The glass surfaces are silvery to ¢onaucton ana reduce radiation from the outer wall onvector © The spring supporting the double- Prt png tr walled container is made of plastic oe which is 2 good insulator. Figure # A vacuum fesk © The plastic cap stops cooling by evaporation as it stops vapour loss from the flask. In addition, energy transfer by conduction is cut dovin because the cap is made from plastic. ‘So why does the liquid in the flask eventually cool down? ‘The above features cut down but do not totally stop the transfer of energy from the liquid. Energy transfer occurs at a vary low rate due to radiation from the silvery glass surface and conduction through the cap, spring and glass walls. The liquid transters energy slow/y to its surccundings so it eventually cools. List the other parts of the flask that are good ineulators. ‘What would happan if they weren't good insulators?te Factors affecting the rate of energy transfer The bigger the temperature difference between an object and its surroundings, the faster the rate at which energy is transferred. In addttion, the above examples show thatthe rate at which an object transfers anergy depends on its design. The design factors that matter are: © the materials the object's in contact with «© the object's shape «© the object’ surface area. In eddition, the object's mase and the material it is made from are impoctart. ‘That is because they affect how quickly its temperature changes (and therefore the rate of transfer of energy to or from i) when itToses or gains energy. SORT Foxy survivors A.desertfox has much larger ears then an arctic fox. Blood flowing through the ears transfers energy fom inside the body to the surface of the ears. Big ears have a much larger surface area than litle ears so they transfer energy to the surroundings mora quickly than litle ears. A desert fox has big ears so it keeps cool by transferring energy quickly to its suroundings. © An arctic fox has litle ears so ittansfers enargy more slowly 10 its surroundings. This helps keap it warm, Hot waters pumped through a raciator ike the one in Figure 6. Copy and comploto ato e using tho worde below: conduction radiation convection a Energy transfer through the walls of the rediator is due to. Figure 6 Acentral heating bb Hota in contact with the radiator causasfaator feneroy trarster to the (OOM BY oa. © Energy transfer to the room takes place directy due to... {An electronic componentin a computeris attached to a heat sink. i Explain why tha heat sinks necessary. Why is a metal plate usec as the heat sink? b Plan a test to show that double glazing is more effective at preventing ‘nergy transfer than single glazing Describa, in detail, how the design of a vacuum flask reduces the rate of energy transfer. CO links For more information on factors affecting energy transfer, see P11.8 Specific heat capacity. Gerre Investigating the rate of energy transfer ‘You can plan an investigation using different beakers and hot water to fing out what affects the rate of cooling. © White a question that you could investigate. @ Identity the independent, dependent and control variables in your investigation * 4 se b Figure § Fox 2ers.a Adesert fox BAn arctic fox eta transferred to or from an Cee Cd SR Dra Deters = the materials the object is in contact with SE between the object and its PetsLeaming objectives eu Seeded aod eek) ou etd rod Datars) Ce ae ee ee ens Prd) Joulereier BBBAEI To power ui Heater} ]f Thermaretar ‘Aumiium biock Insuaton Figure 1 Heating an aluminium block or) Cree Coastal towns ara usually Cooter in summer and warmer in wintor than tovine for iniane This is because water has a veryhign specific heat capacity. Energy from the Sun {or lack of energy) affects the famperature ofthe sea much less than the land. Energy transfer by heating Pret 1a) eC 8 a ‘Acar in strong sunlight can become very hot. A cenerete block of equal mass would not become as hot. Metal heats up more easily than conereta. Investigations show that when a substance Is heated, its temperature rise depends on: the amount of energy supplied to it © the mass of the substance what the substance is. Gere Investigating heating Figure 1 shows how we can use a low voltage electric heater to heat an aluminium block. Energy is measured in units called joules (J). Use the energy meter (or joulemeter) to measure the energy supplied to the block. Use the thermometar to measure its temperature rise. Replace the block with an equal mass of water in a suitable conteiner. ‘Measure the tmperature rise of the water when the same amount of energy is supplied to it by the heater. ‘Your results should show that aluminium heats up mora than water. Tho following results were obtained using two differant amounts of water. They show that: © 1600 was used to heat 0.1 kg of water by 4°C. © 8200J was used to heat 0.2kg of water by 4°C. Using these results we can say that: © 16000J of energy would have been needed to heat 1.0kg of water by 4°C © 4000J of enorgy is needed to heat 1.0kg of wator by 1°C. More accurate measurements would give 4200J por kg par °C for wator. This is its specific heat capacity. ‘The specific heat capacity of a substance is the energy needed or energy transferred to 1kg of the substance to raise its temperature by 1 °C. ‘The unit of specific heat capacity is the joule per kilagram per °C. For a known change of temperature of a known mass of a substance: E=mxexo Where: E ja the energy transferred in joules, J; m ie the mass in kilograms, kg; is the specific heat capacity, J/kg°C; @ is the temperature change in degrees Celsius, °C Tolind the specific heat capacity you need to rearrange the above equation: ° mxe a How much energy is needed to heat 6.0kg of water from 20°C to 60°C?Ger Measuring the specific heat capacity of a metal Use the arrangement shown in Figure 1 to heat a metal biook cf known mass. Here ate some measurements using an aluminium block of mass 1.0g, Starting temperature = 14°C Final temperature 22°G Enargy supplied = 7200 To find the specific heat capacity of aluminium, the measurements above give: E = energy transferred = enargy supplied = 7200 @ = temperature change = 22°G - 14°C = 8° Inserting thase values into the rearranged equation gives: E 7200) _ P mxe Tkg x 8 ~ S0Nka co The table below shows the values for some cther substances. Substance water oil —_| aluminium concrete ‘Specific heat capacity ‘900 850 (oules per kg per °C) Storage heaters Astorage heater uses electricity at night (off-peak) to heat special bricks or concrete blacks in the heater. Energy transfer from the bricks keeps the room warm. The brioks have a high specific heat capacity so they store lots of energy. They warm up slowly when the heater element is on and cool down slowly when itis off Blectricity consumed at off-peak times is sometimes charged for ata cheaper Figure 2 A storage heater rate, so storage heaters are designed to be cost effective. 'b How would the tamperature of the room change if the bricks cooled quickly? eT eee Cena) Pec fs 1 A small bucket of water and a large bucket of water are left In stong The sunlight. Which one warms up faster? Give a reason for your anewer. eter Cee ric 2 Use the information in the table above to answer this question. Peer ad a Explain why a mass of lead heats up more quickly than an equal eel) mass of aluminium. a) 'b Caloulate the energy needed Se ue kee i toraise the temperature of 0.20 kg of aluminium from 15°C to 40°C. MRS Eieie meester ameter aaa pppoe 3 State two ways in which a storage heater differs from a radiant heater. Ce ueP11.9 Learning objectives rrr Se autos Cat a ipa ee ‘A duvet ie abed cover filed with ‘down’ or sott feathers or some other suitable thermal insulator such as wool Because the filing material traps air, a duvet on a bed cuts own the transfer of energy from the sleaper. The ‘tog! rating of a duvet talis us how effective itis as an insulator. ‘The higher its tog rating is, the more effective insulator, A mtot material Energy flow cole U-value of te mati = energys passing perm fer °C tamperatua diferorce Energy transfer by heating Heating and insulating buildings Reducing the rate ot energy transfers at home () Home heating bills can be expensive, Figure 1 shows how we ccan reduce the rate of energy transfer at home and reduce ‘Auninium fol cour home heating bills between a radiator panel and te wall Dune cazee Draught axcluder Ccavty vallinsuaton Figure 1 @ Loft insulation such as fibreglass reduces the rate of energy transfer through the roof, Fibreglass is a good insulator. The air between the fibres also helps to raduce the rate of energy transfer by conduction. © Cavity wall insulation reduces energy loss through the outer walls of the house. The ‘cavity’ of an outer wall is the space between the two layers of brick that make up the wall. The insulation is pumped into the cavity. It is a better insulator than the air itreplaces. It traps the air in ‘small pockets, reducing convection currents. ‘@ Aluminium foil between a radiator panel and the wall reflects raciation away ram the wall © Double-glazed windows have two glass panes with dry air or a vacuum between the panes. Dry air Is a good Insulaior so it reduces the rate of energy transfer by conduction. A vacuum cuts out energy transfer by convection as well. money a Why is cavity wall insulation bottor than air in the cavity botwoen the walls of a house? U-values We can compara differant insulating materials if we know their U-values. This is the eneray per second that passes through one square metre of material when the temperature difference across it ia 1°C. ‘The lower the U-value, the more effective the material is as an insulator. For example, replacing a single-glazed window with a double-glazed window ‘that has a U-value four timas smaller would make the energy loss through the window four times smaller. b The U-value of 'MoneySaver’ loft insulation is twice that of ‘Stayvrarm’. Which type is more eifective as an insulator? ure 2 Uevelues =|Perry Soar ration Solar heating panels (}) Heating water at home using eleciricity or gas (copper pipes can be expensive. A solar heating panel uses solar energy to heat water. The panel is usually cass oa dapat \A or fitted on a roof that faces south, making the most of the Sun's energy. Figure 3 shows the design of one type of solar heating oanel, ‘The panel is a flat box containing liquidt-filed copper pipes on a matt black metal plate. ‘The pipes are connected to a heat exchanger ‘a water storage tank in the house. ‘Atraneparent cover on the top of the panel Soar pal on root allows solar radiation through te heat the metal plate. Insulating material uncer the plate stops energy being transferred through the back of he panel. Ona sunny day, the metal plate and the copper pipes in the box become hot. Liquid oumped through the pipes is heated when it passes through the panel. Tho liquid may be water or a solution containing antifrooze. Tho hot liquid passes through the heat exchanger and transfers energy to the water in the storage lank. (ere Payback time Solar heating panels save money because no fuel is needed to heat the water. But they ara expansive to buy and to install ‘Suppose you pay £2000 to buy and install a solar panel and you save £100 each year on your fuel bil. After 20 years you would have saved £2000. In thor words, the payback time for tho solar panel is 20 years. This is tho tima taken to recover the up-ront costs from the savings on fue! bil. Gime s toc 4 Copy and completa a to € using the words below Each word can be used more than once. conduction convection radiation ‘a Cavity wall insulation reduces the rato of oneray transfor duo to. b Aluminium foil behind a raciator reduces the rate of energy transfer due to © Closing the curt to and .. ‘Some double-glazed windows have a plastic frame and a vacuum, between the panes. ‘a Why is a plastic frame better than a metal frame? b Why isa vacuum between the panes better than air? ‘A manufacturer of loft insulation claimed thet each rell of loft ineulation would save £10 per year on fuel bills. A householder bought 6 rolls of the [oft insulation at £15 par roll and pald £90 to have the Insulation fittod in her loft. ‘a How much did it cost to buy and install the loft insulation? b What would be the saving each year on fuel bills? ¢ Caloulate the payback time. in winter reduces the rate of energy transfer due Fea eackanger Figure 3 A solar heating panel CO links For more information on payback times, see P1 3.4 Cost offectivonoss matters. ‘© Energy transfer from our tou eel) ar Sei Seco Se) ee) Se] ras ere dra Dealer PO ec Pei ced Pe dad Be Lod PreyERs aces Summary questions @ 1) a Why does a matt surface in sunshine get hotter than a shiny surface? b What type of surface is better for a flat roof ~ a matt dark surface or a smooth shiny surface? Explain your answer. ¢ A solar heating panel is used to heat water. Why is the top surlace of the metal plate inside the panel painted matt black? Why is a car radiator painted matt black? 2 Copy and complete a and b using the words below: collide electrons atoms vibrate ‘a Energy transfer in a metal is due to particles called moving about freely inside the metal. They transfer energy when they with each other. b Energy transfer in a non-metallic solid is due to Particles called inside the non-metal, They ‘ransfer energy because they A heat sink is a metal plate or clip fixed to an electronic component to stop it overheating. Figure 1 Aheatenk ‘ When the component becomes het, how does energy transfer from where itis in contact with the plate to the rest of the plate? b Why does the plate have a large surface area? @ Copy and complete a tod using the words below. Each word can be usad mora than anea. conduction convection radiation a cannot happen in a solid or through a vacuum. b Energy transfer from the Sun is dua to © When a metal rod is heated at one end, energy transfer due 10. takes place in the roc. 4 is energy transfer by electromagnetic waves. Pi 1.1-P1 1.9 Ba Inwinter, why do gloves keep your hands warm outdoors? b Why do your ears get cold outdoors In winter If they. are not covered? 6 Energy transfer takes place in each of the following ‘examples. In each case, state where the energy transfer ‘occurs and ifthe energy transfer is due to conduction, ‘convection or radiation, ‘The metal case of an electric motor becomes warm due to friction when the motor is in use. b Acontral hoating radiator warme up first at the top when hot water is pumped through it. ¢ Asiice of bread is toasted under a red-hot elactric gril. (@EFA glass tubs containing water with a small ice cube floating at the top was heated at its lower end. The time takon for tho ica cubs to melt was measurod. The tost was repeated with a similar ice cube weighted down at the bottom of the tube of water. The water in tis tube \was haated near the top cf tha tube. The time takan for the ice cube to meit was much longer than in the frst test. Weight lump of ioe Baling water Figure 2 Energy transfer in water ‘a Enorgy transfer in the tube is due to conduotion or convection or both, i Why was conveetion the main cause of energy transfer to tha ica cubs in the first test? i Why was conduction the only cause of eneray transfer in the second tect? b Which of the following conclusions about these tests istrus? 11 Eneray transfer due to conduction dogs not take place in water. 2. Energy transfer in water is mainly due to convection. 3 Energy transfer in water ia mainly due to conduction,1 Convection takes place in fluids. Usa words from the list to complete each sentance. Each word can be usad once, more than once or not at all. contracts expands rises sinks transfers When a fluid is heated it........., Becomes less dense, and The warm fluid is replaced ky cooler, denser, fluid. The resulting convection current energy throughout the fluid 8 ‘There are three siates of matter: solld, liquid and gas. Complete each sentence. a Asolid has a tixed shape and a fixed volume, a fixed shape but not a fixed volume. a fixed volume but not a fixed shape. neither a fixed shape nor a fixed volume. a b Aliquid has a fixed shape and a fixed volume. a fixad shape but not a fixed volume. a tixed volume but not a fixed shape. neither a fixed shape nor a fixed volume. w © Agashas a fixed shape and a fixed volume. a tixed shape but not a fixed volume. a fixed volume but not a fixed chape. neither a fixed shape nor a fixed volume. 0 Fluids are solids or liquids. solide or gases. liquids or gases. a @ The particles in a solid ‘move about at random in contact with each other. move about at random away from each other. vibrate about fixed positions. a In an experimant a block of copper is heatad from 25°C. 10 48°C. Give the name of the process by which eneray is transferred through the copper block, a) b The mass of the block Is 1.3kg, Caloulate the enargy needed to increase the ‘temperature of the copper trom 25°C to 45°C. Specific heal capacity of copper = 380.J/kg°C. Show clearly how you work out your answer. @ End of chapter questions AQ4/Examination-style questions @ Curved @ The diagram shows some rir, water being heated with solar cooker. cocang pot ‘The curved mirror reflects the sunlight trat falls on it ‘The eunlight can be focused on to the cooking pot. Tho. eneray from the sunlight is absorbed oy the pot, heating up the water inside, a Suggest one reason why a matt black pothas been used, @ b When the water has been heated, equal amounts of the water are poured into two metal pans. The pans are identical except one has a matt black surface and the other has a shiny metal surface. ‘Which pan will keep the water warm for the longer ‘time? Explain your anawer. @ '§ The continuous movement of water from the oceans to tho air and land and back to the oceans is called the water cycle. a The Sun heats the surface of the oceans, which causes water to evaporate. How does the rate of evaporation depend on [the wind speed « the temperature ) the humidity? ” b Explain how evaporation causes a cooling effect. (3) 6 Double-clazed windows are used to reduc the rate of eneray transier from buicings. The diagrams show cross-sections of eingle-glazed and double-glazed windows, Double-glazed widow 4 oso window Give two reasons way a double-glazed window reduces conduction mora affectivaly than a single-glazad window. @ 7 In this question you will bs assessed on using gcod English, organising information clearly and using ‘specialist torms where appropriate. Compare the similarities and differences between the process of conduction in metals and non-metals. (6)Using energy On the move (9 eked SS SSPEESSS SESE cars, buses, planes and ships all use energy from fuels. They carry their own fuel. Electric tains use energy from fuel in power stations. Electicity transfers energy from the power station to the train. Figure 1 The French TGY (Train 4 grande vtesss) electri rain can reach speeds of more ‘than £00kmjhour We describe enorgy stored or transferred in different ways as forms of energy. Hore aro come oxamplas of forms of energy: ‘© Chemical energy is energy stored in fuel (including food). This energy is released when chemical reactions take place. © Kinetic energy is the energy of a moving abject. © Gravitational potential energy is the energy of an object due to its position. @ Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in a epringy object when wo stretch or squash it. © Electrical energy is energy transferred by an electric current. ‘a What form of energy is supplied to the train in Figure 1? Shier Energy may ba transferred from one form to another. In the torch in Figure 2, the torch’s battery pushes a current through the bulb. ‘This makes th torch bulb emit ight and tt also gets hot. We can show the energy transfers using a flow diagram: chemical energy inthe. —= battery electrical light 4 energy heating energy eneray surroundings ‘Microwave van a 2 Energy transfers b What happens to the energy of the torch bulb?Energy transfers When an object starts to fall freely, it gains kinetic energy because it speeds Up as It ‘alls. So its gravitational potential energy is transferred to kinetic energy as it falls. Lock at Figure 3. It shows a box that hits the floor with a thud. All of its kinetic energy is transferred by heating and to sound energy at the p of impect. The proportion of kinetic eneray transterred to sound is much ‘smaller than that transferred by heating. © Draw an energy flow diagram to show the changes in Figure 8. Gravitational potental every v Heating and sound ‘on impact oe AN ne Figure 9 An energetic crop Aimee oe 4 Copy and complets a anc b using the words below: electrical kinetic gravitational potential ‘@ When a ball falls in air, it loses energy and gains ......... energy. b Whon an electric heater is switched on, ittransfers: energy by heating, List two different objects you could use to light a room it you have a power cut. For each object, describe the energy transfers that happen when it lights up the room. b Which of the two objecisin ais: easier to obtain energy from? easier to use? 8 Read tho ‘Did you know?" box on this page about the pio drivor. ‘a What form ot enaray does the stzel block have after it has bean raised? b Draw an anergy flow diagram for the steal black from the moment itis released to when it stops moving, Tall buildings need firm foundations. Enginaers make the foundations using a pile river to hammor stool girders end-on into the ground. The pile driver lifts a heavy steel block above the top end of the girder. Then it lets the block crash down onto the girder. ‘The engineers keep doing this unil the bottom end of the Girder reaches solid rook. © Energy can change trom one Coan ead gains speed, ite gravitational Pei Reed peed ees ee kos aeUsing energy P1 2.2 At the funfair ( Funfairs are very exciting places because lots of energy transfers happen quickly. A roller coaster gains gravitational potential energy when It climbs. This energy is then transferred as the roller coaster races downwards, Learning objectives Ast descends: its gravitational potential eneray ‘The energy transferred by heating is ‘wasted’ energy, which you will earn more about in Pt 2.3. enargy transfer by heating dua — kinetic eneray + sound + “1, air resistance and friction a Whon a roller coastor gots to the bottom of a dascont, what enorgy transters happen if: 1 we apoly the brakes to stop it ii it goos up and over a second ‘hill’? Never use the term ‘movement energy’ in the exam; you will only gain marks for using “kinetic energy’. Figure 1 On aroller coaster ~ having fun wih energy tans‘erst Investigating energy changes Pendulum swinging ‘When energy changes happen, does the total amount of energy stay the ‘same? We can investigate this question with a simple pendulum. Figure 2 shows a pendulum bob swinging from side to side, As it moves towards the middle, its gravitational potential energy is, transferred to kinetic energy. As it moves avray from the midill, its kinetic energy transfers back to gravitational potential energy. Ifthe air resistance on the bob is very small, you should find that the bob reachas the same height on each side, Ta Are Maximum = QO — “thar © What does this tell you about the energy of the bob when it goes from gavitsianal amu gravis! cone side at maximum height fo the other side at maximum height? potential, kinetic ate ‘© Why is it difficult to mark the exact height the pendulum bob rises to? _ SOY aa enecgy How could you make your judgement more accurate? Figure 2 A pendulum in motonConservation of eneray Conservation of energy ‘Sciatists have cone ots of tests to tind out the total energy attra transfor is the same os the energy before the transer.Allthe tess 80 far show itis the same. This important result is known as the conservation of energy. Ittelis us that energy cannot be crested or destroyed. Bungee jumping What energy transfers happen 10 a bungee jumper after jumping off the platiorm? ‘© When the rope is slack, some of the gravitational potential energy of tha bungee jumper ia tranaferred te kinetic energy as the jumper falls. Once tha slack in the rope has been used up, the rope slows she bungee jumpers fal. Most of the gravitational potential eneray and kinetic energy of the jumper is transferred into elastic strain energy. ¢@ After reaching the bottom, the rope pulls the jumper back up. As the jumper fises, most of the elastic strain anergy of the rape is transferred back to gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy of the jumper. ‘The bungee jumper cossnt return to the same height as atthe start. This is Figure a Bungee jumping because some of the inital gravitational potential energy has been tanaferred to the surroundings by heating as the rope stretched then shortened again. 'b What happens to the gravitational potential energy lost by te bungee jumper? € Draw a flow diagram to show the enargy changes. Get Bungee jumping @ You can try out tha ideas about bungee jumping using the expariment shown in Figure 4. Copy and complete using the words bal Figure 4 Testing # bungee jump electrical gravitational potential kinetic CO links ‘Apperson going up in a itt gains ....... eneray. The liftis driven by For more information on variables, eleciric motors, Some of the ....... energy supplied to the motors is look back at H2 Fundamental ideas wasted instead of being transferrad to........ nergy. ‘about how science works. ‘4 Aball dropped onto a trampoline returns to almost the same height after it bounces. Describe the eneray transier of the ball from the point of release to the top of its bounce. b What can you say about tho onoray of the ball at the point of release ‘compared with at the top of its bounca? ¢ You could use the test in a above to see which of three trampolines eee xr i Name the independent variable in this test. are ttle vab cep oreoninuaa? eae ‘One exciting fairground ride acis like a giant caiapull. The capsule, in ‘© Conservation of energy which you are strapped. is fred high into the sky by the ruber bands of ee the catapult, Explain the energy transfers taking place in the ride. CoeP1 2.3 Learning objectives Figure 1 Using energy Lots of energy is transierred in a cer crash. The fester the car travels the more kinetic energy it has and the more it ras fo transfor before stopping. Inaccrash, kinetic enaray s quickly transferred to elastic strain energy, distorting the car's shape, and eneray is ‘transferred by heating the metal. There is usually quite a lot of sound energy too! Using energy Energy for a purpose Where would we be without machines? We use washing machines at home. We use machines in factories to make the goods we buy. We use them in the ‘gym ta keep fit and wa use them to gat us from place to placa. ‘What eventually happens to all the enargy you use in a gym? Amachine transfers energy for a purpose. Friction between the moving parts of a machine causes the parts to warm up. So notall of the energy supplied 10 ‘a machine is usefully transferred. Some energy is wasted. @ Usoful enorgy is energy transferred to whore itis wanted, in the form itis. wanted. © Wasted energy is energy that is not usetully transferred. b What eventually happens to the kinetic energy of a machine when it stops? Investigating friction Friction in machines always causes energy to be wasted. Figure 2 shows two examples of friction in action. Try one of them out. Ina, friction acts betvreen the dri bit and the wood. The bit becomes hot as it bores into the wood. Some of the electrical energy suppliedto the bit heats up the dill bit (and the wood). Inb, when the brakes are applied, friction acts between the brake blocks and the wheal. This slows the bicycle and the cyclist down. Soma of the kinetic energy of the bicycle and the cyclist Is transferred to energy heating the brako blocks (and the bicycle whool). You can practise your skills in ‘How Science Works’ by investigating friction on different surfaces. ‘a Using a dil b Braking on a bicycleDisc brakes at work ‘The nexttime you are in a car slowing down at traffic lights, think about what is making the car stop. Figura 3 shows how the cise brakes of a car work. ‘ave When the brakes are applied, the pads are pushed —cyincars onto the disc in each wheel. Friction between the —_inblock, pads and each disc slaws the wheel dawn. Some of the kinetic energy of the car Is transferred to energy heating the disc pads and the discs. In Formula One racing cars you can sometimas see the discs glow red hot. Biale pela ~ aster eyinder Oi pines Spreading out ue © Wasted energy is dissipated (epreads out) to the surroundings. For example, the gears ofa.car got hot dus to friction whon the ear is running. So energy transfers from the gear box to the surrounding air. Figure 3 Disc brakes «@ Useful energy eventually transfers to the surroundings too. For example, the useful energy eupplied to the whesls ofa ay a trarsfored to energy heating the tyres. This energy is then transferred to the road and the surrounding a. © Energy becomes less useful, the more t spreads out For example, the hot ater from the cooling system of a CHP (combined heat and power) power station gets used to heat nearby buildings. The energy supplied to heat the buldings will eventually be transferred tothe surroundings. Winaal dsc ¢ The hot water from many power stations flows into rivers or lakes. Why is this wasteful? Aimee oe 1 Copy and complete the tabie below. Pr read) eta Energy transfer by | Useful energy output | Wasted energy output a Anelectiic heater Pea b Atelevision Crh © An electic kettle eee ea ‘d Hescpnenee Is not useful energy. Set tke 2 What would happen, in terms of energy transfer, 10 a {2 a.goar box that was ineulatod s0 it could net rarsier energy heating eek TL) the surroundings? usc b a jogger wearing running shoes, which are well-insulated? Rud ¢ ablunt electric dril if you use it to dill into hard wood? Oe ees 3 a Describe the enorgy transfers of a pondulum as it swings from one renee et side to the middle then to the opposite side. Dey b Explain vihy a swinging pendulum eventually stops. PoeRu ead eros efficiency? ee orn Lid ees ae Energy transfer per sacond INTO machine Energy wasted per second Useful energy ‘ransfar per second ‘OUT of machine Figure 1A Gankoy diegram Using energy ceil ‘Whon you lift an object, the usoful energy from your muscles goos to the object as gravitational potential energy. This depends on its weight and how high itis raised. © Weight is measured in newtons (N). The weight of a1 kilogram abject on the Earth's surface is about 10N, © Energy is measured in joules (J). Tha energy needed to lift a waight of 1N bya height of 1 metre Is equal to 1 joule. ‘Your muscles get warm when you use them so they do waste some energy. ‘a Think about lowering a weight. What happens io its gravitational potential energy? Sankey diagrams @ Figure 1 represents the energy transfer through a device. It shows how we can represent any energy transfer where eneray is wasted. This type of diagram is. called a Sankey diagram. Because energy cannct be created or destroyed: Input energy (energy eupplied) = useful energy delivered + energy wasted For any device that transfers energy: useful enaray transferred by the devioe (100%) Efficiency can be written as a number (which is never more than 1) or as a peter. For example, a light bulb with an efficiency of 0.15 would radiate 15 J of ergy oto vey OCU eletial energy me spply ot ¢ tslficioneyasanumbe) = 18,015 115 x 100% @ Its percentage efficiency 15% 1b Inthe example above, how much energy is wasted for every 100 of clectrical energy euppliad? © What happens to the wasted eneray? Worked example Solution An electric motor is used to raise an object. The abject Total energy supplied to the device = 200J gains 60 J of gravitational potential energy when Useful energy transferred by the device = 60J the motors sup, ‘with 200 J of electrical energy. Galoulate the percentage etficiency of the motor. Percantage efficiency of the motor useful eneray vansferred by the motor Total enorgy supplod to the motor eo Fao * 100% = 0.90 x 100% = 30% x 100%Ee Efficiency limits @ No machine can be more than 100% efficient because we can never get more energy from a machine than we put into It. Investigating efficiency Figura 2 shows how you can use an elactric winch to raise a weight. You can use the joulemeter to measure the electrical energy supplied. © If you double the weight for the same increase in height, do you need to supply twice as much electrical energy to do this task? The gravitational potential energy gained by tha weight = weight in newtons x height increase in metres. © Use this equation and the joulemeter measurements to work out the percentage efficiency of the winch. D ovject Safety: Protect the floor and your feel. Stop the winch before the masses Figure 2 An électicwinch wrap round the pulley. Improving efficiency S@yETET ‘Why machines waste energy How lo reduce the problem @ The greater the percentage 1) Friction botwoon the moving parte | Lubrieato tho moving part to reduco of tho onorgy that is usefully causes heating. friction. transferred in a device, the 2 Tho rosistanco of wir causes tho _ | Incireuko, uae wis wih ae Ito mote efficient the device is. wits together whenacurrent passes | elsctrical resistance as possible ° tiovaee Eficionoy end percentage @ | Airresistance causes energy Vansfer | Sieamine the shapes of moving efficiency are numbers {othe surrounaings objects to reduce a esistance, whhout units, The maximum @ | Sound created by machinery causes | Cutout noise (e.g. tighten loose parts efficienoy is 1 or 100%, 80 energy transfer to the surroundings. _ | to reduce vioration). ia calculation produces a number greater than Which of the above solutions would hardly reduce the eneray supplied? must be wrong 1 Gopy and complete a to ¢ using the words below. Each term can ba used more than once. supplied to. wasted by The useful energy from a machine is always loss than the total energy i © The efficiency of adevice = b Friction between the moving parts of a machine causes energy to be Teese) eS tha machine. Des he ¢ Because energy is conserved, the energy .........a machine is the Peer entre ‘sum of the useful energy from the machine and the energy the (« 100%). machine A vol iy [oe 2 Andlecro mobs wed orzoawoight When you supply coset | Neer electrical energy to the motor, the weight gains 24 J of gravitational potential energy. Work out: eee a the energy wasted by the motor Cee b the efficiency of the motor. pice Lena i i irresistance, electrical 3 A machine is 25% afficient. ifthe total eneray supplied to the machine is ES 32004, how much useful energy can be transferred? BrnUsing energy: P1 2.1-P1 2.4 Summary questions @ 1 The devices listed below transfer energy in different ways, 1 Carengine 2 Electric bell 3 Electric ight bulb ‘The next list gives the useful form of energy the devices are designed to produce. Match words A, B and C with the devices numbered 1103. A Light B Kinatic enargy © Sound 2) Copy and complete using the words below: useful wasted light electrical When a light bulb is switched on, energy is transferred into. energy and energy that heats the ‘surroundings. The energy that radiates from the light bulbis energy. The rest of the energy supplied to the light bulb is. energy. @ You can use an electric motor to raise a load. ina test, you supply the motor with 10000 of electrical energy and the load gains 1500, of gravtational potential energy. a Calouiate its efficiency. b How much eneray is wasted? © Copy and complete the Sankey diagram below forthe motor. Use erergy A = 15000 Figure 1A Sankey diagram for an electric motor @ A ball gains 4.0J of gravitational potential ene-gy when it is raised to a height of 2.0m above the ground. When itis released, It alls to the ground and rebounds to a height of 1.5m. ‘8 How much kinetic energy cid it have just before it hit, the ground? Assume air rasistance is negligible, b How much gravitational potontial enorgy did it transfor ‘when itfell to the ground? € The ball gained 3.0, of gravitational potential energy when it moved from the ground to the top of the rebound. How much energy cid it transfor in tho impact atthe ground? What happened to the energy tt transferred on impact? ® A low energy light oulb has an efficiency of 80%. Using an energy meter, a student found the light bulb used. 1600 of sloctrical energy in 100 eaconds. ‘a How much useful energy cid the light bulb transfer in this time? b How much energy was wasted by the light bulb? @ Draw a Sankey diagram for the light bulb. © A bunges jumper jumps from a platform and transfers 12000 J of gravitational potential energy beiore the rope aliached to her becomes taul and starts to stietch. She thon transfors a further 24000, of gravitational potontial energy before she stops faling and begins to rise. a Dascribe the energy changes: 1. after she jumps before the rope starts to stretch after the rope starts to strotch until cho stops ‘aling. b Whatis the maximum kinetic energy she has curing her descent? ? On a building site, an electric winch and a pulley were used to lift bricks from the ground. Figure 2 An electie winch and pulley ‘The winch transferred 12000J of electrical energy to raise a load through a haight of 3.0mm. The load gained 1500 J of gravitational potential energy when it was raised, a How much useful energy was transferred by the motor? ii Calculate the energy wasted Il Calculate the percentage efficiency of the system. b How could the efficiency of the winch be improved?AQ4/Examination-style questions @ 4 A television transiers electrical energy. Usa words from the list to complete each sentance. Each word can be usad once, more than once or not at all. elecirical light sound warmer A tolovision is designed to transfer energy into light and ‘energy. Some energy is transferred to the surroundings, which become: @ 2 Ahoairdryer contains an electrical heater and ¢ fan driven by an electric motor. The hairdryer transfers electrical energy into other forms. eding Fane Apart from energy by heating, name two of the other forms of energy. @ b Not all of the energy supplied to the fan is usefully ‘ransforred. Namo one form of energy that is wasted by the fan. My ¢ Which of the following statements about the energy wasted by the fan is true? A Itevontually becomes very concentrated. B It eventually makes the surroundings warmer. © Itis eventually completely destroyed. D tis eventually transferred into electrical energy. (1) Tho fan in another hairdryer transfors useful enorgy at the same rate but wastes more of the eneray supplied toil, What des this tell you about the efficiency of this hairdryer? (a) 3 In a hot water system water is heated by burning gas in a boller. The hot water is then stored in a tank. For every 111.J of energy released from the gas, 100 J of energy is absorbed by the water in the boiler. ‘2 Caloulate the percentage efficiancy of the bolle. Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how B you work out your answer. 4 End of chapter questions b The energy released from the gas but not absorbed by the boiler is ‘wasted’. Explain why this energy is of little use for further energy transfors. ) © The tank in the hot water eystem is surrounded by layer of insulation. Explain the effect of the insulation on the efficiency of the hot water sysiem, ® Acchairtft carries skiers to the top of a mountain. The chairlift is powored by an electric motor. ‘a What type of energy have the skiers gained when they reach the top of the mountain? a) b Tho onorgy required to lift two skiers to the top of tho ‘mountain is 240.000. ‘The electric moter has an efficiency of 40%. Calculate the energy wasted in the motor. ‘Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer and givethe unit. [H] (4) ¢ Explain why some energy is wasted inthe motor. (2) Aight bulb transfers electrical energy into useful light ‘oncrgy and wasted energy to the surroundings. For every 100, of eneray supplied to the bulb, 5. of energy is transferred into ight Wasted ‘ate ereny oeny — tectily Draw and label a Sankey diagram for the light bulb. (3) In this question you will be assessed on using gcod English, organising information clearly and using ‘specialist torms where appropriate. Explain why an electric hoator is the only applianco that can possibly be 100% effictent. ()Learning objectives One eyo Reta) Cees Dein add era Cee dans Pena Gertie Energy transfers Carry outa survey of electrical appliances you find at school cr at home. Record the useful and wasted energy transfers of each appliance. Unlike high vottage electrical injuries, people do not gat many burns when they are struck by lighining. Damage is usually to the nervous system. The brain Is irequently damaged as the skull is the most likely place to be struck. Lightning that strikes near the head can enter the body through the eyes, ears and ‘mouth and flow internally through the body, Electrical energy Electrical appliances Everyday electrical appliances @ We use electrical appliances every day. They transfer electrical enargy into useful eneray at the fick of a switch. Some cf the electrical energy we supply to thom is wasted. Figure 1 Electical appl 1288 ~ how many can you see inthis photo? Tablet ‘Appliance Usotul energy Energy wasted Light bub Light from the glowing lament. | Energy tanefer from the ‘lament heating surroundings, Elects heater Energy heating the surroundings. Light from the glowing element Eleciris toasier Eneigy heating bread Energy heating the toaster case and the air around it Electric kettle | Energy heating water. Energy heating the kettle iselt Halraryer Kinetic energy ofthe alr driven | Sound of fan motor (energy by the fan heating the motor heals the Enaigy heating airflowing past | ele going pastit, 20 la not the heater flament. wasted) Energy heating tne haircryer itself Electric motor | Kinetic eneray of object driven | Eneray heating the motor and bythe motor sourd energy of the motor Potential energy of objects Ited by the motor. ‘Computer dise | Enargy stored in magnello dots | Energy heating the motor that drive onthe dise. drives the dise. ‘a What onorgy transfors happen in an electric toothbrush?Ee Clockwork radio People witnout electricity supplies can now’ listen to radio programmes — thanks to the British inventor Trevor Baylis. In the early 1990s, he invented and patented the clockwork radio. When you tum a handle on the radio, you wind up a clockwork spring in the radio. When the spring unwinds, itturns a emall electric generator in the radio. It doosr’t need katterios or mains electricity. So people in remote areas where there is no mains electricity can listen to their radios without having to welk rles for & replacement battery. But they do have to wind up the spring avery time it runs out of enargy. Figure 2 Clockwork radios are now mass- produced end eold all ovor te world Choosing an electrical appliance We use electrical appliances for many purposes. Each appliance is dosignod for a particular purpose and it should waste as lito eneray as possible. Suppose you were a rock musician at a concart. You would need appliances that transfer sound energy into electrical anergy and then back into sound energy. But you wouldn't want them to produce lois of energy heating the appliance lf and its surroundings. See if you can epot some of these appliances in Figure 3. b What electrical appliance transfers: sound energy into electrical energy? electrical anergy into sound energy? © What other electrical appliance would you need ata concert? Figure 3 Onstage Bere ed 41 Copy and complete using the words below: electrical light heating When a battery is connected to a light bulb, ......... energy is transferred from the battery to the light bulb. The filament of the light bulb becomes: hot and so energy transfers to its surroundings by ........ aNd a8... one ‘or rere) Match each electrical appliance in the ist below with the energy transfer Cenohaemaepel peed Aor Bitis designed to bring about. Useful energy atthe fick of a 1 Electric drill parties 2 Food mixer 8 Electric bell re hacen ie Piel darcy Enorgy transfor A. Electrical energy -> sound energy (eens B Electrical eneray-— kinetic eneray fsa lice a heeeg {8 Why does a clockwork redio need to be wound up before itcan be rer on) used? and visual images. bb What energy transfors take place in a clockwork radio when itis = wound up then switched on? Phi ioe © Give an advantage and a disadvantage of a clockwork radio Gielen, compared with a battery-operated radio. ee esFigure 1 A lift motor or” Rocket power ‘When you use ¢ lift to go up, a powerful electric motor pulle you and the lift upwards. The lift motor transfers energy ‘rom electrical energy to gravitational potential energy when the lift goes up at a steady speed. We also get electrical energy transferred to wasted energy heating the motor and the surroundings, and sound enargy. © The energy we supply per second to the motor is the power supplied to it. © Tho more powerful the lift motor is, the faster it moves a particular load. In general, we can say that: the more powerful an appliance, the faster the rate at which it transfers energy. ‘We measure the power of an appliance in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW), 1 watt is a rate of transfer of energy of 1 joule per second (W/s) 1 kilowatt is equal to 1000 watts (.e. 1000 joules per second or 1 kus). You can calculate power using: Where: Pls the power in watts, W Els the energy transferred to the appliance in joules, J {is the time taken for the energy to be wansferred in seconds, s. ‘A motor transiers 10000J of energy in 25s. What is its power? P sim 10.0004. P 258 400W ‘@ Whats the powor of a lift motor that transfers 60000 J of anergy from the electricity supply in 108? Here are some typical values of power ratings for different anergy transfers: ‘Appliance Power rating ‘toreh iW Anelectric light bulb 00W ‘Anelectric cooker OOOOW = 1OKW (where 1kWV = 1000 watts) ‘A raliway engine 71000000W = 1 megawalt (MW) = 1 millon walls A Saturn V rocket 700MW ‘Avery large power station | 10000 MW ‘World derrandtor power 70000000 ‘Aster ke the Sun "jooco0coG00 000000 000MWbb How many 100W electiic li power as a 10kW electric conker? Muscle power How powerful is veightliter? A30kg dumbbell has a weight of 300N. Raising it by 1m would give it 300 J of gravitational potential energy. A weightitter could lf itn about 0.5 seconds. “Tho rato of enorgy tranefor would be 600d (~ $00.) + 0.52). So the weightiffer's power output would be about 600W in total! © An inventor has designed an exercise machine that can also generate 100W of olectrical power. Do you think people would buy this machine in case of a power cut? Efficiency and power For any appliance « jis useful power out (or output powel) isthe useful energy per second Figure 3 Muscle power transferred by i @ its total power in (or inout power) is the eneray per second supplied to it. In Pi 24 Energy and offi useful energy transferred by the device total energy supplied to it 107, wo saw that tho officioncy of an appliance (% 100% Because power = energy per second transferred or supplied, we can write the efficiency equation as: Useful power oUt 6 49994) ‘otal povrer in Etficionoy For example, suppose the useful power out of an electric metor is 20W and the total power in is 80W, the percentage efficiency of the motor is: 20W useful power out _ ‘total power in % 100% aw * 100% = 25% 1a Which is more powertul? A torch bulb or a mains filament bulb. A kW electric katile or a 10000W electric cooker. b There are about 20 million occupied homes in England. Ifa 3KW electric kettle was ewitched on in t in 10 homes at the same time, how much power would need to be supplied? ‘The total power supplied to a lift motor is 5000\W. In a test, it transfers iL 12000 J ot electrical eneray to gravitational potential eneray in 20 eeoonde. roe ‘a How much electrical eneray is supplied to the motor in 2058? b Whatis its efficiency in the test? ‘A machine has an inout power rating of 100KW. It the useful eneray transferred by the machine in 50 seconds is 1500ki, calculate a its output power in kilowatts iieedil power b its percentage efficiency. Poa Cee}Electrical energy Using electrical energy « When you use an electric heater, how mush electrical energy is transferred Leaming objectives from the mains? You can work this out if you know its power and how ong you Geilo use Ir. For any appliance, the energy supplied to it depends on: ree tance v any apetance, he energy Supe " Cee ema ¢ how long itis used for Bae © the power supplied to it. ‘1 Kilowatt heater uses the same amount of electrical energy in 1 hour as a 2 kilowatt heater would use in half an hour. For ease, we say that: the energy supplied to a 1KW appliance in 1 hour is 1 kilowattshour (eWh) We use the kilowatt-hour as the unt of energy supplied by mains electricity You can use this equation to work out the energy, in Kilowal-nours, transferred. by a mains applianoo in a certain time: E=Pxt tee ee acc Where: F is the eneray transferred in kilowatt hours, kWh P is the power in klowatts, KW 1650 - 1980 W tis the time taken for the energy to be transferred in hours, h 220-230 V ~ 50-60 Hz, Worked example ‘You have used this equation before in P1 3.2 to calculate the power of an appliance. Itis the same equation, just rearranged and with different units. E=Pxt Divide both sides byt This is the same as Figure 1 Maine power For example: @ a 1kW heater switched on for 1 hour uses 1 kWh of electrical energy (© 1KW x 1 hour) © a 1KW healer switched on for 10 hours uses 10kWh of electical energy (= 1 RW x 10 hours} @ 2.0.5kW or 500W heater switchad on for 6 hours uses 3kWh of electrical eneray (= 0.5kW x 6 hours) Hi we want to calculate the energy transterred in joules, we can use the equation aT ee One kilewatt-hour is the amount of electrical aneray Where: Eopxt supplied toa 1 kiowatt ere: appance in 1 hour Es the energy transferred in joules, J S011 kilowatt-hour P is the power in watts, W = 1000 joules per second 1s the time taken for te energy to be transferred in seconds, s. x B0 x 60 seconds 00 0004 2. How many kWh of energy are used by a 100WW lamp in 24 hours? = 3.6 million joules b How many joules of energy are used by a SW torch lamp in 3000 ‘seconds (= 50 minutes)?Paying for electrical energy rece. | MELEB In your home measures L. Jones how much olectrical energy your family uses. f Itrecords the toral energy | 26 Homewood Roa supplied, no matterhow | Otwood N51 9YZ many appliances you all use, It gives us a reading Figure 2 An clocticty metor ofthe arbor ct iowa | age] ie] es, [OT] rome cr conecy | ee [oe | supplied by the mains. | srs3| so0va| 1442 10.89 [157.05 | sere In most houses, somebody [Senna eae reads the meter every (TOTAL NOWDUE three months, Look at the electricity bill in Figure 2. Figure 2 Checking your bill ‘The difference betwean the two readings is the number of kilowatt-hours supplied since the last bill © Check for yoursel that 1442kWh of electrical energy is supplied in the bill shown. We use the kiowatt-hourto work out tha cos ofalacticty. Forexamrle, acest AC QQ TEED of 25 por kW/h ears that each Kibwattrour of electreal energy costs 2p. Therefore: Remember that a klowat (kWh) ie a unit of energy. total cost = number of kWh used x cost perkWh Work out the cost of 1442 kWh at 12p per kWh. Summary questions 4 Copy and complote a to e using tho words below. Each word can be used more than once, hours kilowatt kilowatt-hours a The is @ unit of power. b Electricity meters record the mains electrical energy transferred in units of © TWO «nu iS the eneray transferred by a 1 appliance in 2 4 Work out the number of KWh transferred in each case below. 1A kilowatt cloctic keto ic usod 6 timos for 6 minutos oach timo. ‘A 1000 watt microwave oven is used for 39 minutes. ‘A100 watt slactic light is used for 8 hours. Teer b Calculate the total cost ofthe electricity used in part ai the cost of polonaanaeiaeliner eee electra Is 12p per kWh. ats An electric heater is left on for 3 hours. During tis time it uses 12kWh of electrical energy. ‘a Whatis the powar of tha heater? Pee dr iy b How many joules are supplied? DeeGriscad P13.4 Cost effectiveness matters Sm cots BO ‘When we compare the effectiveness of different energy-saving appliances one that do the same job, we need to make sure we get value for money. In other Cee words, we need to make sura the appliance we choose is coat effective Serre ‘To compare the cost effectiveness of different cost-cutting measures, we need Cr to consider: © the capital costs such as buying and installing equipment © the running costs, including fuel and maintenance © environmental cosis, for example removal or disposal of old equipment (¢.9. refrigerators, used batteries) ~ tax charges such as carbon taxes of fossil fuels © other costs such as interest on loans. Ce retin Payback time again! householder wants to cut her ful eT bila by reduaing energy losees fram shew her home, This would save fuel and reduce fuel bil. Sheis comparing ltt yllSyy hy insulation with cavity wal Insulation in Wau a terms of payback time, i «© The lottnsulation costs £200 cam {noluding gloves and a aafety mack) aioe and she would fit the insulation i SO links For more information on payback time, look back at P1 1.9 Heating and insulating buildings. herself, This could save £100 per year ‘rough tor con the fuel bill. So tho payback timo Figure 1 Hea lass tom ahouse would be 2 years. © The cavity wall insulation for a house costs £500 and an additional £100 to {tthe inaulation. This could save £200 por year on the fuel bill. It would pay foritself after 3 years. 29? Did you know For each type of insulation, how much would the householder have saved after § years? b Adouble-glazed window costs £200. It savas £10 per year on the fuel bill. How long is the payback time? Infrared cameras can be used to identify heat losses from a house in winter. The camera Image shows hot spots as a different colour. Buying a heater ‘An artist wants to buy an electric heater to provide instant heating in his workshop when ho starts work on a cold moming. He can't decide between a fan heater, a radiant heater and a tubular heater. Table 1 shows how each typo of heater works and its main drawback. Assuming the heaters cost the same to buy, mtite a short report advising the artist which type of heater would be most suitable for him. Figure 2 Heat losses at nomeHeater type Input power | How the heater works Drawbacks Fen hoater 2.0KW | blows warm airfrom ths het | energy needed to run the fan clement round the room ‘motor Radiant heater 1OKW | usesarefleciorto direct the radiation oniy heats the racltion from the glowing alr end objects infront of the element heater Tubular heater oskw — | thenecter elementisinside | provides background heat metal tubewhichheststhe | gradualy room hting costs Low-energy bulbs use much less electtical energy than flament bulbs. This is why tho UK govarnment has banned tho sale of filamant bulbs. Tablo 2 gives some data about different types of mains bulbs. Table? ‘Tyre Powerin | Efficiency | Lifetime | Cost ot | Typical Drawbacks watts inhours | bulb | use Filament bulb snow | 20% 1o00 | sop | room | inefficient, gets not lighting Halogen bulb roow | 25% 2500 | £2.00 | spotignt | inettcient, gets not Low-energy sw | 80% | 15000 | £250 | room | takes a few minutes for ful brightness, compact fluorescent lighting | disposal must be in sealed bag due bulb to moroury (which is toxe) in it Low-energy zw | 90% | s0000 | £7.00 | spotight | expensiveto buy, brightness of one light-oratting dod halogen bulb needs several LEDs ¢ Which bulb has the greatast output in terms of useful anergy? d_ Which type of spotlight wastes the least energy by heating? Elna none 41 State with a reason which type of heater from Table 1 you would ‘choose to koop a bedroom warm at night in winter. 2 Use the information in Table 2 to answer the following questions. a State one advantage and one disadvantage of a CFL bulb compared with a fllament bulb. 'b Stato ono advantage and ono disadvantage of an LED compared with halogen bulb. row ee Pekin td money. Peo Ce’ appliances, we need to take account of costs to buy it, running costs and other Cee ec CeElectrical energy: P1 3.1-P1 3.4 Summary questions @ 4) a Name an appliance that transfers electrical energy into: i lightand sound energy kinetic energy. b Complete the sentences below. i Inan electric bell, electrical energy is transferred into useful energy in the form of energy, and energy. ji Ina dentist’s dil, electrical energy is transferred Into useful energy in the form of energy and sometimes as ‘enorgy. 2 a Which wo words in the list below are units that can be used to measure energy? joule kilowatt kilowatt-hour watt b Rank the electrical appliances below in terms of energy used from highest to lowest. A 2.0.5KW hoator used for 4 hours B a 100Wlamp left on for 24 hours (© a SkW electric keto used 6 times for 10 minutes, each time D_@750W microwave oven used for 10 minutes. ‘a The readings of an electricity meter at the start and the end of a month are shown below. fete ,s|?r |e] pepe le|[?)s | Which is the reading at the end of the month? ii How many kilowatt-hours ot electricity were used during the month? How much would this electricity cast at 12p per wre b Apay meter in aholiday home supplies electicity ata cost of 12p per kWh. 1 How many kWh would be supplied for £1.207 How long could a 2kW heater be used for after £1.20 is putin the meter slot? [Hl @ An oscalator in a shopping contre is powered by a SOkW. electric motor, The escalator is in use for a total time of, 40 hours every day. ‘@ How much electrical energy in kWh is supplies to the motor each day? b The electricity supplied to the motor costs 12p per kWh, What is the daily cost of the electricity supplied tothe motor? © How much would be saved each day if the motor was replaced by a more efficient 40kW metor? '§ The data below show the alactrical appliances used ina house in one evening. A a4.0kW heater for 4 hours B a05kWelevision for 2 hours © aSkW electric kettle three times for 10 minutes each time. ‘a Which apy b How many kWh of electrical energy is used by each appliance? ¢ Each kWh costs 12p. How much did it cost to use the three appliances? noe uses most energy? @ The battery of a laptop computer is capable of supplying 60 walts to the computer circuits for 2 hours before it needs to be recharged. ‘@ Caloulate the electrical energy the kattery can supply in two hours i lowatt-hours i joules. b Describe the energy transfers that take place when the computer is being used. ¢ Amains charging unit can be connected to the computer when in use to keep its battery fully charged. Would the computer use less energy with the charging unit connected than without it connected? @ A student has an HD television at home that uses 120 watts of electrical power when itis ewitched on, He moritors its usage for a week and finds itis switched on for 30 hours. SS Figure 1 Aa HD Vin use ‘a How many kilowatt-hours of electrical energy are supplied to it in this tima? b Calculate the cost of this electrical energy at 12p per kilowatt-hour.End of chapter questions AQ#/Examination-style questions @ The pictures show six different household appliances. ‘5 Astudent uses some hair straighteners, 6 Fan eatar Vacuum clecner Washing machine si 2 lender Name the four appliances in which electrical energy is. usefully transiorred into kinetic onergy. 4) 2 An electic motor is used to lft a load. The useful power Culput of the motor is 30 W. The total input power to the metor is 75 W. Calculate the efficiency of the moter. Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer. @ ‘3 Which two of the following units are units of energy? ad b Js © kWh aw a @ The diagram shows the readings an a household electricity meter at the beginning and end of ona week. sl2{alalo si 2lsis[s Beginning of the week End of the week a How many kWh of electricity were used during the week? “ b On one day 38kWh of electricity were used, The total cost of this electricity was £5.25. Calculate how much the electricity cost per kWh. ‘Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer and give the unit. [11] (@) © During the week a 2.4kW kettle was used for 2 hours. Calculate how much energy was transferred by the kettle ‘Write down the equation you use. Show cloarly how you work out your answer and give the urit. @ The heir straighteners have a power of 90W. ‘What is meant by a power of 90W? @ b Galculats how many kilowatt-hours of electricity are used when the straighteners are used for 15 minutes. Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer and give the unit. @ © The olactricity eupplier ia charging 14p per KWh. Calculate how much itwill cost to use the straighteners for 18 minutes a day for ona year. Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer and give the unit. @ Filament bulbs are being replaced by compact fluorescent bulbs. Acompact fluorescent bulb costs £12, a filament bulbs ‘costs 50p. A25W compact fluorescent bulb gives out as much light as a 100W filament bulb, Afilament bulb lasts for about 1000 hours; a compact fluorescent bulb lasts for about 8000 hours, although this timo i significantly shortor iftho bulb is turned on and off very frequently. Acompact fluorascent bulb contains a small amount of poisonous mercury vapour. ‘@ Explain how 2 25W compact fluorescent bulb provides: the same amount of light as a 100W filament bulb But use lass electricity. Q bb In this question you will bo assossed on using good English, organising information clearly and using ‘specialist terms where appropriate. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of euying compact jluorescent bulbs rathor than filamont bulbs. 8)Generating electricity TT elmer aCe nV Inside a power station Learning objectives en tee) Fue Hot moist kad ope = ‘© Which fossil fuels do wo burn tats enc tate ero el PP iri Tube Generator (Le. wae back to boiler Figure 1 inside a fossil fuet power station Almost all the electricity you use is generated in power stations. @ In coal- or oiFfired power stations, and in most gas-fired power stations, ‘the burring fue! heats water in a boiler. This produces steam. The steam drives a turbine that turns an electricity generator. Coal, oil and gas are {ossi fuels, which are uals obtained from long-dead biological material. Figure 2 Inside gee‘ired pawer station ‘a. What happens to the steam after it has been used? bb What happons to tho anergy of the steam after it has boon used? Err In some gas-ired power stations, we burn natural gas directly ina gas Turbines turbine engine. This heats the air drawn into the engine. It produces a ee Powerful jet of hot gases and air that chives the turbine. A gas-fired turbine erate aera can be switched on very quicky. turbine. © Why Is steam better than Biofuels wator? ‘We can get mathane gas from cows or animal manure and from sewage works, decaying rubbish and other sources. It can be used in small-scale gas- fired power stations. Mothano is an example of a biofuel. A biofuel Is any fuel obtained trom living or recently living organisms such as animal waste or woodchip. Other biofuels include ethanol (from fermented sugar cane), straw, nutshells and woodchip. Abiotuol is: @ renewable because its biological source continues to exist and never dies out asa species © carbon-neutral because, in theory, the carbon It takes in trom the Figure 8 Using biofuel to generate atmosphere as carbon dioxide can ‘balance’ the amount released when cy itis burned &)ETT Nuclear power (J Op Sat Figure 4 shows you that every atom contains a positively charged nucleus Nuclous, surrounded by electrons, The atomic nucleus is composed of two types of particles: noutrons and protons. Atoms of the same element can have differant ‘numbers of neutrons in the nucleus. How is electricity obtained from a nuclear power station? “The fuel in a nuclear power station is uranium (or plutonium). The uranium fuel in sealed cans in the core of the reactor. The nucleus of a uranium ator ia unstable and can split in two. Eneray is released when this happens. We call this process nuclear fission. Because there are lots of uranium atoms in the core, becomes very hot. ahetons The energy ofthe cores transferred by uid (called the’ecolant) thats gues 4 thestusueat he aon pumped through the core. © The coolant is very het when it leaves the core. It flows through a pipe toa ‘neat exchanger’, then back to the reactor cora, © The energy of the coolant is used to turn water into steam in the heat exchanger. The steam drives turbines that turn electricity generators. $3 Car Comparing nuclear power and fossil fuel power Nuclear power station Fossil fuel power station Fuel | Uranium or plutonium Coal, all or ges | Energy released 1 000000kWh 400KWh perkg of fuel about 10000 x energy released per kg of fossil uel) Waste Radioactive waste thai needs to he stored for mary Non-radloactive waste years No - because uranium releases energy without burning | Yes because iossI fuels produce gases ‘uch as earben dioxide when they burn ro 4 Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below: Pee oy coal gas oll uranium oe The fuel thatis not a fossil fuel reer Poveer stations that use .....-.as the fuel can be switched on vory ers quickty, Cs Greenhouse gases are produced in a power station that uses coal, crue ea uta ued , Peg Stato one advantage and one disadvantage of: power station, Much more ian cilfired power station compared with a nuclear power station peat aeeciovie intr eh Btnre ete fia ges-fied power station compared with a coal-fired power sialion. Desay Lock at the table above, than from fossil fuel. How many kilograms of fossil fuel would give the same amount of eee eee) nergy 2s logram of uranium fuel? er eae Explain wity ethanol is desorbed as a biofuel, el also descrived 2s carbon-neutal. Whats 2 carbon-neutral paneer CeeLearning objectives etry eta reed Generate electricity? ‘© What type of power station uses water running downhill PY oeci a eed Pe i Figure 1A wind farm - why do some ppacple apposa these developments? fs ‘When electricity demand is lov, we can use electricity from wind turbines, wave Generators and other electricity generators to pump water phil into a reservoir. When demands high, we can let the water tun downhill through a hydroeleciric generator. Generating electricity PC VA Mud em Mle Strong winds can cause lote of damage on a very stormy day. Even when the wind is much weaker, it can still turn a wind turbine, Energy from the wind and other natural sources such as waves and tides is called renewable energy. ‘That's because such natural sources of energy can naver be used up. In addition, no fuel is needed to produce electricity from these natural sources, 80 thay are carbon-frae to run, Wind power @ Awind turbine is an electricity generator at the top of a narrow tower. The force of the wind drives the turbine's blades around. This turns a generator. ‘The power generated increases as the wind spead Increasas. @ What happens if the wind stops blowing? Wave power Awave generator uses the waves ‘to make a floating generator move up and down, ‘This motion turns Recking mation the generator so it generates ‘eoyanoy cherber. electicity.A eee cable between Dene the generator and to generator the shore delivers, electricity to the arid system, Wave generators need to withstand storms and they don't produea a constant supply of electricity. Also, lots of cables (and buildings) are needed along the coast to connect the wave generators to the electricity grid. This can spol areas of coastline. Tidal flow patterns might also change, affecting the habitats of marine life and birds. Figure 2 Energy from waves: bb What could happen if the waves gat too high? Hydroelectric power ‘We can generate hydroelecticity when rainwater collected in a reservoir (or water in a pumped atorage scheme} flows downhill. The flowing water drives turbines that tum electricity generators at the foot of the hill. © Where does the eneray for hydroelectricity come from?Sia Tidal power ‘Atidal power station traps wator from each igh tide behind a barrage. Wo ean then release the high tide into the sea through turbines. The turbines drive generators in the barrage. ‘One ofthe most promisina sites in Britain is the Sevem estuary. This is, because the estuary rapidly becomes narrower ae you move up river away from the open sea, So it funnels the incoming tide and makes it higher. d_ Why is tidal power more reliable than wind power? Aree oe 1 Copy and complete a to d using the words below: hydroelectric tidal wave wind a ......... power does not need water. b power does not need energy from the Sun. ce Power fs obtained from water running downhill d ......... power ia obtained from water moving up and down. 2 a Use the table below for this question. The output of each source is given in millions of watts (MW). 1 How mary wind turbines would give the same total power output as a tidal power station? How mary kilometres of wava generators would give the same tolal output as a hydroelectric power station? b Use the words below to filln the location column in the tablo. estuaries hilly or coastal areas mountain arcas coastline Figure 4 A tidal power siaion Output Location Total coat in & er MW Hydreelecttle | SOONW per 50 power stetion | station Tidal powor ‘2000MW per 300 station station Wave power | 20MMWper 100 generators Kilometre ot coasting Wind turbines | 2MW per wind 90 turbine © Awind turbine is an ‘clectricity generator on top of 3 Tho last column of tho table above shows an estimate of the total cost er MW of generating electricity using different renewable eneray ‘sources. The total cost for each includes its running costs and the capital costs ta set it up. ‘a The capital cost per MW of a tidal power station is much higher than that of a hydroelectric power station. Give one reason for this difference, Which energy resource has the lowest total cost per MW? Give two reasons why this resource might be unsuitable in many areas. es ‘© Waves generate electricity by turning a floating generator. © Hydroelectricity generators are tumed by water running Cae oe kel tt) eranGenerating electricity Power from the Sun and the Earth Solar radietion transfers energy to you from the Sun, That can sometimes CURIA bo moro energy than you want if you got sunburnt. But wo can use tho Sus REE een mea oneray to generate electricity using solar cells. We can also use the Sun's PA rer) energy to heat water directly in solar heating panels. eee a Which generates electricity - ¢ colar cell or a solar heating panel? Cu ena and a solar heating panel? Re ee east ae Solar cells Use a solar cell panel to crive a smal electric motor. eee ed Ct ae ‘© See what happens it you gradually cover the solar cells with a card, Figure 1 Solar cells at work Narn ee soir cals at preset convertless han 10% ofthe solar onery they absorb Fou 2 Asdarpowsat ticle TX Fe eosreal energy We can connect hom logeter to make olr eal of this car. Panels, @ Thay are useful where we only need small amounts of electricity (e.g. i watchas and calculators) ar in remote places (ag. on small islanct SS links middle of an ocear), the For more information on aoler heating panels, look back at P1 7.9 @ They are very expensive to buy oven though thoy cast nothing to run. Heating and insulating building a 9 ee © We need lots of them — and plenty of sunshine ~ to generate enough power to 60 usolul Hotvatrot 4 80lar heating panel heats water that flows f) frouah Even on a loudly day in Ban solar heating panel cn a house raof can supply plenty of hot water. ‘Soler heating panel bb Ifthe water stopped flowing through a solar heating panel, what would happen? A solar power tower uses thousands of flat mirars to reflect sunlight on to a large water tank at the top of a tower. The mirrors on the ground surround the baso of the tower. Figure 3 Soler water heating oo‘© The water in the tank is turned to steam by the heating effect of the solar radiation directed at the water tank @ The steam is piped down to ground level where it turns electricity generators. © The mirrors ave contolled by a computer so they track the Sun. Assolar power tower in a hot dry climate can generate more than 20 MW of electrical power, ©The oolar furnace shown in Figure Sin P4 1.1 uses 69 flat tracking Figure 4 A soar power tower mirtors to reflect solar radiation on to the giant reflector. Why does the solar power tower in Figure 4 opposite collect much more sola radiation AQ) than this solar furnace? _ Make sure you know the difference between a solar col Geothermal energy panel (in which sunlight is used Geothermal energy comes trom energy released by radioactive substances, | to mako oloctricity) and a solar deep within the Earth, heating panel (in which sunlight ire oprclecses voach is used to heat water) 2 energy released by these radioactive substances heats the surrounding rock «As a resul, energy is vansferred by heating towards the Earth's surface. ‘We can build geothermal power stations in volcanic areas or where there are hotrocks deep below tie surface. Water gets pumped down to these racks to produce steam. Thon the steam produced drives electricity turbines at ground level In come areas, wo can heat buildings using geothermal enargy directly. Hoat flow from underground is called ground heat. It can be used to heat water in long lengths of underground pipes. The hot water is then pumped round the building. Ground heat is used as underfloor heating in some large ‘aco- buildings’. d_ Why do geothermal power stations not need energy from the Sun? Figure 6 A geothermal power staion Btunre aoe 1 Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below: ic Ll geothermal solar radiation radioactivity SS a Asuitable energy resource for a calculator is......... energy. eile b inside the Earth releasee........ anergy. pacieshinlpnierhitn ‘ ‘rom the Sun generates electricity in @ solar call. _ it rin ene 2 A satelite in space uses sola col pane! for electricity. The panel Pe eee generates 300W of electrical power and has an erea of 10rn®, 1 Each cell generates 0.2W. How many cells are in the panel? Ca b The satelite carries batteries that are charged by electricity from ‘© Geothermal energy comes the solar cell panels. Why are batteries cartied as wells solar cell De areas y panels? eee cree) 8 A certain geothermal power stetion has a power output of 200000W. Ce eoe a How many kilowatt-hours of alactrical energy does the power station oie generate in 24 hours? Pun ed bb State one advantage and one disadvantage of a geothermal power Cd station compared with a wind turbine. Pe cdGenerating electricity Energy and the environment Can we get energy without ereating any problema? Lookcat the pio chart in ee Rowe BRETT — Itchows the energy sources we use at prosent to genorato olestricity. What Coed effect does each one have on our environment? enue Ee aaa ‘When a popular TV programme onds, lots of pooplo decide to put the kettle on. The national demand for electricty leaps as a result. Engineers meet these surges in demand by switching gas turbine engines on in gas- fired power stations. ea eens era) Ol I% Fossil fuel problems ‘© When we burn coal, oll or gas, greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide aro roloased, We think that those gasos cause global warming. Wo gat ‘some of our electricity trom ol-fred power stations. We use much more oil ‘to produce fuels for transport. © Burring fossil fuels can also produce eulfur dioxide. This gas causes acid in, We can remove the sulfur from a fuel before burning it to stop acid rain. For example, natural gas has its sulfur impurities removed before we use it. © Fossil fue's are non-renewable, Sooner or later, we will have used up the Earth's reserves of fossil fuels. Wo will thon have ‘o find altornative sources of eneray. But how soon? Oil anc gas reserves could be used up within the next 50 years, Coal reserves wil last much longer. © Carbon capture and storage (CCS) could be used to atop carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere from fossil fuel powar stations. Old oil and gas flelds could be used for storage. Figure 1 Energy sources for electricty ‘a Burning fossil fuels in power stations pollutes our atmosphere. Which gas contributes towards: 1 global warming? acid rain? cas ol coAL Figure 2 Greenhouse gases from fossil fuels ot ae Nuclear v. renewable We need to cut back on our use of fossil fuels to stop global warming. Should we rely on nuclear power or on renewable energy in the future? The Gobi Desert is one of the most remote regions on Earth, Many areas do not have mains electicty. Yet people Nuclear power who live there can watch TV Advantages programmes just as you can. , Allthey need isa solar panel @ No greenhouse gases (unlike fossil fuel). and satellite TV. © Much more energy from each kilogram of uranium (or plutonium) fuel than &)SEL Disadvantages gerry © Used ‘ust rods contain radioactive waste, which has to be stored safoly for er conturies, In 1986, some nuclear reactors at Chemabyl in Ukraine overheated and exploded. Radioactive substances were thrown high into the atmeaphere. Chernobyl and the surrounding towns were evacuated. Radioactive @ Nuclear reactors are safe in normal operation. However, an explosion at one could release radioactive material over @ wide area, This would affect these areas for many years. b Why is nuclear fuel non-renewable? Renewable energy sources and the environment ‘material from Chernobyl was also deposited on parts of Advantages aso oe © They will never run cut © Thay do not procuce greenhouse gases or acid ran. © They do not create radioactive waste products. © They can be used where connection to the National Grid is uneconomic. For example, solar calls can bo used for road signs and hydroolec! be used in remote areas. Disadvantages © Wind turbinas create a whining noise that can upset people nearby and ‘some people consider them unsightly. © Tidal barrages affect river estuaries and the habitats of creatures and plants there. Figure 9 Chernabyl, the site of the worlds most serious aceicent at a © Hydroslectric schemes neod large reservoirs of water, which ean affect ‘udlear power station nearby plant and animal ite. Habitats are often flooded to create dams. © Solar cells would nead to cover large areas to generate large amounts ot power, © Do wind turbines affect plant and animal life? Summary questions 4 Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below: acid rain fossilfuels greenhouse gas _ plant and animal life radioactive waste a Most of Britain’s electricity Is produced by power stations that burn b A gas-fred power station doas not produce... or much Figure 4 The eflets of acid rain © Atidal power station does not produce... a5 a nuclear power station doos but it dos affoct........ locally. Attensa cae E EMCI Ceres) Energy source Problem eet 1 Coal A Noise Increased levels of Hydroclectrioity B Acid rain fit Uranium C Radioactive waste ey nd) Ce ed Ras Wy Wind power D Takes up land OM EE 8 a Listthree possible renewable energy resources that could be usad 1 radioactive waste, generate electricity for people on a remote flat island in a hot climate. » List three types of power stations that do not release graenhouse gases into the almosphere. Piston dteetieed eeu E aun) lieeu eee toa Od in tho National Grid? ee uy in tho National Grid? CO Kinks Generating electricity The National Grid Your electricity supply at home reaches you through the National Grid, This is a network of cables that distributes alactricity fram powar stations to homes and other buildings. The network also coniains transformers. Step-up transformers are used at power stations. Stop-down transformors are used at substations near homes. ‘Tho National Grie’s voltage is 182000 or mora. This is bocause transmit electricity ata high voltage reduces power loss, making the system more efficient. Power stations produce electricity at a voltage of 25000. © We use step-up transformers to step this voltage up 10 the grid voltage. © We use step-down transformers at local subsiations to step the grid voltage down to 230V/for use in homes and offices. Figure 1 The National Gie Figure 2 Electricity pyions carry the high ‘voltage cables ofthe National Grid ee Remember that steg-up transformers are used at power sialions and step-down transformers ara used at sub- stations near homes. eure diy Modelling the National Grid Watch a demonstration of the effect of a transformer using this apparatus. Wa J ia sinty DY noe “Ty ian 10) ‘Sepp tarsfomer Sop down reneformer Figure 9 A model powerline at) a ‘The National Grid was set up in 1928. The UK government decided electricity would be supplied to homes at 240V. This was lowarad to 230V in 1994,ee Power and the grid voltage ‘The electrical power supplied to any appliance depends on the appliance’s Current and its voltage. To supply a certain amount of power, we can lower the current if we raise the voltage. This is what a step-up tranaformer does in the grid systam, Astep-up transformer raises the voltage, 20 lese current is needed to transfer the same amount of power. A lower current passes through the grid cables. So energy losses due 10 the heating effect of the current are reduced to almost zor0. But wo noed to lower the voltage at tho ond of the grid cablas before wo can use mains electricity at home. ‘@ What difference would it make if we didn't step-up the grid voltage? es ed Underground or overhead Lots of people object to elactricty py’ons. They say they spoil the landsoapo or thoy atfoctthoir health Eloctrc curronte produce clectrio and ‘magnetic elds that might affect people. Why don't wo bury al cablas underground? Underground cables would be much more expensive, much more difficult to repair, and dificult to bury where they cross cancls, vers and roads What's more, overhead cables are high above the grcund. Underground cables could affect people more because the cables wouldn't be very deep. bb Suggest imo reasons why underground cables ere mors dificult to repair than overhead ones. ST Te As 4 Copy and complete a and b using the words below: higher down lower up ‘a Power stations are connected to the National Grid using sto} transtormers. This type of transformer makes the voltace... 'b Homes are connected to the National Grid using step...... transformers. This type of transformer makes the voltage: 2 a Why is electrical energy transfarred through the National Grid at a much higher voltage than the voltage ganerated in a power station’? b Why are transformers needed to connect local substations to the National Grid? 3 Astop-up transformer connects a power station to the cables of tho National Grid. ‘@ What does the transformer do to. i the voltage Wi the current? b Why aro atop-down transformers used between the end of the grid cables and the mains cables that supply mains electricity to our homes? Wwe ‘You need to remember thet: @ step-up transformers raise the voltage and lower the current @ step-down transformers lower the voltage and raiso ‘the current, 29? Did you know ...? “The insulators used on electricity pylons need to be very effective or eisa the electricity would short-circuit to the grourd. In winter, ice on the cables can cause then to snap. Teams of clecirical engineers are always on standby to deal with audden emergencies. Figure 4 Engineers at wort onthe Git ‘They certainly need a head for heights! ocr Dee asl Pte olectricity to our homes rom distant power stations Cee ad Pee Cee ue Rehr Ree hededded shoo se ue! Peete uh) Cred ak es Abhigh grid voltage reduces Seeded CasBig energy issues Supply and demand (3 ‘The demand for electricity varies during each day. Itis also higher in winter than in summer. Our elecicity generators need to match these changes in Ru ead er electricity supplies to meet demand. variations in demand? Power stations can’t just ‘start up’ instantly. The depends on ete the typo of power station. perenne’ Perea NATURAL GAS ou oa. CLEAR " Shorts Longest OR ed ‘start-up time start-up time etter meet our energy needs in reat ‘a Which type of power station takes longest 1o start up? Renewable energy resources are unreliable. The amount of electicity they generate depends on the conditions. Tablet Hydroelectile Upland reservoir could run dry wing, waves ‘wind and waves too weak on very calm deys Tidal Height of tide vaties both ona monthly and yearly cyole Solar No eolar energy at night and variable during the day. i 48 G2 te 2 Zang The variable demand for electricity is met by: Tine aor might @ using nuclear, coal- and cil fired power stations to provide a constent Figure 1 Sample of electicty demand amount of elecirisity (the demand) @ using gas-fired power stations and pumped-storage schemes to meet daily variations in demand and extra demand in winter @ using renewable energy sources when demand is high and renewables are in operation (@.g. use of wind turbines in winter when wind speeds are suitable} © using renewable energy sources when demand Is low to store energy in pumped storage schemes. b Which type of power station oan bo used to satisfy sudden high demands for eleotricity which occur every day? Figure 2 A nuclear omer ston -BThe big energy debate Abig energy debate is taking place at your school. is it possible to generate enough electricity and to reduce the release of greanhouse gases? Your teacher will chair the debate, Professor Jenny Jones has already spoken In favour of nuclear power and carson capture. Here is a summary of what she said © Abouta quarter of Britain's elactricity comes trom nuclear power stations. Many of these stations ara dus to close by 2020. A new nuclear power station takes several years to build, We need to build more new nuclear power stations — or the lights will go out! We cant rely on wind power because when there 15 no wind, the wind turbines would not generate electricity, Wie can't raly on solar power at right cr in Winter. Nuclzar power on its own wont give us enough eleciriciy. We have to continue to bur fossil fuels but \we can capture and store the graenhouse gases they produce in old oil or gas fields, Tne leader of GoGraenUK, Pater Pots, has just finished speaking in favour of renewable energy and ‘energy saving. Here is his summary: © We need to recuce our greenhouse gas emissions so we have to stop burning fossil fuels. We need to develop renewable energy resources on @ much larger scale. We think that we can get most of our eleoticity from ‘Summary questions Copy and complete using the words balow: coal gas nuclear olf A cose PONAF Siation can be Started faster than any other type of power _-- Power station does not produce greenhouse gasee. are likely to last longer than any other fossil fuel reserves. More public transport would reduce our use of station. A. ‘The reserves of We need to cut back on fossil fuels to reduce the production of greenhouse gases. What could happen if the only energy we used was: ‘a renewable energy b nuclear power? ‘a Why are nuclear power stations unsuitable for meeting daily variations in the demand for electricity? b What are pumped storage schames and why are they useful? Cy renewable energy devices like wind turbines and ‘solar panels fitted to buildings. Wo should use public transport more to cut down on how much oil we need. If we insulate our homes better and meke domestic appliances like fridges mare efficient, we wouldn't need as much electricity. We need to use energy more efficiently. Then we wouldn't need new nuclear power stations. Debate Now it's your tur to raise points and ask questions Choose which side of the cebate you are on - for, againat or undecided! ‘Some possible points that could be raised are listed below. Add some more points if you think they are reasonable. Your teacher will invite people to ask questions. ‘© The cosi of building and running a nuclear power station is vory high. So is the cost of decommissioning it (Le. taking it out of use). © Radioactive waste products are dangerous. No one wants a nuclear reactor to be built where they live. ‘© The cepital costs of setting up renewable energy resources are high bacause lots of expensive equipment is needed to ‘collect large quantties of renewable enargy. ‘© Carbon capture and storage is a new technology and likely to be expensive. ‘© Most home owners are unlikely to buy energy-saving improvements until energy bills go up even more. eee) ence niak het Geetha) See belated ~ Cee Ces © Nuclear power stations, De ay Pe iu) ee ee Deke CeesGenerating electricity: P1 4.1-P1 4.6 Summary questions @ 4 Answer a to e using the list of fuels balow: coal naturalgas oi! uranium wood a Which fuels from the list are fossil fuels? b Which fuels from the list cause acid rain? © Which fuels roloase chemical enargy when thoy aro used? d Which fuel releases the most energy per kilogram? @ Which fuel produces radioactive waste? 2) a Copy and complate i to iv using the words below: hydroolectric tidal wave wind power stations trap sea water. Power stations trap rain water. generators must be located along the coastline, wv turbines can be located on hills or offshore. b Which renewable eneray resource transfers: i the kinetic energy of moving air to electrical energy the gravitational potential energy of water running downhill into electrical energy the kinetic energy of water moving up and down to electrical anergy? @ a Copy and complete i to iv using the words below: coal-fired geothermal hydroelectric nuclear iA power station doas not produce Greenhouse gases and uses eneray which is from inside the Earth. A power station uses running water and dogs not produce greenhouse gases. A power station reloasee greenhouse gases, vA power station doss not release greenhouse gases bu! does produce wasie products that need to be storad for many years. b Wood can be used as a fuel. State whether itis i renewable or non-renewable a fossil tual or a non-fossil fuel. @ a Figure 1 shows a landscape showing three different renewable energy resources, numbered 1 to, Match ‘each typo of energy resource with ono of the labols below. Figure 1 Reneweble energy Hycroslectricity Solarenergy Wind energy b Which of the three resources shown Is not likely to produce as much energy as the others if the area is i hot, dry and windy HW wetand windy? ‘© Copy anc complete a 10 d using the words below. Each word or phrase can be used more than once. cheaper more expensive longer shorter a Wind turbines aro. stations and to build than nuclear povier to run, b Nuclear power stations take. than fossil fuel power stations. ¢ Solarcelis are panels. to decommission to install than solar heating Agas-ired power station has a star-up time compared to a nucloar power station. @ ai Whatare transformers used jor in the National Grid? I What type of transformer is connected between the generators in the power station and the cables of the grid system? bi What can you say about the voltage of the cables in the grid systen compared with the voltages at the power station genorator and at the mains cables into the home? ji What can you say about the current through the grid cables compared with the current from the Power station generator? ‘What is the reason for making the grid voltage ferent from the genarator voltage?End of chapter questions AQ4/Examination-style questions @ 7 Electricity may be generated in a coal-fired power station, Copy and complete the ‘ollowing sentences using words from the list below. Each word can be used once, more than once or not at al electricity fuel generator steam turbine water wood Ina coal-fired power station, ....... IS buined to heat This produces ....... at high prossure which makes @ ....... Spin round. This then drives a ...... that produces: © ® Various power sources can be used io generate electricity, Match the power sources in the list with the statements, 1 to 4 inthe table, A ‘aling water B tides C waves D wind ‘Statement 1 | the source of hycroelecttic power 2 | used with @ floating generator 3 | very unpredictable and at umes may stop altogether 4 | will produce a predictaole cycle of power generation during the day @ @ A.colar coll panol and a solar heating panel work in different ways. Which statement below is correct? A Asolar coll produces light when itis supplied with elactriaty. B Asolar cell generates electricity when itis supplied with light. Asolar heating panel produces heat when itis supplied with electricity, D Asolar heating panel produces electricity when itis, supplied with heat. « @ Gas-fred power stations have a shorter startup time than ther powor stations. Give one reason why is it important to have power stations with a short start-up time, a '5) During the night, when demand for electricity is low, a wind farm may be generating a large amount of power. Explain how, by using ancthor typo of powar station, this power could be stored and used when itis neaded. (3) 6 Explain why step-up transformers are used in the National Grid. e 7 Palm oll can be used to make a biotuel called biodiesel. Biodiase! can be used instead of the normal type of diesel obtained by refining crude oll. a Suggest two advantages of using biociesel rather than normal diesel. @ 'b Suggest two disadvantages of using biodiesel rather than normal diesel. @ 8 The pie chart shows the main sources of energy used in power stations in a country last year. Hytreolactrie 5% tner 3% Gas, Nucear 10% Coal 15% 011 40% ‘@ What fraction of the energy used in power stations was obtained from gas? @ b Name one source of energy shown that is a fossil fuel. a) ‘@ Name one source of energy chown that is renewable. “ d Name one source of energy that could be included in the label ‘other’ o @ Name one source of energy that does not causa carbon dioxide to be released when itisused. (1) 9 In this question you will be assessed on using good English, organising information clearly and using specialist terms where appropriate. Power stations that burn fossil fuels produce waste gases that can cause pollution. Describe the effect that these gasas could have on the environment and what could be done to reduce the amount of thase gases emitted by powersiations. (6)Ru ead iced Sid Ei ntahelical Jhroinnbabaeaii roku Stun! etd Figure 1 8ig waves CO links For more information on electromagnetic waves, see Pt 6.1 The electromagnetic spectrum. A Examiner's tip ‘You are not required to recall the value of the speed of electromagnetic waves through vacuum. Hf you need itto answer a queston, itwill be provided for you. Waves The nature of waves « ‘We use wavee to transfer information and we can use them to transfor energy. ‘We can use information transferred by waves in communications, for example when you use a mobile phone or listen to the radio. ‘There are different types of waves. These include: © sound waves, water waves, waves on springs and ropes and seismic waves, produced by earthquakes, These ere examples of mechanical waves, which are vibrations that travel through a medium (substance). € light waves, radia waves and microwaves. These are examples of electromagnetic waves which can all ravel through a vacuum at the same speed of 300000 kilometros por second. No medium is needed. Observing mechanical waves Figure 2 shows how we can make waves on a rope by meving one end up and down. I ===> Figure 2 Transverse waves Tie a ribbon to the middle of the rope. Move one end of the rope up and down. You will see that the waves move along the rope but the ribbon doesn’t move along the rope itjust moves up and down. This type of wave is known as e transverse wave. We sy the ribbon vibrates or oscillates. This means it movas repeatedly between two positions. When the ribbon is at the top of a wave, we say itis at the peak (or crest) of the wave Repeat the test with the slinky. You should observe the same effecis if you move one end of the slinky up and down, However, ifyou push and pull the end of the slinky as shown in Figure 8, you wil se0 a difforont typo of wave, known as a longitudinal wave. Notice that there are areas o1 compression (coils squashed together) and areas of rarefaction (colls spread further apart) moving along the slinky. — ata =p Direction of travel a Trove! taekvards ane coms Compression Compression forward along fa line of tho slinky igure 2 Making lengitucinal waves an a slinky © How does the ribbon move when you send longitudinal waves along the slinky? SY —_Thenaturo otwaves Transverse waves () CO links For mere information on sound, s¢0 P1 5.5 Wave properties: diffraction, and Pt 6.6 Sound. Imagine we send waves along a rope which has a whte spot painted on it. ‘The spot would be seen to move up and down without moving along the rope. In ather words, the spat would vibrate perpendicular (at right angles) to the direction which the waves are moving. The waves on a rope are called ‘transverse waves because the vibrations are up and down or from side to side. All electromagnetic waves are transverse waves, ‘The vibrations of a transverse wave are perpendicular to the direction in TTT which the waves transfer energy. ‘Make sure that you understand a State one type of wave that is machanical and transverse, the difference between transverse waves and longitudinal waves. Longitudinal waves ‘The slinky spring in Figure 3 Is useful to demonstrate how sound waves travel. When one end of the alirky is pushed in and out repeatedly, vibrations travel along the spring. The vibrations are parallal to the direction in which the waves transfer energy along the spring, Waves that travel In this way are called a longitudinal waves. parla Sound waves are longitudinal waves. When an ebject vibrates in air,itmakes When we pluck a guiter sting, the air around it vbrate as it pushes and pulls on the air. The vibrations itvibrates because we send (compressions and rarefactions) which travel through the air are sound transverse waves along the waves. The vibrations are along the direction in which the wave travels. string. The vibrating string ssends sound wavas into the ‘The vibrations of a longitudinal wave are parallel to the direction in which aircunding ai. The sound the waves are travelling. waves are longitudinal. ‘Therefore mechanical wavas can be transverse or longitudinal b When 2 sound wave passes through air, what happens to the alr particles ata comprassion? ere td 4 Copy and completa a ta d using the wards below: Ses longitudinal parallel perpendicular transverse fear uk a Sound waves are... waves. eet Light waves are....... waves. Peek tucl ¢ Transverse waves vibrate........ to the direction of energy transfor of of energy transfer of the the waves. a er d Longitudinal waves vibrate... to the direction of energy tansfer of Ree ees the waves. er oka ‘Along rope with a knot tied in the middle lies streight along a smooth Pare rane eer nis floot. A student picks up one end of the rope. This sends waves along prea et rs the rope. ud a Ave the waves on the rope transverse or longitudinal waves? Cs b What can you say about: ithe direction of energy transfer along the rope? ORSIERES C=) tremors er Dee uke} ovemer Cae Md 3 Deseribs how to use @ slinky spring to demonsirate to atfriend the SSS difference between longitudinal waves and transverse waves. PaesCito kas Eu eect etd kas Gu ce Peto Pei acd Wetton) Duo y Se hee oka Ped oe ‘Acommon orror is to think that the amplitude is the distance from the top of the orest to the bottom of the trough. Lamp onal point Sadaws ofthe waves Figure 2 The ripple tank ‘We can write the wave speed equation as v =f x 2, where v = speed, 2. = wavalongth. Note: 4 is pronounced ‘lambda’. frequency, Waves Measuring waves We need to measure waves if we want fo find out how much energy or information thay carry. Figure 1 shows a snapshot of waves ona rope. The rests or peaks are at the top of the wave. The troughs are at the bottom. They are equally spaced, Trout. 1-01 comple wave—e! Figure + Waves.on a rope © The amplitude of the waves is the height of the wave crest or the depth of ‘the wave trough from the middla, which is the position of the rope at rest. ‘The bigger the amplitude of the waves, the more energy the waves. carry. © The wavelength o! the waves is the distance ‘rom one wave crest to the noxt crest. Frequency Itwe made a video of the waves on the rope, we would see the waves moving steadily across the screen. The number of wavecrests passing a fixed point every second is the frequency of the waves. The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz). One wave crest passing each second is a frequency of t Hz. Wave speed Figure 2 shows a ripple tank, which is used to study water waves in controlled conditions. We can make straight waves by moving a ruler up and down on ‘the water surface in a ripple tank. Straight waves are called plane waves. The waves all move at the same speed and keep the same distance apart. “The speed of the waves is the distance travelled by a wave crest or a wave ‘trough every second. For example, sound waves in air travel at a speed of 340 mis. In 5 seconds, sound waves travela distance of 1700m (= 340m/s x 5s). For waves of constant irequency, the speed of the waves depends on the frequency anc the wavelength as follows wave speed = frequency x wavelengih (motro/eecond, mis) (hertz, H2) (moire, m)ey Gru Making straight (plane) waves To measure the speed of the waves: Use a stopwatch to measure the time it takes for a wave to travel from the ruler to the sido of the ripple tank. ‘Measure the distance the waves travel in this time. distance time Observe the effect on the waves of moving the ruler up and down faster. More waves are produced avery second and they are closer together. © Find out if the speed of the waves has changed. Figure 3 Moking water waves Use the equation speed = to calculate the speed of the waves. To understand what the wave spead equation means, look at Figure 4. The surier Is riding on the crest of some unusually fast waves. ory sat ‘Suppose the frequengy of the waves Is 3Hz and the ‘he start am leer wavelength of the waves is 4.0m. © Atthis frequency, 3 wave crasts pass a fixed point once every second (because the frequency is 3Hz). © The surfer therefore moves forward a distance of 8 wavelengths every second or 12m (= 3 x 4.0r). ‘The speed of the surfer is therefore 12m/s. This speed is equal to the frequency x the wavelength of the waves: v= 1x 2. 1 Copy and complete a to d using the words below. Each word can be used more than ones. amplitude frequency spoed wavelength a The hertz is the unit of : ° rT a b The distance from one wave crest to the nextis the ........ of a wave, ett ase ¢ For water waves, the height of a wave crest above the undisturbed peering diners caear Scena ase Feber aipanetea as bial ies 2 Figure 5 shows a snapshot of a wave raeingrameroranaowenpe — (\ Ot derdrtanrand 2 Copy gue Sand marcon our dagram pores eo i one wavelength the amplitude of the waves. Figure 6 A wave on a rope Cos b Describe the motion of point P on the eo tec rope when the wave crest at P moves along by a cistance of one ee wavelength. Pee tad 3 a Aspeedboat on a lake sends waves travelling across a lake at a he Ee frequency of 2.0Hz and a wavelength of 3.0m. Calculate the speed of Salah aladhidated Puhr) the waves. cr Ifthe waves had been produced at a frequency of 1.0Hz and travelled atthe speed calculated in a, what wouldbe their wavelength? [H] ] [EenLearning objectives Ton Ce ted © What is an angle of eer ‘© What can we say about the amir nat aera a ul ny Paced Incident vwavetrrt bWavehortsat angle to the ratectr Figure 2 Reflection of plare waves Arreflection test Use a ray box and a plane mirror as shown in Figure 3 to test the law of reflection for different angles of incidence. Waves Wave properties: reflection ‘« Ifyou visit a Hall of Mirrors at a unfair, you will sea some strange images of yourself. A tall, thin image or a short, broad image of yourself means you are looking into a mirror that is curved. if you wantto see a normal image of yourself, look in a plane mirror. Such a mirror is perfectly flat. You see an exact mirror image of yourself Figure 1 Agood mage Investigating the reflection of waves using a ripple tank Light consists of waves. Figure 2 shows how we can investigate the reflection of waves using a ripple tank. The investigations show that when plane (Gtraight) waves reflect from a flat reflector, the reflected waves are at ihe same angle to the reflector as the incident waves. The law of reflection @ ‘We use light rays to show us the direction light waves are moving in. Figure 3 shows how we can investigate the raflaction of a light ray from a ray box using aplane mirror, Incident ay. fromaray box Nom... @. co Retected ray Miror Figure 8. The law ofreflecion @ The perpendicular line to the mirror is called the norm © Tho angle of inciclones is the angle between the incident ray and the normal. @ The angle of reflection is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal. Measurements show that for any light ray refiectad by a plane mirror: the angle of incidence = the angle of reflection Ifthe angle of reflection of a light ray from a plane mirror is 20° what is: 1 the angle of incidence? ji. the angle between the incident ray and the reflected ray?Image formation by a plane mirror Figure 4 shows how an image is formed by a plano mirror. This ray diagram shows the path of two light rays froma point object that reflect off the mirror. ‘The image and tha object in Figure 4 are at equal distances from the ror. Figure 4 Image formation by s plane Real and virtual images minor ‘The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, upright (the same way up es the object) and laterally inverted (back to front but not upside down). A virtual Image can't be projected on to a screen like the movie images that you see ata cinema, An image on a screen is described as a real image because itis formed by focusing light rays on to the sereen, b When you use a mirror, is the image real or virtual? ET Te Ase Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below. Each word can be used onca, more than once, or not at all. equalto greater than jess than ‘a The angle of incidence of 2 light ray at a plane mirror is always... 00 degrees, b The angle between the normal and the mirror is always 90 degrees. ¢ The anglo of incidence of a light ray at a plano mirror is always... the angle of reflection of the light ray. 2 Appoint object 0 is placed in front of a plane mirror, as shown object 0 Mirror Figure 6 ‘a Complete the path of the two rays shown from O efter they have reflected off the mirror. bi Use the reflected rays to lacate the image of 0. ‘Show that the image and the object are the same distance from the mirror. 3 Two plane mirrors are placed perpendicular to each other. Draw a ray diagram to show the path of a ight ray at an angle of incidence of 60° that reflects off both mirrors. [’ _Waveproperties:refection ‘Ambulances and police cars often cary a ‘infor mage! signal the front. Tiss $0 a chiver ina vehiclo infront looking at ther rearview miror can read the eign as it gets ‘laterally inverted’ (back to front bbl not upside down, Figure 5. Amirir sign on an ambulance a etka See ees Cok eu © Fora light ray reflected by a plane mirror: SRC ka Cal Det ed ce a atc Ce eee ec ti normal, Paes’ cd the angle of incidence = the angle of reflection.Learning objectives ard refraction of a light ray when goes from air into glass? Pie tc) eeu hi kul De ea id Boundary var the surface efracted waves in shallow wator Figure 1. Reaction of water waves QW Remember that angles of incidence, refiection and refraction are always measured between the ray and the normal. Waves EM dee) lates ir-Ce to) td When you have your eyes tested, the optician might test different lenses in front of each of your eyes. Each lens changes the direction of light passit through it. This change of direction is known as refraction. Retraction is @ property of all forms of waves including light and sound. Figure 1 shows how we can see refraction of waves in a ripple tank. A lass plate is submerged in a ripple tank. The water above the glass plate is shallower than the water in the rest of the tank, The waves are slower in shallow water than in deep water. Ifthe waves are not parallel to the boundary, ‘they change cirection when they cross the boundary: © towards the normal when they cross from deep to shallow water © away from the normal when they cross from shallow to deep water. Practical Investigating refraction of light (9 Figure 2 shows how you can use a ray box and a rectangular glass block to investigate the retraction of light ray when it enters glass. The ray changes direction at the boundary between ar and glass (¢niess itis elong the norma ‘© Attho point whore tha light ray enters the glass, compare the angle of refraction (the angle between the refracted ray and the normal) withthe angle of incidenco. You should find that the angle of rofraction at the point of entry isalways less than the angle of Figure 2 Refraction of ight incidence, ay box Refraction rules ‘Your investigation should show that a light ray: © changes direction tawards the normal when it travels from air into glass. ‘The angle of refraction () is smaller than the angle of Incidence (i. © changes direction away from the normal when it travels from glass into air. ‘The angle of refraction (is greater than the angle of incidence (i) Ifa llight ray enters a rectangular glass block along the normal, does it leave the biock along the normal?Refraction by a prism Figure 3 shows what happens whan narrow beam of white light passes ‘through a triangular glass prism. The beam comes out of the prism ina different direction to the incident ray and. is split into the colours of the spactrum. White light contains ell the colours of the spectrum. Each colour of light is refracted slightly differently. So the prism eplte the light into colours. Figure 3. Reaction by a prism Th As ceed 4 Copy and completa a to d using the words below: away from grosterthan less than towards ‘a When a light ray travels from air into glass, it refracts ...... the normal b When a light ray travels from glaas into air, it refracts the normal © When a light ray travels from air into glass, the angle of refraction is tho angle of incidence. @ When a light ray travels from glass into ai, the angle of refraction is, soonme the angle of incidence. Copy and complete the path of the light rey through each glass object, below. Figure 4 A light ray from the bottom of a swimrring pool refracte at the water surface. Its angle of incidence is 40 degrees and its angle of refraction Is 75 degrees. ‘a Drawa diagram to show tho path of this light ray from the bottom of the swimming pool into the air above the pool. b Use your diagram to explain why the swimming pool appears shallower than it really is when viewad from above. Cer A.swimming pool always ‘appears shallower than it reelly Is, The next time you jump into water, make sure you know how deep itis. Light from the bottom refracte at the surface. ‘This makes the water appear shallower than itis. Te ‘rainbow is caused by refraction of light when sunlight shines on rain droplets. The Gropiets refract sunlight and spit itinto the colours of the spectrum. Picea Ce atid Geb eae Per ie doa De eur ye Poles than the angle of incidence. © When a light ray refracts a ay Ce ae) eos Troe‘Sea waves entering a harbour through a narrow entrance spread out after passing ‘through the entrance. Look out for this diffraction effect the noxt time you viett a harbour. Figure 2 Image of wo colliding galaxiae taken by the HuDble Space Teescope Figure 8. An ultrasonic scan of ¢ baby in a Diffraction is the spreading of waves when they pass through a gap or move past an obstacle. The waves that pass through the gap or past the edges of the obstacle can spread out. Figure 1 shows waves ina ripple tank spreading ut aftor they pass through two gaps. The effect is most noticoablo if tho wavelength of tha waves is similar to the width of the gap. You can see from Figure 1 that @ the narrower the gap, the more the waves spread out the wider the gap, the less the waves epread cut. —— Vibrating beam = Barter. — Diacted wavetions| 1 Atawide gap bb Ata narow g=p Figure 1 Difraction of waves by a gap: @ A wide gop b Anarraw gap Use a ripple tank as in Figure 1 to direct plane waves continuously at a gap between two metal barriers. Notice that the waves spread out after they pass through the gap. in other words, they are difiracted by the gap. Change the gap spacing and observe the effect on the diffraction of the waves that pass through the gap. You should find that the diffraction of the waves increases as the gap is made narrower, as shown in Figure 1 Diffraction of light is important in any optical instrument, The Hubble Space Telescope in its orbit above the Earth has provided amazing images of objects ‘far away in space. Its focusing mirror is 2.4m in diameter. When itis used astronomers can see separate images of objects which are far too close to be saen separately using a narcowar telescope. Little diffraction occurs when light passes through the Hubble Space Telescope because it is so wide. So IIs images are very clear and very detailed. Diffraction of ultrasonic waves is an important factor in the design of an ultrasonic seannar. Ultrasonic waves aro sound waves at frequencios above the range of the human ear. An ultrasonic scan can be made of a baby in the womb. The ultrasonic waves spread out from a hand-held transmitter and then, rofiect from the tissue boundaries inside the womb. if tha transmitter is too arrow, the waves spread cut too much and the image is not very clear. a The wo examples of diffraction above show that both transverse ‘and longitudinal waves can be diffracted. Which is which?Se Drea Tests using microwaves Amicrowave transmitter and a detector can be used to demonstrate diffraction of microwaves. The transmitter produces microwaves of wavelength 3.0cm. 1 Place a metal plate between the transmitter and the detector across the path of the microwaves. Microwaves can still be detected behind the metal plato. This is because some microwaves diffract round the edge of the plate. ‘© Why do the microwaves not go through the metal plates? 2 Place two metal plates separated by a gap across the path of the microwaves, as shown in Figure 4. The microwaves pass through the Figure 4 Using microwaves top view) Gap but not through the plates. When the detector is moved along an arc centred on the gap, it detects microwaves that have spread out from the gap. ‘When the gap is made wider, the microwaves passing through the gap spread out less. ‘The detector neads to be nearer the centre of the arc to detect the microwaves. ignal problems People in hilly areas often have poor ‘TV reception. Tho signal from a TV ‘transmitter mast is carried by radio Waves tom the ‘ransmiter waves. If there are hills between a TV receiver and the transmitter mast, the signal may not reach the recelver. The mal fovober seral radio waves passing the top ofa hill are diffracted by the hill but they do. not spread enough behind the hil b What type of waves carry TV signals? Figure & Poor reception ECU A ceed 4 Copy and complete a and b using the words below. Each term can be used ones, twice, or not at all. more than lessthan the same as a Diffracted waves spread out from a narrow gap........ they would ea froma wider gap. rd 'b Whan wavos pass through a gap, their wavalongth is... It was ‘through a gap or round the before it assed throuch the gap. Cuno 2 a State whatis meant by diffraction. Pe caus ae b Explain why the TV reception trom a transmitter mast can be poor in Peet ent hilly aroas. - . eek tua 3A small portable radio inside a rom can be heard all along a corridor Carer aire that runs past the room when its door is open. Explain why it can be hill, radio and TV reception heard by someone in the corridor who is not near the door. Rory eedWaves Learning objectives Re ke Ceo kd human ear? aks Figure 1 Waking scund waves ‘When you blow a round whistle, you force a small ball inside the whiatie to go round and round inside, Each time it goes round, its movernent draws air in then pushes it out. ‘Sound waves are produced as arecutt. CO links For more information on alternating current, see P2 5.4 Alternating current, ‘Sound waves at frequencies above 20000H< are called ultrasound. For more information on the use of uttrasound in medicine, see PQ 1.2 Ultrasound. Investigating sound waves ( ‘Sound waves are easy to produce. Your vocal cords vibrate and produce sound waves every time you speek. Any object vibrating in air makes the layers of air near the object vibrate, These layers make the layers of air further away vibrate. The vibrating object pushes and pulls repeatedly on the alr. This ‘sends out the vibrations of the air in waves of compressions and rarafactions, When the waves reach your ears, they make your eardrums vibrate in and out so you hear sound as a result, ‘The vibrations travelling through the air are sound waves. Tha waves are longitudinal because the air particles vibrate along the direction in which the waves transfer enargy. Practical Investigating sound waves You can use a loudspeaker to produce sound waves by passing alternating current through it. Figure 2 shows how to do this using a signal generator. This is an alternating current supply unit with a variable frequency dial. [o ‘Signal Louspeaker Viortons of air ‘generator Figure 2. Using a loudspecker @ Ifyou observe the loudspeaker closely, you can see it Produces sound wavas as it pushes the surrounding air backwards and forwards. © Ifyou alter the frequency dial of the signal generator, you can change the frequonoy of tho sound waves. Find out the lowest and the highest frequency you can hear. Young people can usually hear sound frequencies from about 20Hz to about 20000 Hz. Older people in general can’t hear frequencies at the higher end of this range. a Which animal produces sound waves at a higher frequency, an ‘elephant or a mouse?‘Sound waves cannot travel through a vacuum. You can testtthis ky listening to an electric bell in a bell jar. As the airis pumped out ofthe bell jar, the ringing sound fades away. b What would you notice if the air is let back into the bell jar? Reflection of sound Haye you ever created an echo? An echo is an example of reflection of sound. Echoas can ba heard in a large hall or gallery which has bare, smocth walls, @ Ii the walls are covered in sof fabric, the fabric will absorb sound instead of reflecting it, No echoes will be heard, © Ifthe wall surface is uneven (nct smooth), echoes will not be heard because the reflected sound is ‘broken up’ and scattered. © What happens to tha energy of the sound waves whan they are absorbed by a fabric? Refraction of sound ‘Sound travels through air at a speed of about 340m/s. The warmer the air Is, the greater the speed of sound, At night you can hear sound a long way irom its source. This is because sound waves refract back to the ground instead of travelling avay from ‘the ground. Retraction takes place at the boundaries between layers of air at different temperatures. In the daytime, sound refracts upwards, not downwards, bocause the air noar the Ground is warmer than air higher up. Figure 4. Refraction of eoune Gime eTocs 1 Copy and complete a and b using the words below: absorbed reflected scattered ‘a An acho is heard when sound is from a bare, smooth wall. b Sound waves are......... by a fough wall and......... by soft fabric. 2 a Whatis the highest frequency of sound the human ear can hear? b Why does a round whistle produce sound at a conetant frequency when you blow staadily into it? 9 a Aboatis at soa ina mist. Tho capiain wants to know if the boat is ‘near any cifis so he sounds the hom and listens for an echo. Why ‘would hearing an echo tell him he is near the cliffs? b Explain why someone in a large cavern can sometimes haar more than one echo of a sound. Air removed using 2 vecuim ump all jr Ball works but cannot De heard Figure 3 Asound test eae id Ceuta Dee tee! es eed Poke ee a ut Pere UNC In space). ee al Deere Luh Cee csWaves Musical sounds ‘«) What type of music do you like? Whatever your taste in musia ie, when bad ROI OSI you lisian tot you usually hear sounds produced by spacially-dasignad FESS Tene instruments. Even your voice is produced by a biclogical organ that has the Ei job of producing sound. © Musical notas are easy to listen to because they are rhythmic. The sound OND waves change smoothly and the wave pattern repeats itself regularly. aca © Not ists of sound hs i ith: Cee jolse consists of sound waves that vary in frequenoy without any pattern. er a Name four different vehicles that produce sound through a loudspeaker Cee ge) ora siron. Pear cd arta Investigating different sounds Use a microphone connected to an oscilloscope to display the wavetorms of different sounds. Figure 1 Making music igure 2 Investigating diferent sound Figure 8 Tuning fork waves 1 Test a tuning fork to see the waveform of a sound of constant frequency. 2 Compare the pure waveform of a tuning fork with the sound you produce whan you talk er sing or whistle. You may be able to produce ‘@ pure waveform when you whistle or sing but not when you talk. 3 Use a signal generator connected to a loudspeaker to produce sound waves. Tha wavaform on the oscilloscope screen should be a pura waveform, b What can you say about the waveform of a sound wnen you make the ‘sound quister? Your investigations should show you that: © increasing the loudness of a sound increases the amplitude of the waves. So the waves on the screen become taller. @ increasing the frequency of a sound (the number of waves per second) sreases ils pitch. This makes more waves appear on the screen. Figure 4 shows the waveforms for different sounds from the loudspeaker. © How would the waveform in Figure 4a change if the loudness and the pitch are both reduced?a Loud and high-pitched Lous ana low-piched 1 Quiet ant hgh-ptched (bigne itch than a) Figure 4 invostigaing aounde Musical instruments ‘When you play a musical instrument, you create sound waves by making the instrument and the air inside it vibrate. Each new cycle of vibrations makes the vibrations stronger at certain frequencies. We say the instrument resonates at these frequencies. Because the instrument and the air inside it vibrate strongly at these frequencies when itis played, we hear recognisable notes of sound from the instrument. '® Awind instrument such as a flute is designed so that the air inside resonates when it is played. You can make the air in an empty bottle resonate by blowing across the top gently. ‘© Asstring instrument such as a guitar produces sound when the strings vibrate. The vibrating stiings make the surfaces of the instument vibrate and produce sound waves in the air. In an acoustic guitar, the alr inside the hollow body of the quitar {the sound box) vibrates too. © A percussion instrument such as a drum vibrates and produces sound when itis struck. 1 Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below: amplitude frequency vibrations a When a drum is struck, sound waves are created by the.... drumskin. 'b The louchess of a sound is increased by increasing the... sound waves. © The pitch of a sound is increased by increasing the sound waves. 2 Amicrophone and an oscilloscope are used stigate sound froma loudspeaker connected to a signal generator. W/hat change would you ‘expect fo gee on the cecilloacope screen # the sound is: a made louder at tha same frequency b made lower in frequency al the same loudness? 3 a How does the note produced by a guitar string change it the string is. ishortened ii tightened? b Compare the sound produced by a violin with the sound produced by adrum, ofthe ofthe save Of the Be sure you know the meaning of the words frequency and amplitude. fata Musical instruments Investigate the waveform produced by a musical Instrument, such as a flute, ‘You should find its waveform changes smoothly, like the one in Figure - but only f you can play it correctly. The waveform isa mixture of frequencies rather than a single frequency waveform like Figure 3. Figure 5 Flute wave pattem Pick) Ce eau) Pes en Coco Pieter Otte Cea acd Produce sound waves.ECS ee Summary questions @ 4 Figure 1 shows an incomplete ray diagram of image formation by a plane mirror. orjgto = Mor Figure 1 @ What can you say about the angles x and y in the diagram? b Complete the ray diagram to Iecato tho image. ‘© What can you say about the distance from the image to the mirror compared with the distance irom the object to the mirror? 2)a Figure 2 shows a light ray directed into a glass block Figure 2 ‘SkeIch the path of the light ray through the block, Describe how the direction of the light ray changes as itpasses into anc out of the block. b Copy and complete | toll using the words below: ditfraction reflection refraction i The change of the direction of a light ray when it entors a glass block from air is an example of ‘The spreading of waves when they pass through a gap is an example of WE The image of an object seen in a mirror fs formed because the mirror causes ight from the cbject to undergo 3 Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below. Each word can be used more than once. light radio sound a waves and waves travel at the same speed through air. b waves are longitudinal waves. © waves cannot travel through a vacuum. @ Waves tavel a distance of 30m across a pond In 10 seconds. The waves have a wavelength of 1.5m. ‘a Caloulate the speed of the waves. b Show that the frequency of the waves is 2.0Hz, a A loudspeaker is usad to produce sound waves. In terms of the amplitude of the sound waves, explain why the sound is fainter furthor away from tho loudspeaker. b Amicrophone is connected to an oscilloscope. Figure 3 shows the display on the screen of the oacilloscope when the miccophone detects sound waves from a loudspeaker. Figure 3 Describe how the waveform displayed on the oscilloscope seraon changes if tho sound from the loudspeaker is made louder i reduced in pitch. 6 Copy and complete ato ¢ using the words below. absorbed reflected scattered smooth soft rough a An acho is cue to sound waves that are froma wall b When sound waves are diracted at a surface. they are broken up and. © When sound waves are directed at a wall covered with a material, they are, and not reflected. ‘What ie the highaet frequency the human ear can hear? ‘Assound meter is used to measure the loudness of the sound reflected from an objact. Dascribe how you ‘would use the meter and the arrangement shown in Figure 4 to test if more aound is reflected from a board than from a cushion in place of the board. The control knob and a frequency dial can be used to change the loudness and the frequancy of the sound from the loudspeaker, List the variables that you would need to keep constant in your test, Lourase Loucspeaier Sound meter Figure 4AQ4/Examination-style questions 1 Draw labelled diagrams to explain what is meant by a a transverse wave a longitudinal wave. a 2 Match the words in the list with the descriptions 1 to 4 in the table. A amplitude B frequency C wave speed D wavelength Description 1 The distance traveled by a wave crest every second, 2. The distance trom one cresttto the next. | The height of he wave crest from the rest Position, 4 | The number of crests passing a fixed point every second, @ & Which of the following is a correct description of the image in 2 plane mirror? A itis avirtual image B it can be focused on toa sereen € itis on the surface of the mirror D Its upside down Oo) @ When a ray of light passas from ai changes direction. Whats the name given to this affect? a b Which diagram corractly shows whet happens to & ray flight as it passes through a glass block? fo glass it usually ay End of chapter questions ‘5 The diagram represents some water oe. »)) Give the name of the effect being y)) shown by the wavas. When is it | trost slgnitean? ® {8 Give one simlaty and one difrence between a sound avoand a lghtwave ®) 7 A sound wave in air has a frequeney of 266Hz. The wavelength of the wave is 1.3m. Caleulate the speed cf sound in air. Write down the ‘equation you use. Show clearly now you work out your answer and give the unit. @ 8 a Give one example of each of the following from everyday te. 1 reflection of ight 0 reflection of ound 0 refraction of light a) dition of sound © We do not normaly se2 dfracton of light In everycay lie Suggest a reason for this, @ 9 Electromagnetic waves travel at a speed of 300000000m/s. BBC Radio 4 ie transmitted using a wavelength of 1500 metres, Caloulate the frequenoy of these waves. Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer and give the unit [H1@) 410 In this question you will bs assessed on using good English, organising information clearly and using ‘specialist torms where appropriate. The diagram shows an oscilloscope trace of the sound wave produced by a musical instrument. Explain, in detail, how the waveform would change if the instrument produced a sound which was louder and at a higher pitch. @Electromagnetic waves The electromagnetic spectrum ‘« We all use waves from different paris of the electromagnetic spectrum. Figure 1 shows the specirum and some ofits uses. ere Electromagnetic waves are electric and magnetic disturbances that CO io kseaKuuGa) transfer energy from one place to another. How can wo calculate tho Bieotromagnetio waves do not transfer matter. The energy they transfer foie uiweci suai) — depends on the wavelength of the waves. This is why waves of different Ce wavelengths have different effects. Figure 1 shows some of the uses of each part of the electromagnetic spectrum CO links —d For more information on the use za of X1ays in medicine, see P3 1.1 Xrays Microwaves iad Uae! X-ays and gamma radeon reaon VF VN VG \ f\ | { Y FY FY AT AN AANA \ pe \ U U J JV V \\ 4 kiomete 4 millimetre 4 nanometre 1 sone Wavelength (1 nanometre = 0.600 00% mimes, 1 picomete = 0.0¢1 nenometes) Figure 1 The spectrum is continuous, The frequencies and wavelengths atthe boundaries are approximate as the diferent pats ofthe spectrum are rot precisely defined F\QJA Examiner's tip ‘Waves trom different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum have ditferent “The spectum of visible ight wavelengths, usta very thy part of @ Long-wave radio waves have wavelengths as long as 10km. tho electromagnetic spoctum. | © X-rays and gamma rays hav wavolongths as shert as a millionth of a ‘The wavelength decreases: millionth of a millimetre (= 0.000000000001 mm). Tontasoneice gona “ eg The speed of electromagnetic waves All electromagnetic waves travel at a speed of 300 million m/s through space or in a vacuum. This is the distance the waves travel each second. ‘We can link the speed of the waves to their frequency and wavelength using the wave speed equation: VIKA Whore: v= wave speed in matres per second, m/s 1 = frequency in hertz, He 2. = wavelength in metros, m CO links For more Information on the wave ‘speed equation, look back at Pt BS. ‘Measuring waves.[ Theelectromagneticspectum Y ‘We can work out the wavelength if we know the frequency and the wave speed. To do this, we rearrange the equation into: ‘We can work out the frequency if we know the wavelength and the wave ‘speed. To do this, we rearrange the equetior f= frequency in hertz, Hz 2.= wavelength in meties, m. Worked example A mobile phone gives out electromagnetic waves of frequency 900 milion Hz. Calculate the wavelength of these waves. ‘The speed of electromagnatic waves in air = 300 milion ris. Solution wave speed v (in [ in — Wave speedy (in m/s) _ wavelength i fin meties) = “Frequency Flin HZ) g00000000m/s _ 00000000Hz ~ °33™ Energy and frequency ‘The wave speed equation shows us that the shorter the wavelength of the ‘waves, the higher their frequency is. The energy of the waves increases as the frequency increases. The energy and frequency of the waves therefore increases from radio waves to gamma rays as the wavelength decreases. 1 Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below: greater than smalferthan the same as a The wavelength of light waves is... the wavelength of radio waves. b The speed of radio waves ina vacuum 's......... the speed of gamma rays. u : 7 , eee tered The frequency of X-rays is... the frequency of infrared radiation. ay 2 Fil in tho missing parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in the list ec) below. rey Seared spectrum (in order of Ce Ls radio ...a... infrared visible ...b... X-rays See light ‘8. Electromagnetic waves travel through space at a speed of 200 milion a eee metres per second. Calculate: epeeiaaentaresipiery a the wavelength of racio vraves of frequency 600 milion Hz, aay 'b tho froquoncy of microwaves of wavolongth 0.30m. . piiser kernal 4 A distant star explodes and emits light and gemma rays simulteneously. Peery Explain why the gamma rays and the light waves reach the Earth at the (SS) same time. Cee uesP16.2 Ru ead rd © What do we use infrared ee ea) ead ere of these types of Ce ie ad ‘ype ot radiation Ratio waves 600m Fed Miconaves Orange Yolow niared Green Vibe utravilet Bue rays Indigo vont yrays 380m (gana oonot nny |rars) (om = Figure 1 The oloctromagnotic spectrum With an expanded view oF the vie range GD links For more information on the uses of fight in tho camera and other optical instruments, see P3 1.5 Lenses and P3 1.6 Using lenses. For more information on intrared radiation, look back et Pt 1.4 & Electromagnetic waves Light, infrared, microwaves and radio waves Light and colour Light from ordinary lamps and from the Sun is called white light. This is because ithas all the colours of the vise spectrum init. Tha wavelength increases across the specirum as you go from violet to red. ‘You sea the colours ofthe spectrum when you look at rainbow. You can also se0 them i you use.a glass prism to spita boam of whit light. Photographers need to know how shades and colours of ight affect the photographs they take 1 Ina film camera, the light is focused by the camera lens on to a light- sensitive fm. The flm then needs to ba developed to see the image of the ‘objects that rere photographed 2 In adigital camera, tho light is focused by tha lens on to a sensor. This consists of thousands of tny light-sensitive cells called pixels. Each pixel givos a dot ofthe image. Tho imago can bo soon on a small ecroon at the back of the camera. When a photograph is taken, the image is stored electronically on a memory card. @ Why is 10 milion pixel camera better than @ 2 million pixel camera? Infrared radiation All objects emit infrared radiation. @ The hotter an object is, the more infrared radiation it emits. @ Infrared radiation ie absorbed ky the ski because it heats up the cells. Itdamages or kills skin calls ‘the alectromagnatic spectrum? Infrared devices © Optical fibres in commurications systems use infrared radiation instead of light. This is because infrared radiation is absorbed less than light in the glass fibres. @ Remote control handsets for TV and video equipment transmit signals carried by infrared radiation. When you press a button on the handset, it sends out a sequence of infrared pulses, @ Infrared seannors aro usod in modicino to detect ‘hot spots’ on the body surface. These hot areas can mean the underlying tissue is unhealthy. You can use infrared cameras to see oeople and animals in darkness. © Does infrared radiation pass through a thin sheet of paper?Goethe Microwaves bee Microwaves lie between radio waves and infrared radiation in the electromagnetic spactrum. They are called ‘microwaves’ because they are shorter in wavelength than radio waves. Testing infrared radiation Can infrared radiation pass through paper? Use a remoie We use microwaves for communications, ¢.0. satellite TV, because they handset to find out can pass through the atmosphere and reach satellites above the Earth. We also use them to beam signals from one place to another. That’s because microwaves don’t spread out as much as radio waves, Microwaves (as well as radio waves) are used to carry mobile phone signals. Radio waves DEE cus Radio wave frequencies range from about 300000 Hz to 3000 million Hz. Demonsir aang Mictoraves! (whore microwave frequoncias star\). Radio waves are longor in wavolongth Look at the demonstration. and lower in frequency than microwaves. @ What does this show? ‘As explainad in Pt 6.3, we use radi phone signals. We can also use radio waves instead of cablas to connect a computer to other cevices such as a printer or a ‘mouse’. For example, Bluetocth-enabled devices can communicate with each other over a range of about 10 metres. No cables are needed - just a Bluetooth radio in each device and the necessary software, Such wireless connections work at frequencies of about 2400 million hortz, and they operate at low power. waves to carry radio, TV and mobile Tarsiites Bluetooth was sel up by the electionics manufacturers. They realised the need ‘to agree on tho radio frequencies to bo used for common software. i Ifwireless-anabled devices oparated at higher power, how would thei | Poy points] Oe Pee en end 4 Copy and complete a and b using the words below: Cea! infrared radiation visible ight microwaves radio waves a ara a Ina TV set, the aerial detects... and the screen emits un - carrying signals from remote Asatalite TV receiver detects ......, which pass through the handsets and Inside optical atmoaphore, unlike ........, which have a shorter wavelength. cs et Tu satellite TV programmes and STs A eed Mobile phones use electromagnetic waves in a wavelength range that includes short-wave radio waves and microwaves. eet ‘a What would be the effect on mobile phone users i remote control CeO ec Pereeer et ig handsets operated in this range as well? Laenietedore, b Why do our emergency services use radio waves in a wavelength ee ae range that no else Is allowed to use? feseehatallcbearay '3 The four devices listed below each emit a different type of electromagnetic radiation. State the type of radiation each one emits. a ATVtranemittor mast. © Difterent types ot electromagnetic radiation are Pee OE ents b ATVsatelite. Seed © ATV remote handset Ce us d ATV receiver. ree eae cd CusFigure 1. Sending microwave signals to satelite Satellite TV signals are carried by microwaves. We can detect ‘the cignale on the ground because they pass straight through a layer of iorised gas in the upper atmosphere. This layer reflects lowerfrequency radio waves. er 2 A mobile phone mast Electromagnetic waves Radio communications Radio waves are emitted from an aerial when we apply an altemating voltage to the acrial. The frequency of the radio waves produced is the same as the frequency of the alternating voltage. ‘When the radio waves pass across a receiver aerial, they cause a tiny alternating voltage in the aerial. The frequency of the alternating voltage is the same as the frequency of the radio waves received. The aerial is connected to @ loudspeaker. The altemating voltage from the aarial is used to make the loudspeaker send out sound waves. The radio and microwave spectrum is divided into bands cf different wavelength ranges. This is bacause the shorter the wavelength of the waves: © the more information they can carry © the shorter thelr range (due to Increasing absorption by the atmosphere) © the lose they apread out (because thoy diffract loss). Radio wavelengths Microwaves and radio waves of difforont wavolongths are used for different communications purposes. Examples are given below. © Microwaves are used for satellite phone and TY links and satelite TV broadcasting, This is because microwaves can travel between catellites in space and the ground. Also, they spread out less than radio waves do so the signal doesn't weaken as much, © Radio waves of wavolengths loss than about 1 metro aro used for TV broadeasting from TV masts because they can carry more information than longer radio waves. @ Radio waves of wavelengths from about 1 metro up to about 100m aro used by local racio stations (and for the emergency services) because their range is limited to the area round the transmitter. © Radio waves of wavelengths groater than 100m aro used by national and international radio stations because thay have a much longer range than shorter wavelength radio waves. ‘a Why do microwaves spread out less than radio waves do? Mobile phone radiation ‘Amabile phone sends a reco signal from your phone. The signal is picked up by a local mabila phone mast and is sent through the phone network to the ther phone. The ‘retury signal goes through the phone network back tothe mobile phone mast near you and then on to you. The signals to and from your local mast are carried by radio waves of different frequencies. ‘The radio waves to and from a mobile phone have @ wavelength of about 30m, Radio waves at this wavelength are not quite In the microwave range but they do have a similar heating effect to microwaves. So they are usually reterted to.as miccowaves. bb Why should signals to and from a mobile phone be at different frequencies?ee QE Is mobile phone radiation dangerous? “The radiation is much weaker than the microwave radiation in an oven. But when you use a mobile phone, itis very close to your brain. Some scientists think the racfation might affact the brain. As children have thinner skulls than adults, thelr brains might be more affected by mobile phone raclation. A UK government report published in May 2000 recommenced that the use of mobile phones by children should ba limited. Mobile phone hazards Here are some findings by different groups of scientists: ‘The short-term memory of volunteers using a mobile phone was found to bo unaffected by whathar the phono was on or off Tho brains of rats exposed to microwaves were found to respond loss to electrical impulses than the brains of unexposed rats. Mice exposed to microwaves by some scientists developed more cancars than unexposed mice, Other scientists were unable to confirm this effect. Assurvey of mobile phone users in Norway and Sweden found they experienced headaches and fatigue. No control group of paople who did ot use a mobile phone was surveyed. © What conclusions do you draw from the evidence above? © Suggest how researchers could improve the validity of any eonslusions wwe can draw. ) GO links For more information on how optical fibres are used in the endoscope to see inside the body, ‘sae P3 1.4 The endoscope. DEnrieericu Demonstrating an optical fibre Observe light shone into an optical fibre. You should see the reflection of light inside an optical fibre. This is known as ‘otal internal reflection. Protective plastic coat Optical fibre communications Figure 3 Optica foes Optical fibres are very thin glass fibres. We use them to transmit signals carried by light or infrared radiation, The light rays can’t escape from the fibre, ‘When they reach the surface of the fibre, thay ara reflected back into the fibre. In comparison with radio waves and microwaves: © optical fibres can carry much more information — this is because light has a ® Radio waves of different much smaller wavelength than radio waves so can carry more pulses of waves Oth «© optical fas are more secure because the signals stay in the fibro. Cand Pea) ¢ Why are signals in an optical fisre more secure than radio signals? Se rl Ree Se heal) = how much they spread 1 Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below. Each term can be a cubed used more than once, ud Intrared radiation microwaves radio waves 4 Mobile phone signats are carried BY... Sy ' Optica fre signale are carro by... © Abeam of.......canttavel om the groundto a satelite buta beam | [EGS IC SCI TSets) Of nm 8NNO fs frequency is below 30 MHz. Ly erodabanieheli cee 2. Why could chidren be more affected by mobile phone radiation than at adults? »b Why can light waves carry more information than radio waves? etre tal 3. Explain why microwaves are used for satelite TV and radio waves for aera terrestrial TV. light and infrared radiation. Rime teenElectromagnetic waves The expanding universe The Doppler effect ‘The Doppler eee is he change in he obsorved wavelength fnd frequency) oF waves ous othe motion ofthe source one waves, Chrsian Doppler SURE Gocovered the cHlectin 842 using sound waves. Fe demoretateditby using STEER ESSSIE an open rcitway cariage led wih umpetera, The spectator hat lison ped tore pitch ofthe trumpets 2 they sped past. Another srample, explained tolow ith od-titoftholight om a ditt galiny moving avay rom Learning objectives rr latte) Galaxies are moving away from us? Red-shift ‘Wo live on tho third rock out from a middle-aged star on the outskirts of a big om a idee galaxy we call the Milky Way. The galaxy contains about 100000 milion stars. Its size is about 100000 light years across. This means that light takes 100000 yeers to traval across it. But it’s just one of billions of galaxies in the universe. ‘The furthest galaxies are about 13000 million light years away! ‘a Why do stars appear as points of light? ‘We can find out lote of things about stars and gelaxies by studying the light from them, We can use a prism to split the light into a spectrum. The wavelength of light increases across the spectum from blue to red, We can {ell from its spactrum ifa star or galaxy is moving towards us or away from us. This is because: © the ight waves are stretched out if the star or galaxy is moving away from us. ‘The wavelength of the waves is increased. We call this a red-shift because ‘the spectrum of light is shifted towards the red part of the spectrum. © the light waves are squashad together if the star or galaxy is moving towards us, The wavelength of the waves is reduced, We call this a blue-shift because ‘the spactrum of light is shifted towarcis the blue part of the spectrum. ‘The dark spectral lines shown in Figure 2 are caused by absorption o! light bby certain atoms such as hydrogen that make up a star or galaxy. The position of these lines tells us ifthere is a shift and if so, whether itis a red-shift ora blue-shift. Laboratory source of light Dark tinas due to i nt on WA " Patemot |! | absorplion S\ Rex Ines shited 8} \/ toredend \ \ > ctepecttim FF} | Light from a getaxy nenanayien : Ei a Figure 2 Redshift=e ‘The bigger the shift, the more the waves are squashed together or stretched out. So the faster the star or galaxy must ba moving towards or away from us. In other words: ‘You can hear the Doppler effect whan an ambulance with is the faster a star or galaxy is moving (relative to us), the bigger the shift is. eee siren on goes speeding past. b What do you think happens to the wavelenath of the light from a star @ As Itapproaches, the thal is moving towards us? sound waves it sonds out are squashed up so their frequency is higher (and the Expanaiing universe verge an In 1928, Edwin Hubble discovered that: the siren was stationary. So 1 tho light from distant galaxies was red-shitted you hear a higher pitch, 2 the further a galaxy is from us, the bigger its red-shift is. As it travels away trom you, He concluded that: the sound waves it sends. out are stretched out so their © the distant gelaxies are moving away from us (i. receding) frequency fe owor (and the «@ tho greater tho distance a galaxy is from us, the greater tho spoad is at wavelength longen than it which itis moving away from us (its speed of recession), the siten was stationary, So Why should tho distant galaxies be moving away from us? We have no spocial you hear a lowar pith. place in the universa, so all the distant galaxies must be moving away from ‘each other. In other words, the whole universe is expanding. © Galaxy X is 2000 million light years aviay. Galaxy Y is 4000 millon light years away. Which galaxy, X or Y, has the bigger red-shift? Emre etc 1 Gopy and complete a to d using the words below: approaching expanding orbiting receding a The Earth is _____.the Sun. Erretinivares aa rn © The cistant galaxias are... ae katie ea aad d Ablue-shift in the light from a star would tell us . Sah ieee id : eee ay or a Putthese objects in order of increasing size: pate Andromeda galaxy Earth Sun universe cama et ed b Copy and complete | and Il using the words below: AoE ene galaxy star red-shift planet Pe ee 1 The Earth isa... In orbit round a... called the Sun, re There is @........ in the ight from a distant... « peep ratsaepatie Galaxy X has a larger red-shift than gelaxy Y. a distant galaxy is from us, a Which galaxy, X or ¥, is. CP aes i nearer tous yo moving away faster? , all moving away from us 'b The light from the Andromeda galaxy is not rad-shifted. What does Pony in eer this tell you about Andromeda? LeYou can use an analogue TV to etect background microwave radietion vary easily - just cisconnect your TV aetial. The radiation causes lots of fuzzy spots on the screen. Figure 2 A microwave image of the Universe fiom. the Cosmic Background a satalite The universe is expancing, but what is making it expand? The Big Bang theory was put forward to explain the expansion. This states that: the universe is expancing after exploding suddenly in a Big Bang froma very small initial point © space, ime and matler were created in the Big Bang, Many scientsts disacreed with the Big Bang theory. Thay put forward an alternative theory, the Steady State theory. The scientisis said that the galaxies are baing pushed apart. They thought that this is caused by matter entering the universe through ‘white holes’ (the opposite of black holes}. Which theory is weirder — everything starting from a Big Bang or matter leaking into the universe from outside? Until 1965, most people supported the Stoady Stato theory. ‘Scientists had two conflicting theories about the evolution of the universe: itwas in a Steady State or it began at come point in the past with a Big Bang. Both theories could explain why the galaxies are moving apart, so scientists needed to find some way of selecting which theory was correct. Thay workod out that if the universe began in a Big Bang then thore should have been hich-energy electromagnetic radiation produced. This radiation would have ‘stretched’ as the universe expanded and become lower energy radiation. Experiments ware davised to look for this trace enargy as extra evidence for the Big Bang model. twas in 1965 that scientists first detected microwaves coming from every direction in space. The existence of this cosmic microwave background radiation can only bo oxplained by tho Big Bang thoory. ‘The cosmic microwave background radiation is not as perfectly evenly spread as scientists thought it should be. Thoir modal of the early universe needs to be develoved further by gathering evidence and producing theories to explain this ‘unevenness’ in the eally universe. a How do scientists decide between twa conflicting theories? © It was creatad as high-energy gamma radiation just after the Big Bang, @ Ithas been travelling through space since then. © As the universe has expanded, it stretched out to longer and longer wavelengihs and Is now microwave radiation. @ Ithas been mapped out using microwave detectors on the ground and on satalltes, b_ Whatwill happen to cosmic microwave background radiation as the universe expands?i ... e QE CO links Former infomation on how the The future of the universe chemical elements formed after the Big Bang, see P2 7.6 How the chemical elements formed. Will the universe expand forever? Or will the force of gravity between the distant galaxies stop them from moving away from each other? The answer to this question depends on their total mass and how much space they take up—in other words, the density of the universe. @ Ifthe density of the universe is less than a certain amount, it will expand forover. The stars will dio out and so will everything else as the universe heads for a Big Yawn! © Ifthe density of the universe Is more than a certain amount, itwill siop ‘expanding and go into reverse. Everything will head for a Big Crunch! Recent observations by astronomers suggest that the distant galaxies are accelerating away from each other. These obeervations have been ‘checked and confirmed by other astronomers. So astronomers have concluded that the expansion of the universe is accelerating. It could be wore in for a Big Aide followod by Big Yawn. ‘The discovery that the distant galaxies are accelerating is puzzling astronomers. Scientists think seme unknown source of energy, now called ‘dark eneray’, rust be causing this accelerating mation. The only known force on the distant galaxies, the force of gravity, can't be used to explain ‘dark energy’ as itis an attractiva force and so acts against their outward mation away from each other. What could you say about the future of the universe ifthe galaxies ware slowing down? d i Ancbject released above the ground accelerates as it falls. What makas it accelerate? 2 Time cen fi. Why are scientisis puzzled by the observation that the distant galaxias are accelerating? Figure 3 The future ofthe universe? Aine noe Copy and complete a to d using the words below: eco created detected expanded stretched The universe wes........in.an explosion called the Big Bang. ocean! bb The universe ....... suddenly in and after the Big Bang, ‘the Big Bang, a massive © Microwave radiation from space can be.......... from all directions. Lig opened Mealaal d Radiation created just after the Big Bang has been......... by the od ‘expansion of the universe and is now microwave radiation. ey Ty Put the following events A-D in the correct time sequence: expanding ever since the Big A The distant galaxies were created, ug B Cosmic miorowave background radiation was frst detected. Seas © The Big Bang happened poeinathoni site D The expansion of the universe began. orth enone @ Why do astronomers think that the expansion of the universe is radiation created just after accelerating? Cocca b What would hava been the effect on the expansion of the universe if ay = eee Serato cerene cnc ean eae Summary questions @ 4 a Place the four different types of electromagnetic waves listed below in order of increasing wavelength. A Infrared waves: B Microwaves © Radio waves D Gamma rays b The radio waves from a local radio station have @ wavelength of 3.3 metres in air and a frequency of 91 million Hz. 1 Write down the equation that links frequency, wavelength and wave speed. Calculate the speed of the radio waves in air. 2 In P1 6.1 you will ind the typical wavelengths of electromagnetic wavas. Give tha type of electromagnetic wave for each of the wavelengths given. A 0,0005mm B 1 millionth of { millionth of f mm © 10cm D 1000m Copy and complote a ard b using the words below: microwave mobile phono radiowaves TV aa beam can travel from a ground transmitter to a satellite, but a beam of cannet if its frequency is below 30MHz, b signals and local transmitter. signals always come froma 60) Mobile phones send and receive signals using electromagnetic waves near cr in the microwave part of the electromagnetic spectrum ‘a Name the part of tho oloctromagnotic spectrum which has longer wavelenaths than microwaves have b Which two parts of the electromagnetic spectrum may be used to send information along optical flores? ‘¢ New mobile phones ave tested for radiation safety and given an SAR value before being sold. The SAR is a measure of the enargy per second absorbed by tha head while the phone is in use. For use in the UK, SAR values must be loss than 2.0Wikg. SAR values for two different mobila phones are given below. Phone A 0.2Wikg Phone B 1.0Wikg i What is the main reason why mobile phones are tested for radiation salely? Which phone, A or B, is safer? Give a reason for your answer. 5 Light from a distant galaxy has a change of wavelength due to the motion of the galaxy. a Isthis change of wavelength an increase or a decrease? b Whatis the name for this change of wavelength? © Which way is the galaxy moving? d What would happen to the light it gives out ifit were moving in the opposite direction? oha Galaxy Ais further from us than galaay B. i Which galaxy, A or B, produces light with a greater red-shift? li. Galaxy C gives a bigger red-shift than galaxy A. What can we say about the distance to galaxy C. compared with galaxy A? Allthe distant galaxies are moving away from each other, i What does this tell us about the universe? Hi What does it tell us about cur placa in the universe? The diagram shows two galaxies X and Y, which have the same diameter. ai Which galaxy, X ory, is further ‘rom Earth? Give a reason for your answer. HW Which galaxy, X or Y, produces the larger red-chift? A third galaxy Z seen from Earth appears to be the same size as X but it has a larger red-shift than x, i What can you say about the speed at which Z is moving away from us, ‘compared with the spood at which X ie moving away? Hi. What can you deduce about the distance to Z compared with the distance to X? Give a reason for your answer.4) Electromagnetic waves can travel through the vacuum of, space. Copy and complete the following sentences using words from the list below. Each word can be used once, more than once or not at all energy frequency speed wavelength All electomagnetic waves travel at the Same wei a vacuum, Thay do not carry material, but they do carry serene Garnma waves have the Greatest wun. aNd the amallest .. 4 2 Different types of electromagnetic waves have different uses in communications. Match the type of electromagnetic wave in the list with its use 1 104in the table. A inirared radio waves ‘These waves are used tor producing images ina video camara ‘mabile phone earnmunication television remote controls ccartying terrestrial television signals 4 Microwaves are used for communications. They can bbe used to send signals to other parts of the world by means of a satellite, wd @ Give one reason why the receiver shown in the diagram can only pick up the signal ifa satellite is used. a) b Explain why microwaves aro used rather thar: Tong wave radio waves @ isible light Q Erm por ced AQ4/Examination-style questions @ @ The diagram shows a ray passing through an optical fibre. = E a Name twe type felocreragnatic wave that can travel along an optical fibre. e@) » sirngest wo advantages of srcing signals song an optical fle rather than using electrical signals ina metal wire. @ '§ Scientists have developed a theory about the universe called the ‘Big Bang’ theory. This theory is supported by evidence, Part of this evidence Is the existence of casmic background microwave radiation, ‘a What does the ‘Big Bang' theory state? A The universe began with a massive explosion, B The universe will end with a massive explosion. © The universe began trom a very small intial point. D_ The universe will end at a very small initial point. (1) b Where doas cosmic background microwave radiation come from? A paople who use microwave ovens to heat food B_ gamma radiation created just after the Big Bang © mobile phone transmitiers D radioactive rocks in the Earth's crust. “ ¢ Iascientist finds new evidence that does not support the Big Bang theory what should othor sciontists do? ‘A. Change the theory immediately. B Check the naw evidence to make sure itis reproducible. © Ignore the new evidence. D Tiy to discredit the scientist who found the new evidence. « © Rod-shift from distant galaxioe provides evidence for tho Big Bang theory. What is meant by red-shift? @ 7 In this question you will be assassed on using good English, organising information clearly and using specialist torms where appropiiete. Explain how red-shift provides evidence for the Big Bang theory. ©Examination-style questions 1 The diagram shows a solar heating panel on the roof of a house. ‘Soar panel on rook ‘The solar heating panel consis's of a Mat box backed by a metal plate, The box contains copper pipes filled with a liquid. Liquid pumped through the pipes is heated as it passes, through the panel. Copy and complete the following seatences using words from the list below. Each word can be used once, mare than once or not at all. black white transparent conduction convection insulation radiation There is... cover on top of the panel that allows infrared... through to heat the metal plate. The metal plate is coloured ...... for maximum absorption. There is a sheet of... under the plate to stop heat lass by ....... through the back of the panel. 6) 2 a Microwaves are one type of electromagnetic wave. “Which type of eleetomagnetie wave has a lower frequency than microwaves? (1) ‘What do all types of electromagnetic wave transfer from one place to another? a b The picture shows tennis coach using a speed gun to measure how fast the player serves the ball, Speed gun ‘Pmis ball Tenns aleyer WA Microwaves venout by the speed gun Microwaves: reflctad from fe ball ‘The microwaves transmitted by the speed gun have a frequency of 2.4 x 10" Hz. and travel through the air at 3.0 x 10! mis Calculate the wavelength in metres ofthe microwaves emitted from the speed gun ‘Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer ‘and give the unit, 2 ‘Some of the miceewaves transmitted by the speed gun are absorbed by the ball ‘What effect will the absorbed microwaves have on the ball? Q fil Some of the microwaves transmitted by the speed gun are reflected from the ‘moving ball back towards the speed gun. Describe how the wavelength and frequency of the microwaves change as they are reflected from the moving ball. @) AQA, 2009 XC QA Examiner's tip Read through the whole passage first, to get the sense of i, before tying to put the words in. (JA Examiner's tip ‘Maka sure you have a way of remembering the order of the waves in the eleciromagnetic spectrum, For example, good xylophones upset violins In musical recitals for gamma, X-ray, ultraviolet, Visible, Infrared, microwave, radio wave.3. The diagram shows how electricity is distributed from power stations fo consumers. Consumer salon transformer a i What name is given to the network of cables and transformers that links power stations to consumers? @ What does a step-up transformer do? a Ii Explain why step-up transformers are used inthe electricity distribution system. 2 bb Mostof the work!’ electricity is generated in power stations that burn fossil fuels. State one environmental problem that burnin fosil fuels produces. @ ¢ Hlectrsty canbe generated using eneepy from the wind. A company wants to build anew wind farm. Not everyone thinks that this is a good idea. ‘What arguments could the company give to persusde people that awind farm is good idea? 2 ‘What reason may be given bythe people who think that wind farms are mot a good idea? 2) ‘AOA, 2007 4 Intkis question you wil be assessed on using good English, organising information clearly, and using specialist terms where appropriate. ‘The diagram shows a vacuum flask. The flask can be used to keep hot liquids hot and. cold liquids cold. Hollow plastis stoopar Couble-waled dase versal Sivored surfacas ‘Vacuum between the glass wals Hot iid Outar case Plastic support Explain how the flask reduces energy transfer by conduetion, convection and radiation. 6) End of unit questions Ow ‘There are pros and cons to the uso of any source for generating electricity, even the renewable ones. Make sure you know what thay ere. Ou ‘Make sure you understand that a vacuum is a completaly empty space.How can we toll from a Ce Le ree id Pekka) distanoe-time graph if an object is moving at constant ed ‘What does the gradient of a Cee od Peete tay speed of an object? Figure 1 Capturing the land speed record oy er @ Usain Bott oroke the 109m sprint record in August 2009 inatima of 958 seconds — an average speed of 10.44 metres per cocond (100 + 9.58). By the time you read this, there will probably be a new record. Acheetah is faster than any other animal. it can run about 0 metros every second — but only for about 20 seconds! This is nearly as fast as a vohiole travaliing at 70 miles par hour (moh). ‘The land speed record at presert is 763 mph, which is mora than Mach 1, the speed of sound. The Bloodhound Project is aiming to sat a new record of 1000 mph, Motion Distance-time graphs ‘Some motorways have marker posts every kilometre. If you are a passenger in car on a motorway, you can use these posts to chack the speed of the car. ‘You need to time the car as it passes each post. The table below shows some measurements made on a car journey. Distance (metres, m) | 0 | 1000 | 2000| 3000 4000 | 000 | 6000 Time (eeconds, 6) ° ao| so] 120| 160] 200] 200 cons 000} 000} 000} 2000} Distance inmetes, m 10 200 240 Figure 2 A distance-time graph Look at the readings plotted on a graph of distance against time in Figure 2. The graph shows that: @ the car took 40s to go from each marker post to the nex. So its speed was ‘conetant (or uniform). © the car went a distance of 25 metres every second (= 1000 metres + 40 seconds). So its speed was 25 metres par sacond. Ifthe car had travelled faster, it would have gone further than 1000 metras ‘every 40 saconds. So the ling on the graph would have been steeper. In other words, the gradient of the line would havo boon greater. ‘The gradient of a line on a distance-time graph represents speed. Speed For an objoct moving at constant epeed, wo can calcula ite epood using tho formula: distance travelled in metres, m time taken in seconds, s ‘To eciontifo unit of epoed isthe metre per éecond, ueually wltion as metresecond or ms. ‘speed in metres per second, m/s =ee Speed in action sae x Long-distance vehicles are fitted with recorders called © anooe- tachographis. Tose can check that het crvers dont dive. v for too long. Look at the distance-time graphs in Figure 3. & 90000 for three lorries, X. Y and Z, on the same motorway. 8 20000- © X went fastest because traveled furthest inthe same & yang time. Se ¢ Y tavollad mora slowly than X. From the graph, you can 2a sco 79010001250 1500 see tt iravalied 30000 metres in 1250 seconds. So its Time in seconds, s speed was Figure 8 Comparing cistance-time distance + time = 30000m + 1250s = 24m's, graphs 'b Calculate the speed of X. © Z stopped for some of the time. Its speed was zero in this time. © How long did Z stop for? Calculate the average speed of Z, using the total distance Z travels in its journey. Rearranging the speed formula Ittwo of the three quantities are known, the third can be found. It may help to use the speed formula triangle below: fata Be a distance recorder! Take the measurements needed to plot distance-time graphe for a person’ © walking © running speed x time Cover up the unknown quantity and the triangle tells you how © riding a Dike, to use the other two known Remember that you must always quantiles. label the graph axes, wnich inoludes units. ‘© Work out tho average speeds. Figure 4 Measuring distance tid 1 Copy and complete sentences ato ¢ using the words below: Cott distance gradient speed SE sa a The unitof.........is the metrefsecond. tine bb An objoct moving at a constant spoad travels the 62M0 ...-n- OVOrY SS re ‘second. Pt td © The steeper the......... of the line on a distance-time graph of a Gennes moving object, the groaterits speed is. ee 2 Avehiolo on a motorway travels 1800m in 60 seconds. Calculate: CS ate a the average speed of the vahicle in mis. ECE DEDE 50 bb how far it would travel in 800 seconds if it continued travelling at this oo speed. eet 8 Acer on a motorway trevele 10 klometree In six minutes. A ooadh tales ney seven minutes to travel the same distance. Which vehiola was travelling oe ee ‘aster, the car or the Coach? Give a reason for your answer. pce ayMotion Velocity and acceleration ‘When you visit a fairground, do you like the rides that throw you round? Your speed and your direction of motion keep changing. We use the word for spaed in a given direction. An exciting ride would be one that changes your velocity often and unexpectedly! Velocity is speed ina given direction, © An cbject moving steady roundinacrele has a constant speed. Is drecion ot motion changes continuously ea It goes Degen ot round so its velocity is not constant. © Two moving objects can have the sama speed but cifferent velocities. For example, a car travelling north at S0m/s (on ametorway has the same speed as 2 car travelling south at 30 m/s. But their velocities are not the same because they are moving in opposite directions, Figure 1 Spoed and velocity ‘How far apart are the two care 10 seconds after they pass each other? Acceleration (3 ‘Acar maker claims their new car ‘accelerates more quickly than any other new car’ A rival car maker is not pleased by this claim and issues a Figure 2 Yeu experiance plonty of challenge. Each car in turn is tested on a straight track with a velocity recorder changes in vetcity onacorkscrewride! fitted. ‘The results ara shown in the table: i Time from a standing start o | 2 ae) CO links (seconds, s) ° For more information on circular d motion, see P2 2.6 Circular mation. _ | Velocity of car X o | 5s | w | | 20 | 2 (metre per second, m/s) Velocity of car Y o |e | 2] wl w] we (metre per second, m/s) Which car has a greater 1? The results are plotted on the velocity-time graph in Figure 4. You can see the velocity of Y goos up from zero faster than the velocity of X coas. So Y accelerates more in the fist 6 seconds, ‘The acceleration of an object is its change of velocity per second. The unit of acceleration is the meire per second squared, abbreviated to m/s* Any object with a changing velocity is accelerating. We can work out ts acceleration using the equation: Acceleration & ‘ : (motres par second _ change in velocity in metres per second, mis eo On a test crcut squared, m/s!) ~~ time taken for the change in seconds, 8 =|[ _Veloctty and acceleration For an object that accelerates steadily from an init velocity y, its change of velocity = final velocity - initial velocity Therefore, we can write the equation for acceleration as acceleration, a ==" Where: he final velocity in metres per second, u = the initial velocity in matres per second, ime taken in seconds. Velocty inmetes per setond, mvs 0 2 4 6 & 1 “Time in seconds, s Figure 4 Velosiy-time araoh Worked example In Figure 4, the velocity of ¥ increases from 0 to 18m/s in 6 seconds. Calculate its acceleration Solution Change of valocity Time taken, t = 65 Acceleration, a = Snange in velocity in metres per second, m/s _ v—u time taken for the chango in seconds, © t v—u= 18mjs—Om/s = 18m/s b Calculate the acceleration of X in Figure 4. Deceleration Acar cacelerates whan the drivar brakes. We use the term deceleration or negative acceleration for any situation where an object slows down. SC Ub A Coed 1 Copy and comploto ato ¢ using the words below: acceleration spood velocity An object moving stoadily round in a circle has a constant... b Ifthe velocity of an object increases by the samie amount every ‘second, its... is constant. ¢ Daceleration is when the... of an object decreases. ‘The volocity of a car increased from 8mjs to 28m/s in 8s without © Velocity is speed in a given change of direction. Calculate: Cee a its change of velocity b its acceleration. Teena voloelty per second. The unit “The driver of a car increased the speed of the car ast joined the of acceleration Is the metre motorway. It then travelled at constant velocity before slowing down as, papeecerron aos it left the motorway at the next junction. a i Whon did the car decolorato? ii When was the acceleration of the car zero? Tees a kal Re ee ue b When the car joined the motorway, its velocity increased from 5.9 eer metres per second to 25 meires per second in 10 seconds. What was voloeity por second when an its acceleration during this time? CeesMotion More about velocity-time graphs (« Investigating acceleration ‘We can use a motion sensor linked to @ computer to record how the velocity of (© What can we say ifa an object changes. Figure 1 shows how we can do this, using a trolley as the Pee ee Ty moving object. The computer can aloo be used to display the measurements (zie Le as a velocity-time graph. PT Test A: If we lot the trolley accelarate down the runway, its velocity increases ‘velocity-time graph if an with time. Loox at the velocity-time graph from a test run in Figure 2. ee Pree arid Cee ere tad ST ure al Cod 1] Ru ead Figure 1. velocity-ime graph on a computer © The line goes up because the velocity increases wit trolley was acoolorating as it ran down the runway. © Tha ling is straight, which tells us that the increase in valocity was the sama every second. In other words, the acceleration of the trolley was constant. ‘Test B: If we make the runway steeper, the trolley accelerates faster. This, ‘would make the line on the graph in Figure 2 steaper than for test A. So the accoleration in test Bie greater. time. So it shows the ‘The gracient of a line Is a measure of its steepness. The tests show that the gradient of the line on a velocity-time graph represente acceloration. a Ifyou mado tho runway loss stoop than in tost A, would the line on tho raph be steeper or less steep than in A? Figure 2 Measuring roton usng & computer arr ; Investigating acceleration CO links . Use a motion sensor and a computer ta find out how the gradient of a For more infomation on variables runway affects a trlley's acceleration. and relationships between them, © Name I the independent variable, and il the dependent variable in this invostigation. ‘© What relationship do you find between the variables? ‘see H2 Fundamental ideas about how science works. Braking Braking reduces the velocity of a vehicle. Look at the graph in Figure 3. itis the velocity-time graph for a vehicle that brakes and stops at a set of traffic. lights. The velocity is constant until the driver applies the brakes.[More about velocty-tme graphs Using the gradient of the line: S05 ¢ The section ofthe graph for constant velocity ia 2 horizontal. The gradient of the Iina is zero s0 the 3 acceleration in his section is zero. Bs © When the brakes are applied, the velocity decreases tog zor0 and the vehicle dacolerates. The gradient oftheline 8 '” is negatve in this seston. So the acceleration is negative, =, eT a, decoration had taken longer? 3 5 einswenea 2 Look at the graph in Figure 9 again. Figure 2 Braking © Before the brakes are applied, the vehicle moves al a velocity of 20m/s for 10s. It therefore travels 200m in this time (= 20m/s x 10s). This distance is represented on the graph by the area under the line from 0 to 10s. This is the shaded rectangle on the graph. ‘© When the vehicle decelerates in Figure 3, its velocity drops from 20m/s to Om/s in 5s. We can work out the distance travelled in this time from the area of the purple triangle in Figure 3. This area is Ye x the height x the base of tho triangle. So the vohiclo must have travelled a distance of (0m whan it was decelerating. f Using the area under the line Z a Cd A speed camera flashes Tho area undor the line on a volocity-time graph roprosents vwhen a vehicle travaling over distance travelled. the speed limit has gone past. Some speed cameras, © Would the total distance travelled be greeter or smaller the flash twioe and measure Tae ry | Meatanoe te car raves Emre etn 1 Match each of the following descriptions to one of the lines, labelled A, B, C and D, on the velociy-time graph. 1 Accelerated moticn throughout 2 Zero acceleration 3 Accelerated motion, then decelerated motion 4 Deceleration 2 Look at the graph in Question 1. ‘ Which line represents the object that 8 ON sara retin ria Pic a the furthest distance? Rly b the least distance? ‘© The gradient ofthe line 3 Look again at the graph in Question 1. Ce ‘2 Show that the objact that produced the data for ine A (the Ce cceaaiicele horizontal line) travelled a distance of 160m. aa bb Which one of the other three lines represents the motion of an peers tae object that decelerated throughout its journey? pobrahasiny lie Pr ¢ Calculate the distance travelled by this object. co) 3 iS “Timein seconds, seee © How can we calculate speed from a distance-time graph? ued Cee kay Re eed oe andd eke Cee uae Dietarce ir mat, m Figure 1 A distance-time graph for Pond 2 46 Time 1 seoonds, 5 conatart speed \Volosity in motos por socand, m’s Figure 3 A velocity-time graph for 18 3 Lu ft} to 10 Motion Using graphs (« Using distance-time graphs A For an object moving at constant speed, we saw at the start ofthis chapter ‘that the distance-time graph is a straight line sloping upwards. ‘The speed of the object is represented by tha gradient of the line. To find the gradient, we need to draw a triangle under the line, as shown in Figure 1. The hhaight of the triangle represents the cistance travelled and the base represents the time taken. So the height of the triangl __ the heigt rangle the gradient of he ine = re base of the tangle and this represents the object's speed. Find tha spead of the object in the graph in Figure 1. For a moving object with a changing speed, the distance-time graph is not a straight line. The graphs in Figure 2 show two examples. e828 Distanceinmetes, m = . 5) 6 [rr en rT “Time in secends, s “Time in seconds, s Figure 2 Distence-time graphs for changing speed In Figure 2a, the gradient of the graph inoreases graclually, so the object's speed must have increased gradually. b What can you say about the speed in Figure 2b? Using velocity-time graphs 16 Look at the graph in Figure 3. It shows the velocity-time graph of an ‘object X moving with a constant acceleration. its velocity increases at 14 a sieady rate, So the graph shows a straight line that has a constant 2 10 gradient. —Tofind the acceleration from the graph, cememer the gradient of {he line on avelocity-tine graph represents the acceleration. 24 6 “Time in seconds, s coratart acceleraton In Figure 3, the gradient is given by the haight divided by the base of the triangle under the line. ‘The height of the triangle rapresents the change of velocity and the 2 io base of the triangle represents the time taken. ‘Therefore, the gradient represents the acceleration, because: change of velocity avecloration = Shanes velocityWorked example Use the graph in Figure 3 to find the acceleration of object X. Solution ‘The height of the triangle represents an increase of velocity of 8 m/s (= 12m/s—4m/s) ‘The base of the triangle represents a time of 105. change of velocity _ 8m/s Therefore, the acceleration nge-cl e ams .8mist To find the distance travelled from the graph, remember the area under ime graph represents the distance travelled, The shape under the line in Figure 3 is a triangle on top of a rectangle. So the cistance travelled is represented by the area of the triangle plus the area of the rectangle under it. Look at the worked example opposite. Gime tons 1 Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below: acceleration distance speed a The area under the line of a velocity-time graph represents. b The gradient of a ine on a distance-time graph represents ¢ The gradient of a line on a velocity-time graph represents .. ‘Tho graph shows how the velocity of 2 cyclist on a straight road changes with time. ‘a Describe the motion of the cyclist. b Use the graph to work out i the initial acceleration of the cyclist i the distance travliod 5 by the cyclist in the first 40s. IH] Ina motorcycle test, the speed from rest was recorded at intervals. g er 2 3 s a o 4 50 60 Timein seconds. s Time (seconds, ) o | s| 1] ts | 20] as ‘Velocity (metre per second, m/s) | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 40 {a Plot 2 velocity-time graph of these results. b What was the intial acceleration? © How far did it move i the first 2087 MW the next 108? Pos Worked example Use the graph in Figure 3 10 caloulato the distanca moved by object x. Solution ‘The area of the triangle = Ye x height x base. ‘Therefore, the distance represented by the area of triangle = % x Bm's x 108 =40m ‘The area of the rectangle under the triangle = height « base ‘Therefore, the distance represented by the area of the rectangle = 4m/s x 108 =40m So the distance travelled by X= 40m + 40m = 80m rr roe) given by the gradient of the aed Ei Lu} ore Is given by the gradient of Pun cea Ca fu oid Ce Cd Pere ae [H]DCCL ened Summary questions oO A model car travels round a circular tack at constant speed, ‘2 If you were given a stopwatch, a marker, and a tape. measure, how would you measure: ithe time taken by the car to travel 10 laps the distance the cer travels in 10 laps. b Ifthe car travels 36 meties in 30 seconds, calculate Its spood. 2 A train travels at a constant spood of 85 m/s. Calculato: @ how farit travels in 20s b how long it takes to wavel a cistance of 1400m. @ The figure shows the distance-time graph for a car on a motorway. 2500 2000 A = 1900. z 2 a 500 2 3 oe Time in sands, s ‘a Which part of the journey was faster, A to Bor B10 C? b i How far did the car travel from Ato B and how long, did i take? Calculate the speed of the car between A and B. @ a Acartook Bs to increase its velocity from &m/s to 28m/s. Calculate: its chango of volocity ii its acceleration. b Avehicle travelling at a velocity of 24mis slowed down and stopped in 208, Calculate its deceleration. The figure shows the velocity-tme graph of a passenger jet boforo it took off. 0 10 2 30 0 Time in sacords, ¢ Veloaly in metres per second, mvs Calculate the acceleration of the jet. b Calculate the distance it ravalied before it took off. [H] 91 The table below shows how the velocity of a train changes as Il tavelled from one station to the next. Time 0 | 20 | 40| 60 | a0 | 100] 129 140/| 180 (seconds) Volocty | 0 5 | 10/15 20 20/20 10 0 (mis) a Plot a velocity-time graph using this date. b Calculate the acceleration in each of the three parts of the journey. ¢ Calculate the total distance travelled by the train. Show that the average speed for the train's journey was 12.5m/s. TH] 2 A motorcyclist started from rest and accelerated steacily to 25mjs in 5 seconds then slowed down steadily to a halt 30 seconds atter she started. Draw a valocity-time graph for this joumey. b Show that the acceleration of tha motorcyclist in the first § seconds was 5.0m/s*. ¢ Calculate the deceleration of the motorcyclist in the last 25 seconds. d Use your graph to show that the total distance travelled by the motorcyclist was $375 metres, [1]“The table gives values of distance and time for a child travelling along a straight track competing in an egg and spoon raco, Time (seconds) o[s |] is] 20 a5 Distance metres) | o | 8 | 20| 20 | 24 40 ‘a Copy the graph axes below on to graph paper. Plot a graph of distance againat time fer the child. @ 40 Distance inmetres 0 5 6 Ulm OU Ow Time in seconds b Name the dependent variable shown on the graph. (1) © What type of variable is this? a Use your graph to estimate the cistance travelled in 22 seconds. Use your graoh to estimate the time taken for the child to travel 15 metres, (ty 1 Describe the motion of the child between 10 seconds and 15 seconds. Give a reason for your answer. a (2 The graph shows how far a runner travels during a charity running race. 24. Distance inkibmetes 0 2 64 6 fO0 ta 140 Time in minutes End of chapter questions AQ#/Examination-style questions @ ‘a What was the distance of the race? a by How long did it take the runner to complete the race? (1) © For how long did the runnor rest during the race? (1) d Between which two points was the runner moving the fastest? Give a reason for your answer. Q @ Between which two points id the runner tavel at the same speed as they did between A and B? ) 1 Calculate the speed of the runner between B and Cin ‘metros por cocond, Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer. ® | Acycist is traveling along a straight road. The graph shows how the velocity changes with time for part f the journey. 12 Velocity nmetes per secene 2 | 6 8 2 Tinein seconds ‘Explain how the acceleration can be found from @ velocity-time graph. 0) b Copy and camplete the following sentences using the list of words and phrases below. Each one can be Used once, more than once or not at all Is stationery travels at a constant speed ‘accelerates docelorates Betwoen A and B the eyel 0 Between B and C the cyclist. a) Between © and D the cyclist 0 Use the graph to find the maximum speed of the cyclist co} se the graph to calculate the distance travelled in metres between 4 and 8 seconds. Show clearly how you work out your answer. @ Use the graph to calculate the total distance travelled in metres. Show cleatly how you work out your answes. [H] (8) o>Wetec Re ene Peet Saati pe re Pao? Cle Lae Quicksand vietims sink because they can't gat enough ‘support from the sand. The force of gravity on the victim (acting downwards) is greater than the upwards force of the sand on the victim. People caught in quicksand should not struggle but flatten themselves ‘on tho surface and crawl to a sate place. GD Kinks For more information on how forces make objects turn, se0 P32.1 Moments. Forces eye e ey TUune(cy ‘When you apply 2 force to a tube of toothpaste, be careful not to apply too ‘much force. The force you apply to squeeze the tube changes its shape and pushes toothpaste out of the tube. If you apply too much force, the loothpaste might come out too fast. A force can change the shape of an object or change its state of rest or its motion. Equal and opposite forces ‘Whenever two objects push or pull on each other, they exert equal and opposite forces on one another. The unit of force is the newion (ebbreviated as N). © A boxer who punches an opponent with a force of 100N experiences. a reverse force of 100N from his opponent. ‘© Two roller skaters pull on opposite ends ofa rope. The skaters move towards each other. This is because they pull on each other with equal and opposite forces. Two newionmeters could be used to show this, << ru ru Figure 1 Equal and opposite forces Action and reaction Test this with a friend if you can, using roller skates and two newtonmeters. Don't forget to wear protective head gear! © What did you find out? ‘© Comment on the precision of your readings.[Forces betwoon objects | In the mud Pull of rope cn car = Pullaf ear on epe ‘Acar stuck in mud can be difficult _ = to shift. A tractor can be very useful hore. Figure 2 shows the idea. At any stage, the force of the rope on the car is equal and opposite to the foroe of tho car on the rope. To pull the car out of the mud, the foroe of the ground on the tractor ‘Figure 2 nthe mud needs to be greater than the force of the mud on the car. Thess two forces aren't necessarily equal to one another because the objects are not the same. by Alorry tows a broken-down car. When the force of the lorry on the tow rope is 200N, what is the force of tha tow rope on the lorry? Friction in action ‘The driving forea on a car is the force that makes it move. This is sometimes called the engine force or the motive force. This force Is due to friction botwoen the ground and the tyre of each drive whool. Friction acts whore tho tyre is in contact with the ground. \Whon tho car moves forwards: Fucsole ote diwali «tho force offrction of the ground on the tyre is in the forward direction oneal on ie ‘© the force of friction of the tyre on the ground is in the reverse direction. Figure 3 Driving force ‘The two forces are equal and opposite to one another. © What happons if th ground? isn't enough ‘riction botwoen the tyro and the EE) 4 @ When the brakes of a moving car are applied, what is the effect of the braking force on the car? b When you sit on a cushion, what Is the effect of your weight on the cushion? © When you kick a football, what is the effect of the force of your foot on the ball? 2 Copy and complete a and b using the words below: downwards equal opposite upwards The force on a ladder resting against a wall is. force of the wall on the ladder. b Abookis at rest ona table, The force of the book on the table is ‘The force of the table on the book is. rete ad etek uts tema! icubulkacekabeay 3 When a student is standing at rest on bathroom scales, the scales read © The unit of force is the SOON. eas ‘a Whatis the size and direction of the force of the student on the ero scales? Ne ewe eur) b Whatis the size and direction of the force of the scales on the Pere eer student? eeWiriiencud Re force on an object is: ed ed Pec ha Se ceteiuta ee eeu eer) ee Ea eu ed CO links For more information on using cata to draw conclusions, see H8 Using data to draw conclusions. Push forso, Fricion jure 2 Overcoming friction =| Forces INEM cele) Wherever you are at this moment, at least two forces are acting on you. These are the force of gravity on you and a force supporiing you. Most objacts around you are acted on by more than one force. We can work out the effect of tho forcos on an object by roplacing thom with a single force, tho resultant force. This is a single force that has the same effect as all the forces acting on the object. Zero resultant force When the resultant force on an object is zero, the object: @ remains stationary ifit was at rest, or © continues to move at the same speed and in the same direction if it was alroady moving, Iftwo forces only act on the object, they must be equal to each other and act in opposite directions. Investigating forces Make and test a model hovercraft floating on a cushion of air from a balloon. And/or: Use a glider on an air track to investigate the relationship between force and acceleration. ‘© What relationship do you find between force and acceleration? 1 Aglider on a linear air track floats on 2 cushion of alt. Provided the track is loval, tho glider moves at constant velocity {i.o. with no change of spood or directicn) along the track. That's because friction is absent. The resultant force on the glider is zero, Figure 1 Tho naar sirtrace 2 Whena heavy crate is pushed across a rough floor at a constant volecity, tho resultant force on the crate is z0r0. The push force on the crate is equal in size but acts in the opposite direction to the force of friction ot the floor on the crate.Non-zero resultant force When the resultant force on an object i not zero, the movement o' the object depends on the size and direction of the resultant force. 4 When a jet plane is taking off, the thrust force of its engines is greater than the force of air resistance on i. The resultant force on itis the differance between the thrust fore and the force of air resistance on it. The resultant force is thereiore non-zero. The greater the resultant force, the quicker the take-offis, © What can you say about the thrust force and the force of air resistance when the plane is moving at constant velocity at constant height? 2 Whena car driver applies the brakes, the braking force Is greater than the force ‘rom the engine. The reaultant force is the difference ketween the braking force and the engine force. It acts in the opposite direction to the car's direction. So it slows the car down. d_ What can you say about the resultant force ifthe brakes had been applied harder? ‘The examples above show that if an abject is acted on by two unequal forces acting in opposite directions, the resultant force is: © equal to the difference between the two forces © in the direction of the larger force, Note what happens if the two forcas act in the same cirection. The resultant force is equal to the sum of the two forces and acts in the same direction as the two forces. Err) 1 Copy and complote a to ¢ using the words below: groster than loss than qual to ‘Acar starts from rest and accelerates along a straight flat road. a The force of air resistance on itis the drving force of its engine. b The rasultant fores is. zero. © The downward force of the car on the road s........the support force of the road on the car. A jet plane lands on a runway and stops. a What can you say about the diracticn of the resultant force on the plane as it lands? b What can you say about the resultant force on the plane when it has stopped? ‘Acar ig stuck in the mud. A tractor trios to pul it out. a The tractor pulls the car with a force of 250N but the car doesn't move. Explain why the car doesn't move. bb Increasing the tractor force to 300N pullls the car steadily out of the mud, What is the force of the mud on the car now? Perry Eigne force Figure 3 A pessenger jet on take-ott Braking force Figure 4 Braking a Corer pat once aroh cs ror Eg Peery etd eee Deu ee ok ey Oe Cte og Cd Ce es SE ee rod ed 2 their difference ifthe forces ecForces Force and acceleration Ru ead ikon Ed erent ed kal eo re) Cetus a} ene ad od) Figure 1 investigating th We can use the apparatus above to acoolorate a trollay with a constant force. Foren Mast 24 () (a) | Usothe nawtonmeterto pull he trolley along with 2 constant forca. z You can double or treble the total moving mass by using double-deck B38 and triple-deck trolleys. 2, 10 10 | A motion sensor and a computer record the velocity ofthe trolley as it i accelerates. Ei 10 20 | What ar the advantages of using a data logger and computer in this 3 i Investigation? Fe ee ces ‘You can display the results as a velocity-time graph cn the computer sereen. Figure 2 Veloiytine oraoh for diferent Figura 2 shows velocity-time graphs for diferent masses. You can work out ‘combinations of force and mass ‘the acceleration from the gradient of the line, as explained in the previous chapter. CO links Sees mation on how to b00K at Some typical resus inthe table below: work out the acceleration rom the [Resumantforee (newlons) os | 10 | 18 | 20 | 40 | 60 {gradient of the fin, took back at Mass (kilograms) 10 | 10 | 10 | 20 | 20 | 20 2 1.4 Using graphs. Receleration (m/s) os | 10 | 15 | 19 | 20 | 80 Mass x acceleration (kgnve) | 05 | 10 | +8 | 20 | 40 | 60 Worked example Caloulats the resultant force on an object of mass 6.0kg when it has an acceleration of 2.0m/s* Solution Resultant force ass x acceleration .0kg x 3.0m'S* = 18.0 The results show that the resuitant force, the mass and the acceleration are ked by the equation resultant force = mass % acceleration (newtons, N) grams) (metres/second*) We can write the word equation above using symbols as follows: resultant force, F = ma, ‘Where F = resultant force in nawtons m = mass in kilograme scoeleration in metres/sacond®errr ry ‘@. Caleulate the rosultant oreo on a sprintor of mass 80 kg who accolorates Cor pismies ‘We can rearrange the equation F=matogve EF E a= oo m== Worked examp! Calculate the acceleration of en object of mess 5.0kg acted on by a resultant force of 40. Solution Rearing F = ma guesa = £ Z 7 eT Hryou're in a car that suddenly brakes, your neck pulls on your head and slows it own. The equal and opposite force of your head on your neck can injure your neck. b Calculate the acceleration of a car of mass B00kg acted on by a resultant force of S200N. Speeding up or slowing down Ifthe velocity of an object changes, it must be acted on by a resultant force. Its acceleration is elways in the same direction as the resultant fore. «The velocity ofthe object increases if the resultant force isin the same direction as the velocity. We say its acceleration is positive because itis in ‘the same direction as its velocity. 2 «© The velocty ofthe object decreases (Le. it cecelerates) ifthe resultant force ie opposite in direction to ita velocity. We say ite acceleration is negative because it is opposite in direction to its velocity. Figure 8 ‘whiplash’ iniury 1 Copy and complet a to ¢ using the words below. Each word can be used more than onca. noel acceleration resultantforce mass velocity 'e Ifan object is accelerating, ‘@ Amoving object decelerates when a ........ ts on it in the opposte it can ba speeding up o direotion to it8 ane changing direction. Ifit is b The greater the of an objects, the less its acceleration is when decelerating, itis slowing a. acts on it down. © Tho.........0f a moving object increases when a @ fan object Is accelerating or the same direction as itis moving in decolerating, there must be Copy and complete the following table: a resultant force acting on it. Force (newtons, N) Mass (kilograms, kg) | 20 Pay okie ‘Acceleration (metres) Cae “ aquerea mi) pees oy a 3 Acar and a trailer have a total Ce ey mass of 1500kg. eee era a Find the force needed to ci accelerate the car and the g trailer at 2.0mjs* b The mass of the traler is $00 kg. Find the force of the tow bar on the kG ned trailer acceleration (metresisecond”) STULearning objectives ert driving force of acar? tor Cee us) ed eet ek uetony Dy Coe ‘The mass of a BMW Mini Cooper car is just ever 1000kg. ee eae ‘When the brakes of a car are applied, friction between the brake pads and the car wheels causes kinetic energy to be transferrad by heating to the brakes and the brake pads. Hthe brake pads wear away toc much, they need to be replaced. Reaction times Use an electronic stopwatch to test your own reaction time. Ack a friend to start the stopwatch when you are looking tit with your fingor cn the stop button. ‘The read-out from the watch will give your reaction time, @ How can you make your data as precise as possible? © What conclusions can you raw? Forces Coy Maem cer: (| Forces on the road For any car travelling at constant velocity, the resultant force on itis zero, This 's because the driving force of its engine is balanced by the resistive forces (12. fiction and air resistance). The resistive foreas are mostly due to air resistance. Friction between parts cf the car that move against each other also contributes. Velocity —_ Motive ferao Resistive Torco _ ims Figure 1 Constant velocity ‘A.car criver uses the accelerator pedal (also called the gas pedal) to vary the driving force of the engine. ‘a What do you think happens if the drivor presses harder on tho accelerator? ‘The braking force needed to stop a vehicle in a certain cistance depends on: @ the speed of the vehicle when the brakes are first applied © the mass of the vehicle. ‘We can see this using the equation ‘resultant force = mass x accaleration’ in which the braking force is the resultant force. 1 Tho greater the speed, the greater the deceleration needed to stop the. vehicle in a certan cistance. So the braking force must be greater than at low speed. 2 The greater the mass, the greater the braking ferce needed for a given deceleration Stopping distances @ Driving tests always ask about stopping distances. This is the shortest distance a vohicle can safoly stop in, and is in two parts: The thinking distance: the distance travelled by the vehicle in the tine it takes the driver to react (ie. during the driver's reaction time). ‘The braking distance: the distance travelled by the vehicle during the time the braking force acts. stopping distance thinking distance + braking distance Figure 2 shows the stooping cistance for a vehicle on a cry flat road travelling at different speeds. Check for yourseif that the stopping distance at 31 m/s, (70 miles per hour) is 96m,og > J as eo 2c so: > 21, (tft = 0.20 m) Ee cima) em (1 ms)| (95 m) Thinking distance Baking distance b What are the thinking distance, the braking distance in metres and the stopping distance at 13m/s (30mph)? (1 foot = 0.3 metres). © The thinking distanca is equal to the car's speed muttipliad by the driver's reaction time. So its directly proportional to the car's speed. © The braking cistance is equal to the average speed of the car during braking muttipliad by the braking time. Since both ofthese quantities are directly proportional to the car's speed (before the brakes are applied), the braking distance is directly proportional to the square of the car's speed. Factors affecting stopping distances 4 Tiredness, alcohol and druge all inorease reaction times. Distractions ‘such as using @ mobile phone can also affect reaction time. All these factors increase the thinking distance (oecause thinking distance = speed x reaction time}. Therefore, the stopping distance is greater. 2 The faster a vehicle is travelling, the further it travels before it stops. This is because the thinking distanca and the braking distance both increase with increased speed, 3 In.adverse road conditions, for oxamplo on wot or ioy roads, drivers have to brake with less force to avoid skidding. Stopping distances are therefore greater in poor road conditions. 4 Poorly maintained vehicles, for example with worn brakes or tyres, take longer to stop because the brakes and tyres are less effective, © Why are stopping distances greater in poor visibility? EE) 41 Each ofthe following factors affects the thinking distance or the braking distance of a vehicle. Which of these two distances is affected in thasa? a The road surface condition affects the........ distance, b Tho tiredness of a crivor inoroasas his or her... distance. ¢ Poorly maintained brakes affects the........ distance. 2 a Use the chart in Figure 2 to werk out, in metras, the increase in 1 the thinking distance IL the braking distance the stopping distance from 19 m/s (@0moh) to 22 m/s (G0mph).. b Adriver has a reaction time of 0.8s. Calculate her thinking speed of i 15m/s il 30m/s. 3 When the speed of a car is doubled: ‘a Explain vy the thinking distance of the driver ie doubled, assuming the driver's reaction time is unchanged. b Explain why the braking distance is more than doubled. fance at Figure 2 Stopping distances We Mako sure you don't mix up the two different parts that make up stopping distances, You will lose marks in an ‘exam if you answer a question about reaction time in torms of braking distance and vice Figure 3 Stopping cisiancos ave further ‘than you might tunk! eb ae Ce ead ca roe ear depends on the thinking Cee aca) distance. To koi conditions and poor Deore ed heed reaction time and high speed Pee aa) Cemtet Cee cd Cirteol bead Due acd acted on only by gravity? ee eked Weight of parcel =53N Figure 1 Using a newionmeterto wegh an object, Worked example Caloulate the weight in newtons ofa person of mess 55kg. Solution = mase x gravitatonal field strength = 55kg x 10N/kg 550N Forces Falling objects How to reduce your weight Your weight is due to the gravitational force of attraction between you and the Earth. This force is very slightly weaker at the equator than at the poles. So if you want to reduce your waight, go to the equator. However, your mass will be the same no mattar where you are. © The weight of an object is the force of gravity on it. Weight is measured in newtons, © The mass of an object is the quantity of matter i kilograms. Masa is measured in We can measure the weight of an object using a newtonmeter. ‘The weight of an object: © of mass 1kg is 10N © of mass Skg is SON. ‘The force of gravity on a 1 kg object is the gravitational field strength at the place where the object is. The unit of gravitational field strength is the newton par kilogram (Nikg). ‘The value of the Earth’s grevitational field strength at its surface is about 1ON/kg. fwe know the mass of an object, we can calculate the ‘orce of gravity on it {ie. its weight) using the equation: weight = mass —_ gravitational fleld strength (nowtons,N) (kilograms, kg) (nowtons/kilogram, N/kg) ‘We can write the word equation above using symbols as follows: weight, W = mg, Where: W = waight in newtons, N mass in kilograms, kg g = gravitational field strongth in newtons per kilogram, N/kg. The forces on falling objects (9 Itwe release an object above the ground, i falls because of ts weight (Le. the force of gravity on it). I the object falls with no other forces acting on it, the resultant force ont is ts weight. accelerates downwards ata constant acceleration of 1Om/s*. is called the acceleration due to gravity, For example, ifwe release a 1 kg odject above the ground: @ the force of gravity on 10N, and @ its acceleration (= force(mass = 10N/1 kg) = 10m/s*.roc) a b . 30 ‘Object in tiquid as Objtin falls at constant BS 00 eee tases a Geta @ Hi 3 A Onjectin cui ‘Weight of velocity ‘apes inliqud oo Oto S OOOO Figure 2 Faling objects. a Falling in air, b falling in a fiquid,¢ velocity-time graph fora and b, Itthe object falls in a fluid, the fluid drags on the object. The drag force ‘creases with epoed. Atany instant, tho recultant force on the object is its weight minus the drag force on it. © The acceleration of the object decreases as it falls. This is bacause the drag, force increases as it speeds up. Sc the resultant force on it decreases and therefore its acceleration decreases. © The object reachas a constant velocity when the drag force on it is equal and opposite to Its weight, We call this velocity its terminal velocity. The rosuitant foree is then zero, £0 its accoloration is zero. When an object moves through the air (8. the fluid is aif) he drag force is called air resistance, This is not shown in Figure 2a because air racistance is very smallin a short descent. 'b Why does an abject released in water eventually reach a constant velocity? 1 Copy and complete ato e using tha words below: equalto greater than less than When an object is released in fui a The drag force on Ils... Its weight before it reaches its terminal volocity. b its acceleration i........ zero after it reaches its terminal velocity. © The resultant force on itis intially... its weight. ‘The gravitational feld strength at the surface of the Earth is 10N/kg. For the Moon, itis 1.6N/kg. a Caloulate the weight of a person of mass 50kg atthe surface of the Earth bb Caloulate tho waight of tho came person if she was on tho surfaco of the Moon, A parachutist of mass 70kg supported by a parachute of mass 20kg reaches a constant speed. Explain why the parachutist reachos a constant spood. b Calculate: the folal weight of the parachutist and the parachute the size and direction of the force of air rasistanca on the parachute when the parachutist ‘als at constant speed. Timain seconds, § fata Investigating falling Release an object with and without a parachute. Make suitable measurements 10 compare the two situations. © Why does the object fall at constant speed when the parachute is open? e Evauateine | oagrace quality of the data you, collected, How could you improve your data? Peracutst ‘ling ct consant Speed | woe Ponce ea) De eed ck on kero ‘© An object acted on only by Pu ee eet cs © The torminal velocity of a Stead la) eo Cer eur) object.Learning objectives Bie Cee eat pc ‘© How does the extension of a spring vary with the force Deca eeu tea) Cer en Rubber and other soft materials such as flowers dipped in liquid ritrogen become as bite as less. Such frozen materials shatior whon struck with a hammer or expiode when hit wit a projeotie. Ere Figure 2 A flowor disped in nirogen and then smashed ‘Table 1 Vioight verous length ‘measurements for aruober sip Weight (N)| Longth | Extension mm) | (mm) 0 420 0 10 452 32 20 190 70 30 250) Forces Stretching and squashing ‘Squash playors know that hitting a squash ball changes the ball’s shapo briefly. A squash ball is elastic because it regains its original shape. A rubber band is also elastic as it regains its original length after itis stretched and then released, Rubber is an example of an elastic material An elastic object regains its original shape when the forces deforming it are removed. Girt Stretch tests @ We can investigate how easiy a material stretches by hanging weights from i, as chown in Figure 1 © The strip of material tobe tested is clamped atts upper end. A weight hanger fs tached to the rmaterialto koop # straight “Tho longth of tho stip fs moacured using a metre ruler. Thisis its criginal length “The weight hung from the material is increased by adding weights one ata time, Te stip stratches cach ie more vicight ie hung from i. «© Th longth ofthe sri is measured each tima a weight is added. The total weight added and the total length of te stip are recorded in a table, Length of rubber under test en of porynene Figure 1 Investigating sretcring ‘The increase of length from the criginal is called the extension. This is calculated each time a weight is added and recorded, as shown in Tablo 1 The extension of the strip of material at any stage ‘The measurements may be plotted on a graph of extension on the vertical axis against weight on the horizontal axis. Figure 3 shows the results for strips of different materials and a steel spring plotted on tha same axes. @ Tha steel spring gives a straight line through the origin. This shows that the exiension of the steel spring is directly proportional to the weight hung cn it For example, doubling the weight from 2.0N to 4.0N doubles the extension of the spring. © The rubber band does not give a siraight ling. When the weight on the rubber band is doubled from 2.0N te 4.0N, the extension more than doubles. length at tho stage - ite original length @ Tha polythene strip does not give a straight line either. As the weight is Increased from zero, the polythene strip stretches very litle at fist then it ‘gives’ and strotonos easily. ‘a Which part of a plastic shopping bag ‘givee’ if you overload the bag?Elastic energy When an elastic objects stretched, elastic potential energy is stored in the object. Ths is because work is done on the object by the stretching fore. ‘When the stretching forea is removed, the elastic energy stored in the cbjectis roleasad. Some of this energy may bo tranetorred into kinetic onargy of the cbjact or may make its atoms vibrate more so it becomes warmer. Hooke’s law @ Inthe tasts above, the extension of asta! spring is rectly proportional tthe force applied to. We can tse the graph to precict whet the extension would be for any givan force. Br ifthe force is ton large, the spring stretches more than precicted, This is because os tho epring has boon stretched boyond ie limit of proportionality. The extension of a 19 is directly proportional to the force applied, provided iis limit of proportionality isnot exceeded. ‘The above statementis known as Hooke’s law. Ifthe extension of any stretched abject or material's rectly proportional tothe stretching force, we say itobays Hooke's aw. 1 The lines on the graph in Figure 3 show that rubber and polythene have a low imit of proportionality, Beyond this mit, they do not obey Hooke’ ew. ‘steel spring has a much Fighar im of prapartionaity 2 Hooke's law may be written as an equation: Force applied = springconstant_ =x (rrnewtons, N) fin rewtons por mot, Nim) ‘The spring constants equal tothe force per uritextension needed to extend the spring, assuring its imit of propertionalty isnot reachad. The stifer a springs, te greater its spring constants. xersion in milietres. rm extension (ia motres, m) b spring has a spring constant of 25N/m. How much force is needed to make the spring oxtond by 010m? 1 Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below. elastic limit extension lengthy ‘a When a steel spring is stretched, its is increased, b When a strip of polythene is stretched beyond its permanently increased. © When rubber is stretched and unstretched, its zero. 2 What is meant by: a the limit of proportionality of a spring? b tho spring constant of a epring? 3 a InFigure 3, when the weight is 4.0N, what is the extension of: i the spring ii the rubber band the polythene strip? bi What is the extension of the spring when the weight is 2. 0N? Calculate the spring constant of the spring, sits length is afterwards is Ee ubterband a 2 6 8 7 ‘Weigit in newions, N Figure Extension versus weight io: cifarert materials, ‘We can writa tha word equation for Hooke's law using symbols as fellows: Fokxe, Where: F = force in newtons, N tho spring constant in newions per metre, Nim e = extension in metres, m. oe difference between the length of the spring and its Cea cm Oe Ce ape od Ped hs) Patten pees ‘© The spring constant of a Stony ee itLearning objectives ‘© How can the fuel economy of et Redd ene) fy eee Epic journeys Figure 2 On the Moon 4 Christopher Columbus and his three ships left tha Canary Islands on the 8th of Soptembar 1492. Ho reachod ‘the Bahama Islands on the 12th of October after a 5600km journey across the Atlantic Ocaan, 2 in 1969, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins were the first astronauts to land on the Moon. They spent 22 hours on the Moon. The 380000kmn. journey to the Moon tock four days. 9 fa space rocket accelerated fora yearat 2m/s? (about the same as a car stariing from reat), the rocket would reach @ speed of 60000km/s - about aff of the speed of light. Forces ey Cr Byte SSI Cy Speed costs Reducing tha spead of a vehicle reduces the fuel it uses. This Is because alr resistance at high speed is much greater than at low speed. So more fual is used. Lorry drivers can reduce their fuel usage by fitting a wind deflector over the cab. The deflector Figure 1 wind defector on recluces the air rasistanca on the lorry. This means alerry that lass engine force and less power are neaded to maintain a certain speed. So fuel costs are reduced because less fuel is needed. a When a vehicle is accelerating, what can you say about the engine force and the air resistance? ron ‘The shape of a wind deflector on a lorry affects alr resistance, Invostigate the effect of the doflector shape by testing a trolley with a box on (or a toy lorry) without a deflactor then fitted with deflectors of different shapes. You could use a hairdryer to blow air at the lorry’ and use a newtonmeter to measure the force needed to stop it being blown backwards. (See P2 3.1 Figure 2) Speed kills! © At 20mph, the stopping distance of a car is 12 metres. © At40mph, the stopping distance is $6 metres, © AtGOmph, the stopping distance is 72 metres, H'someone walks across a road in front of a car, a driver traveling slowly is much more likaly to stop safely than a speeding driver. The force on @ person struck by 2 car increases with speed. Even at 20mph, it can be many times the parson’s weight. A speed limit of 20 mph is in place outside mary schools now. Speed cameras ‘Speed cameras are very effective in discouraging motorists ‘rom speeding. Asspeeding motorist caught by a speed camerais fined and can lose his or hor driving liconce. On some motorways: «© Speed limits can vary acearding to the amount of traffic on the motorway. @ Speed cameras may be linked. These can catch out motorists who slow down for a speed camera then speed up. In some areas, residen's are supplied with ‘mobile’ speed cameras to catch speeding motorists, Some moterists think this is going ‘oo far and that speed ‘cameras should not be usec in this way. Lots of motorists say speed cameras ‘are being used by local councils to increase their income. Are speed cameras effective? A report rom one police force sald that where speed cameras had been introduced: © average soeads fall by 17% © deaths and serious injuries fall by 55%Ee ‘Another police force reported that, in their area, as a result of installing more speed cameras in 2003: © There ware no child deaths in road accidents for the first time since 1927. © 420 fewer children were involved in road accidents compared with the provious yoar. b Discuss whether or not the statements above prove the argument that speed cameras save lives. Anti-skid surfaces Have you noticed that road surfaces near road junctions and traffic lights are often different from normal road surfaces? ‘© The surface is rougher than normal. This gives increased triction between the surface and a vehicle tyre, soitreduces the chance of skidding when a Figure 3 A speed camera river in a car applies the brakes. © The surface is Iighter in colour so it is marked out clearly from a normal road surface. ‘Skidding happens when the brakes are applied too harshly. The wheels lock and the tytes slide on the road as a result. Inoteased fricton between the tyres and the road allows more force to be applied without skidding happaning, so the stopping distance is reduced. 1 The legal limit for a driver with alcohol in the blood is 80 milligrams per litre. Above this level, reaction times become significantly ionger. The Fea ere yao earns cere a blood) travelling at 30 mph is 9.0 m (30 feet). eit ec tcc eeee ste onereem eer 20% longer than that of a normal driver? It Drivers at the legal limit are 80% more likely tobe in aroad accident | Figure 4 An ent-skid surface aera ier ease Ry a eee a limit to 40 milligrams per litre would cut the risk from 80% to 20%. Sasa eee aa er eal EST ee hrs tac cactaros evden lat men eas riond aaa 2ome i Thinking distance is directly proportional to speed. Show that the Ping cetaren a 20'reh 66.0 Calculate the reduction in the stopping distance. Gch ene evar emer mniciaeseae one ey ae R ane ieee eaiesoa oo nceS SRE schools significantly. Slee Campaigners in the village of Greystoke want the council to resurface Ce a the main road at the traffic lights in the village. A child was killed Ee erad eerie fared ite ns oa eeio ee een onan scinnen tetevon acta ereatereer canes OES ac iste fare ine Some oe See Tactooee Coa oeesy, Sp eee eesticnuteei merenneen ears ic ree eh eee read scoters eran acinar SS eet Panes ces eer eae Tate [iron baieembbpen One emcee cette (ore bb Imagine you are one of the campaignars. Write a letter to your local RSS Re nwopapetochelenge te councs response tet ey caraters | |aMlaeeapennapesaaa ama aeiemaForces: P2 2.1-P2 2.7 Summary questions oO A student is pushing a box across a rough floor. Friction acis between the box and the floor. a Copy and complete sentences I and Il using the words below: in the same direction as_in tho opposite direction to 1 Tho force of friction of the box on the floor ie the force of friction of the floor on the box. The force of the student on the box is the force of friction of the box on the floor. b Tho studont is pushing tho box toviards a door. Which direction, towards the door or away irom the door, is: [the force of the box on the student? the force of friction of the student on the floor? 2) The weight of an object of mass 100kg on the Moon is 160N, i Calculate the gravitational field strength on the Moon. | Galculate the weight of the object on the Earth's surface. Tha gravitational field strength near the Earth's surface is 10.Nikg, b Calculate the acceleration and the resultant force in each of the following situations. 1 A-sprinter of mass 80 kg accelerates from rest to a speed of 9.6mys in 1.28. Atrain of mass 70000 kg decolorates from a velocity of 16m/s to a standstill in 40s without change of direction. The figure shows the velocity-tine graphs for a metal ‘object X dropped in air and a similar object V dropped ina tank of water. Volecy inmetis per sorond, rv 02 oa Os Timein seconds, s ‘@ What does the graph for X tell you about its acceleration? bb Interme of the forces acting on Y, explain why it reachad a constant velocity. @ Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below: decreasing increasing terminal ‘a When the resultant force on an object is not zero and acts in the opposite direction to the abjact’s velocity, its velocity is b When an object falls ina fluid and the drag force on it is less than its weight, its velocity is. ¢ When the drag force on an abject falling in a flui is equal to its weight, the abjact moves at its velocity. 8 a Explain why the stopping distance of a caris increased if: the road is wat instead of dry UL the drivaris tred instead of alert. b Adtiver traveling at 18m/s takes 0.7 to react when dog walks into the road 40m ahead. The braking distance for the car ai this spead is 24m. I Calculate the aistance vavellad by the car in the 1 it takes tho drivarto react. How far in front of the dog does the car stop? Ina Hooke's law test on a spring, the following results were obtained, ‘Weight (Hy Length (mm) | Extension (mer) 0 25 0 40 285 40 20 324 30 368 40. 405 50 446 60 428 a Copy and complete the third column of the table. b Plot a graph of the extension on the vertical axis against the weight on the horizontal axis, ¢ Ifa weight of 7.0N is suspended cn the spring, what ‘would be the extension of the spring? I Calculate the spring constant of the spring, ‘An object euspended on the spring gives an extension of 140mm. Calculate the weight of the object, @ a Aracing cyclist accelerates at Sm/s* when she starts, from rest. The total mass of the cyclist and her bicycle is 45kg. Calculate: 1 the resultant force that produces this acceleration tho total weight of tho cyclist and the bicycle. b Explain why she can reach a highor speed by crouching than by staying upright.AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 1) a The tractor is pulling a trailer. The force acting on the trailer is labelled A, and the force aciing on the tractor is labelled B Copy and complete the following sentances using the list of words and phrases below. Each one can be used once, more than once or not at all. Aand B are the samo Ais groztor than B Bis greater than A Ifthe tractor and trailer are accelerating a Ifthe tractor and trailer are moving at 2 constant speed a b Tho driving force from the tractor is 12000N and the total resistive forces are 10000N. Calculate the resultant force. a) ii Calculate the acceleration of the tractor and trailer. ‘Mass of the tractor and trailer = 2300kg Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer and give the unit. (3) 2 A car is travelling at 30m/s when the vehicle in front, ‘suddenly stops, The car travels 19m before the driver applies the brake. a What is the name given to this distance? ow b Calculate the reaction time of the driver. Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer. Q © The driver applies the brakes and stops 6 saconds later. Calculate the deceleration of the car. Write down ‘the equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer. @ 4 The braking distance is Bt m. What is the total stopping distance in metres? a € Give two factors that would increase reaction time. (2) 8 The diagram shows the forces acting cn a dragster just be‘ore it reaches its top spead. The rasistive forces are represented by arrow X. The driving force is shown by arrow Y, @ Astudent carries out an experiment to find if exter End of chapter questions ‘a What is the main type of resistive force acting on the dragster? « b Ilthe driving force remains the same, what will happen to force X? Give a reason for your answer. ® © The dragster slows down by applying its brakes and taingaperaciute. The 3 velocity-time graph shows 3 the motion of the dragster froma stationary start nil it stops. Time Explain, In terms of energy changes, the shape of the graph when the brakes are applied. @ is proportional to the force appliad for an elastic hair bobble. She measures the extension with one and then ‘two 0.1 kg masses. Sho holds tho bobble with one hand and the ruler in the other. 10mm 0.1 tal ota a Ifthe extension is proportional to the force applied, what value should the student expect to obtain ‘or distance x? 0 b Give the name of the form of eneray stored in the stretched hair bobble. ) © Caloulate the weight of one of the 0.1 kg masses. (g = 10 Nikg) @) d In this question you will be assessed on using good English, organising information cleerly and using ‘specialist torms whore appropriato. ‘The student is unable to draw a valid conclusion because she has nol carried out the investigation vith sufficient precision, Describe the improvements she could make In order to carry out the Investigation more precisely and gain sufficient data to draw a valid conclusion. @ree Imagine pulling a 40 tonne ‘ruck over 40 metres. On level ground, a pull force of about 2O00N is needed. Very few people can manage ‘o pull with such force. Dor’teven try t ‘though. The people who havo one it are very, very strong, end have trained specially for it. Work, energy and momentum a eu ae) as Working out Ina fitness centre or a gym, you have to work hard to keep f1, Raising weights and pedaling ‘on an exorcise bike are just two ways to keap fit. Whichever way you choose to keep fit, you have to apply a force to move something. So the work you do causes transfer of energy. ‘@_ When you pedal cn an exercise bike, where does the energy transferred go to? When an object is moved by a force, we sey work is done on the object by the force. The force therefore transfers energy to the object. Figure 1 Working out The amount of energy transferred to the object is equal to the work done on it. For example, to raise an object, you need to apply a force to it to ‘overcome’ the force of gravity on it. Ifthe work you do on tho object is 20 J, the enorgy transferred to it must be 20 J. So its gravitational potential energy increases by 20 J. Energy transferred = work done. ‘The work done by a force depends on the size of the force and the distance moved, We use the following equation to calculate the work dena by a force when It moves an object: work done = force applied x distance moved in the direction of the force (oules, J) (newtons, N) (metres, m) ‘We can write the word equation above us WeFxd .g symbols: Where: W = work done in joules, J F = force in newtors, N d= distance moved in metres in the direction of the force, m. Co Worked example A builder pushed a wheelbarrow a distance of 5.0m across flat ground. with a force of SON. How much work was done by the builder? Solution ‘Work done = force applied x distance moved = 50Nx 6.0m = 250J 1b How much work is dana when a force of 2000N pulls a truck through a distance of 40m in the direction of the force?Practical Doing work Carry out a series of experiments to calculate the work done in performing the tasks below. Use a newtonmeter to measure the force applied and a metre ruler to measure the distance moved, 1 Drag a small box a measured distance across a rough suriace. 2 Ropoat the tost above with two rubber bands wrapped around the box ‘as shown in Figure 2 ‘© What is the resolution of your measuring instruments? Repeat your {esis and comment on the precision of your repeat measurements. Can you be confident about the accuracy of your results? al Figure 2 Atwork ¢ Why is more work done than the calculated value in the practical with rubber bands? Friction at work Work done to overcome friction is mainly transferrad into energy by heating, 41 IF you rub your hands tagether vigorously, they becoma warm. Your musclas do work to overcome the friction between your hands. The work you do is ‘transferred into energy that warms your hands. 2 Brake pads become hot if the brakes are appliad for too lang a time. Friction between the brake pads and the wheel discs opposes the motion of the wheel, The kinetic energy of the vehicle is transferred into energy that heats the brake pads and the wheel dises, as well as the surrounding air. A small proportion of the energy will be transferred to the surroundings by sound waves ifthe brakes ‘equeal’ Binet oee 1 Copy and complete a and b using the words below: gravitational potential kinetic sound wasted ‘8 When a rover pulls on an oar, the work done by the rower is transierred into... energy of the boat and....... energy by hasan LI) heating the water. Lei niall b Whon an clectrie motor is used to raise a car park barrir, the work eee done by the motor is transferred into... energy of the barriar and Ca) aa Rt bec 2 A car's brought to a standstil| when the driver applies the brakes. et eta) a Explain why the brake pads become warm. ered bb The car travelled a distance of 20 metres after the brakes were roe ‘applied. The braking force on the car during this time was 7000N. Caloulate the work done by the braking force. ON ues Ot ku Se teed 3 Calculate the work done when: Cheetos a aforce of 20N makes an abject move 4.8m in the crection of the force Cd b an object of weight BON is raised through @ height of 1.2 m. PreLearning objectives Tore potential energy of an object Ce a leahld Sh Ce oy Ce a eka re Ce eid Pr eeu ad ‘when it moves up or down? Worked example A student of weight SOON limbs on a platform which is 1.2m higher than the for. Calculate the increase of her gravitational potential energy. Solution Increase of GPE = 300Nx<1.2m = 360d Note: We offen use the abbreviation ‘GPE’ or E, for gravitational potential energy. ear Pe ‘You use energy when you hold an object stationary in your ouisiretched hand. The biceps muscle of your arm is in a state of contraction, Energy must be supplied to keap tha muscles contracted. No work is done on the object because it doesn't move. The energy supplied eats the muscles and is transferred by heating to the surroundings. Work, energy and momentum Gravitational potential energy Gravitational potential energy transfers Every time you lft an object up, you do some work. Some of your muscles. transfer chemical energy from your muscles into gravitational potential energy of the object. Gravitational potential energy Is energy stored in an object because of Its position in the Earth's gravitational field, The force you need to lift, an object steadily is equal and opposite to the force of gravity on the cbject. Therefore, the upward force you need to apply 10 it is equal to its weight. For example, 4 force of B0N is needed to lift a box of weight SON. © When an object is moved up, its Figure 4 Using joules gravitational potential energy increases. The increase cf its gravitational potential energy is equal 10 the work done on it by the lifting force. © When an object moves down, its gravitational potential energy decreases. ‘Tho decroase of its gravitational potential onorgy is oqual to the work done by the force of gravity acting on it. ‘The work done when an object moves up or down depends on: 1 how far itis moved vertically (its change of height) 2 its weight. Using the formula W = Fx (work done = force applied x distance moved in the direction cf the force), we can therefore say: the change of its gravitational = its weight x its change of height potential energy (in joules) (in newtons) (inmetres) ‘@ Read the ‘Did you know?’ box. What happens to the energy supplied to the muscles to keep them contracted? Gravitational potential energy and mass ‘Astronauts on the Moon can lift objects much more easily than they can on the Earth. Thie is because, at their surfaces, the gravitational field strength of ‘the Moon is only about a sixth of the Earth's gravitational field strength. In P2.2.5, ‘Falling objects’, we saw that the weight of an object in newtons is equal to its mass x the gravitational field strength. Therefore, when an objects lifted or lowered, because its change of gravitational potential energy is equal to ts weight» its change of height: change of gravitational = mass x gravitational field x change of height potential energy {in J) (inko) strength (in Nikg) (in metres)[ Grvitational potentaleneray ‘We can write the word equation on the previous page using symbols: g, =mxgxh Where change of GPE in joules, J mm = massin kilograms, kg gravitational field strenath in newtons per kilogram, N/ka change in height in metres, m. Co Worked example A20kg object is raised through a height of 0.4m. Calculate the gain of gravitational potential energy of the object. The gravitational field strength of the Earth atts surface is 10N/kg, mass x gravitational field strength x height gain = 2.0kg x TON/Ka x 0.4m 8.0 Power and energy Power is the rato of transfor of enorgy. If energy & (in joules) is transferrod in tima t (in saconds): powor, P (in watts) = = 7 b_Awoightifior raises a 20kg metal bar through a height of 1.5m i Galcuaate the gain o' gravitational potential eneray. The gravitational field sirengih of the Earth at its surface is 1ON/kg. Ii. The bar's raised by the weightitter in 0.5 seconds. Calculata the Power of the weightiftar. 1 Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below. Each word can be usad mora than ona. decreases increases stays tho same ‘2 Whan a ball falls its gravitational potential energy b When a car travels along a level road, the gravitational potential energy ofthe cer... © When a child on a swing moves from one extreme to the opposite extreme, her gravitational potential €N€TQY sen INEM one 2 A student of weight 450N steps on a box of height 0.20m. ‘8 Caloulate the gain of gravitational potential energy of the student 'b Caloulate the work done by the student f she steps on and off the box 60 timas. 3 a Aweightitier raises a steal bar of mass 25g through a haight of 1.2m. Gelculate the change of gravitational potential energy of the bar. Tha gravitational field strength at the surface of the Earth is 10N/Ko. b The weightlifter thon drops the bar and it falls vertically to the ground. Assume air resistance is negiible. Whatiis the change of its gravitational potential energy in this fal? Activity Stepping up ‘Measure your mass in kilograms using floor scales, ‘Step on and off a sturdy box or low platform. ‘Measure the height of the box. © Use the formula change of GPE =m x g x hwhere g = 10N/kg to calculate how much potential energy you gained when you stepped on the box. Pay une) Smit oud Ce ds fee © The gravitational potential Cau uc Pe et ee ea Cee ued Pots ere dee ake ad Pe ety gravitational field strength x Cee eeWork, energy and momentum LPR} Kinetic energy (« Practical ee et uno of an object depend on? ree aes Cg et Cid Investigating kinetic energy ‘© The kinetic energy of an objact is the energy it has due to its motion. It epends on its mass and its speed. Sports scientists desion running shoes: @ toroduce the force of each impact when the runner's foot hits the ground @ toreturn as much kinetic energy as possible to each footin each Impact. Figure 1 Investigaing kineticeneray Figure 1 shows haw we can investigate how the kinetic energy of a ball depends on its speed. 1 The ballis released on a slope from a measured height above the foct of the slope. We can calculata the gravitational potential energy it loses from Its mass x gravitational field strength x its drop of height. This is equal to its gain of kinetic energy. 2 The ball is timed, using light gates, over a measured distanca between X and Y after the slope. © Why do light gates improve the quality of the data you can collect in, this investigation? — Figure 2 A sporte choo a Some of the kinatic energy of the runner's foot is wasted in each Impact. What Is this ‘Some sample measurements for a ball of mass 0.5kg are chown in tho table: energy transferred into? Helght drop to foot of slope (metres, m) cos | 010 | o16 | 020 Initial kinetic energy of ball (Joules, J) 025 | 050 | 080 | 100 Time to travel 1.0m from Xto Y (eeconde, 8) | 098 | 072 | 057 | 050 Speed (metresisecond, mis) 1.02, 2.00 Work out the spaed in each case. The first and last values have been worked Use cubber bands ‘oeatapult’ | gut for you. Gan you see a link between speed end the height drop? The a trolley along a horizontal rosults show that tho groator the height drop, the faster the speod is. So wo. funway. Find out how the can say that the kinatic energy of the ball increases if the speed increases. speed of tho trolley depends cre Ge caer The kinetic energy formula pulled back before the trolley fereleaced. For example, seg | THe table shows that when the height drop is inereased by four tmes trom 0.051 ae 10.0.20m, tho spood doubles. Tho height drop is diroctly proportional iotho doubled to double the peed. (sp2ed)®. Since the height crop is a measure of tha balls kinetic energy, we can Figure 1 shows howthe speed | 58Ythat the balls kinetic energy is directy proportional to the squere of ts speed. of ihe trolley can be measured. b Check the other measurements in the table to see if they ftthis rule.‘The exact link between the kinetic energy of an object and its speed is given by the equation: kinetic energy = (oules, J) %xmass x (kilograms, kg) spec? (meties/second, mis)? Worked example Calculate the kinetic energy of a vehicle of mass 500kg moving at a speed of 12s. Solution kinetic energy = '% X mass x speed? = 0.5 x 500kg x (12m/s|* = 380004. Kinetic energy recovery systems (KERS) in vehicles store energy when the vehicle brakes and use It later. In 2009, some Formula { racing cars were: fitted with a flywheel. The kinatic energy of the vahicle could be transferred to the flywhee! in braking and used later to boost the vehic'e's speed when overtaking. Other vehicles, including hybrid cars, use an electric generator to transfer kinetic energy into electrical energy, which is then stored in a battery, Using elastic potential energy ‘When you stretch a rubber band or a bowstring, the work you do is stored init as elastic potential energy. Figure 3 shows one way you can transfer elastic potential energy into kinotio onergy. ‘An object is elastic ift regains ite chape aiter being stretched or squashed. A rubber band is an example of an elastic object. the energy stored in an elastic object when work is done on itto change its shape. 1 Copy and complete a and b using the words below. elestic potential kinetic. _ gravitational potential A student on a trampoline falls on to the trampoline and rebounds. a Before she rebounds, the impact decraasas her ‘enargy to zero. b During the rebound, enargy changes into......... energy and seven OFOFQY. ‘@ Acatapuit is used to fre an object into the alt. Describe the energy transfers when the catapult i i stretched released. b An abject of weight 2.0N fired vertically upwards from a catapult reaches a maximum heicht of 5.0m. Calculate: cf gravitational potential energy of the object ‘netic eneray of the object whan it latt the catapult. Acar moving at a constant spead has 3600004 of kinetic energy. When the driver applies the brakes, the car stops in a distance of 100m. ‘a Caloulate the force that stops the vehicle, b The speed of the car was 30nV/s whan its kinatic energy was. 360000J. Caloulate its mass. ‘We can miite this word equation using symbols: Ea texmx? Where: dnatic energy in joules, J m= mass in kilograms, kg v= speed in mates/second, m/s. (QA Examiner's tip Don’ forgetto square the 9peed when calculating kinetic energy. This is a common mistake. Figure 3 Using alasic potential eneroy © The kinetic eneray of a Ch eats cul ests ® Kinetic energy (J) = % x mass (kg) x speed (m/s) oad Cee Ew Ce ested done on the object.Work, energy and momentum TTL imcs Momentum is important to anyone who plays a contact sport. In a game of Learning objectives rugby, a player with a lot of momentum is very difficult to stop. roe ‘The momentum of a moving object = mass x velocity. allel ‘So momentum has a size anda direction. eet “Tho unit of momentum is the kilogram metraisacond (kg mis). bse Wo can wte the word aquation above using symbole: p = m x v Ne ‘Whore: momentum of two objects p= momentum in kilograms metres/second, kgm/s mass in kilograms, kg v= speed in metres/second, mis. Peaks id Worked example Calculate the momentum of a sprinter of mass 50kg running at a velocity of 10m/s. Solution Momentum = mass x velocity = 50kg x 10m/s = 500kgmis, a Calculate the momentum of a 40kg parson running at 6mn/s. Investigating collisions ‘When two objacts collide, the momentum of each object 4. For two trolleys of the same mass, the changes. Figure 2 shows how to use a computer and velocity of troley A is halved by the impact. ‘a motion sensor to investigate a collision between two Tho combined mass after the collision is twice trolleys. the moving mass batore the collision. So the momentum (= mass x velocity) after the Trollay A is given a push so itcolicos with a stationary trolley B. The two tolleys stick together after the collision. eae ee a rey oc ey The computer gives the velocity of A belore the col 2 Fora single trolley pushed into a double and the velocity of both trolleys afterwards. trolley, the velocity of A is recuced to one- third, The combined mass efter the coll «What does each section ofthe velociy-time graph show? ee ee ven ee sagain tho momentum after the collision is the same as the momentum before the calision In both tests, tho total momentum is unchanged (12. is conserved) by the collision. This is an example of the conservation of momentum. It applies to any. system of objects provicad the system is a closed system, which means no resuitant force acts on it. Figure 2 Invesigating colisioneFigure 3 A ‘Shunt colision In general, the law of conservation of momentum states thet a closed system, the total momentum before an event is equal to the total momentum after the event. ‘We can use this law to predict what happens whenever objects ccllide or push each other apart in an explosion’. Momentum Is conserved in any collision or explosion provided no oxtornal forcas act on the objects. Worked example AO.5kg trolley A is pushed at a velocity of 1.2mjs into ¢ stationary trolley Boof mass 1.5kg as shown in Figure 4. The two trclleys stick to each cther after the impact Calculate: a the momentum of the 0.5kg tolley before the collision b the velocity of the two trolleys straight after the impact. Solution @ Momentum = mass x velocity = 0.5kg x 1.2m/s = 0.8kom/s. b The momentum after the Impact = the momentum before the impact = 0.6kgm/s (1.5kg + 0.5kg) x velocity after the impact = 0.6kg mis we velstyatertneimpact= 288 - 9g \ ait b Calculate the speed efter the collision if trolley Ahad a mass of 1.0kg. Sry Ad 4 Complete a and b using the words below: force mass momentum velocity a The momentum of a moving objoct is its x its b is conserved when objects coliice, provided no external acts. 2 a Galoulate the momentum of an &0kg rugby player running ata velocity of 5m/s. b An 800kg car moves with the same momentum as the rugby player in part a. Calculate the velocity of the car. 3 A 1000kg rall wagon moving ata Sms—v volosity of 6.0 m/s on a level track collides with a statonary 1500kg wagon. The two wagons move together aftor the collision. *000ko 1500k9 a Calculate the momentum of tha Figures 1000 kg wagon before the collision. b Show that the wagons move at a velocity of 2.0mn/s after the collision. CP ae Mavehicle crashes into the back of a line of cars, each car in turn ig ‘shunted’ into ‘the ona in front. Momentum. is transferred alono the line of cars to the one at the front. 1.2mve—+v o—+y = Figure 4 Worked axample Worked example ‘4.8000 kg truck moving at a velocity of 16m/s crashes into the back of a stationary 1000kg car. The two vehicles move together immedietely after the impact. Calculate their velocity. Solution Let v represent the velocity of the vehicles after the impact. momentum of the truck before the impact = 48000kgm/s momentum of car before impact = Om/s momentum of truck after impact = 3000ko xv ‘momentum of car after impact = 1000kg xv 2000 v + 1000 = 48000 +0 4000 v = 48000; v = 12m/s Oe nd Red anu Ld Oe ca) Mikes aac’ provided the objects are in a closed system so thatno eee a!Work, energy and momentum Explosions Ifyou are a skatobcarder, you will know thet the skateboard can shoot away I RSI from you when you jump offit tis momentum isin the opposite direction to SSE ene your own momentum. What can we say ebout the total momentum of objects ees ‘when they fly apart from each other? ek Practical ee Investigatit trolled explosi a CET OGIO Investigating a controlled explosion ; difforont epoods? Figura 1 shows controlled explosion using trolleys. When the trigger rod nrerernint tateppecy abot pings Dut end the walays rol (sing back) rom Ded each othor et “Tigger Figure 1 Investigating or mtteione Using trial and error, we can place blocks on the runway so the trolleys reach them at the eame time. This allows us to compare the speeds af the trolleys, ‘Some results are shown in Figure 2. Spoed af A Speed af Speed of A 5yoed af Figure 2 Using different masses © Did your results agree exactly with the ones above? I not, try to why. © Two single trolleys travel equal distances in the same time, This shows that they recoil at equal speeds. © A double trolley only travels half the distance that a single trolley does. Its speedis haif that of the single trolley, In each tast: 1 the mass of the trolley x the speed of the trolley is the same, and 2 they recoil in opposite directions. ‘So momentum has size and direction. The resulis show that the trolleys recoil with equal and opposite momentum. a Why dos a stationary rowing boat reccil when someone jumps off it?Conservation of momentum (3 In the trlley examples: @ momentum of A after the explosion = (mass of A x velocity of A) @ momentum of B after the explosion = (mass of B x velocity of B) @ total momentum before the explosion = 0 (because both trolleys were at rest). Using conservation of momentum gives: (mass of A x velocity of A) + (mass of B x velocity of B) = 0 Therefore (mass of A x velocity of A) = - (mass of B x velocity of B) ‘Tho minus eign after tho oqual sign tells us that tho momentum of Bie in the ‘opposite direction to the momentum of A. The equation tells us that A and B move apart with equal and opposite amounts of momentum, So the total momentum after the explosion is the same as befor @. Momentum in action When a shell ia fired from an artillery gun, the gun barrel recoils backwards, ‘The reecil of the gun barrel is slowed down by a spring, This lessens the backwards motion of the gua. b Inthe worked example, ifthe mass of the gun had been much greater, than 2000kg, why would the speed of the shell have been greater? Alun cee 1A 60kg skater and a 80kg skater standing in the middle of an ice rink push each other away. Copy and complete a toc using the words below: — force momentum velocity co a They move apart with equal and opposite. : b The 60kg skater moves away with a bigger......... than the other skater. ¢ They push each other with equal and opposite. . Figure 4 In Question 4, the 60kg skater moves away at 2.0m/s. Calculate: a her momentum, b the velocity of the othar skater. ‘A.600kg cannon recoils at a speed of 0.5m/s when 2 12kg cannan ball is fred from it. ‘a Caloulate the velocity of the cannon ball when it leaves the cannon. b Calculate the kinetic energy of: 1 the cannon ii the ball. Figure 3 An atiley gunin acton ec) Worked example ‘Anantilery gun of mass 2000kg fires a shell of mass 20kg at a velocity of 120m/s. Calculate the recoil velocity of ‘the gun. Solution Applying tho censervation of momentum gives: mass of gun * recoil volocity of gun = - (mass of shell x velocity of shell) Itwe let V represent the recoil velocity of the gun, 2000kg x V = ~(20ka x 120mm/s) = 2400ka m/s __, ve pooKg hems Se ear) Cuca Oo tend er ee nae ud with different speeds if De Ren Dre momentum is zero.Work, energy and momentum Impact forces Crumple zones at the front end and rear end of a car are designed to lessen ani RADA — the force of an impact. The force changes the momentum of the car. Se © !natfront-end impact, the momentum of the car is reduced. Ceara) © Ina cearend impact (where a vehicle Is struck from behind by another eta vehicle), the momentum ofthe cer is increased. How does the impact tore In both cases the effect of a orumple zone is to increase the impact time and CE tet ne) 8° lessen the impact force, ere Practical Cite ld CUCU Lo) Investigating impacts Trolley pusrec Meet We can test an Impact using a Se trolley and a brick, as shown in Figure 1. When the trollay hits the brick, the plasticineflatens on = impact, making the impact timo — longer. This is the key factor that Pastcing- reduces the impact force. | Figure 1 Investigating impacts r a iy berating undo a caving a good iow / ee fom Impact time Figure 2 A crash est. Carmakers est Let's sae why making the impact time longer reduces the impact force the design of a crumple zone by driving a a i remote contro! car into a brick wall. ‘Suppose a moving trolley hits another object and stops. The impact force on the trolley acts for a certain time (the Impact time) and causes it to stop. A soft pad on the front of th trolley would inarease the impact time and would allow Se Fonco the trolley to travel further before it stops. Tha momentum of the trolley would cnmmmmm> ——_belostovera longer time and its kinetic energy would be transfered over a groator distance. 1 The kinetic eneray of the trolley is transferred to the pad as work done by the impact force in squashing the pad. Figure 2 impact forca 2 Since work done = foros x distance, the impact forco is therefore roducad because the distanca is increased. The longer the impact time is, the more the impact force is reduced. !fwe know the impact time, we can calculate the impact force as follows: © From P2 1.2, since acceleration = change of velocity = time taken, we can work out the deceleration by dividing the change of velocity by the impact time © From P2 2.3, since force = mass x acceleration, we can now calculate the impact force by muliplying the rass of the trolley by the deceleration. The above method shows how much the impact force can be reduced by increasing the impact time. Car safety foaturas such as crumple zones ard 299 Did you know ...? Scientists at Oxford University ave developed new tahwelrtmatral tbat |e oee rane toate ance coun heinpastce, Srongand elastic ‘that bullets b Inacar crash, why does wearing a car seat belt reduce the impact force on tho woarer?ee Worked example bullet of mass 0.004 kg moving at a velocity of 99 mis is stopped by a bulletproof vest in 0.00035. Calculate a the deceleration and b the impact force. Solution ‘We sometimes express the effect of an impact an an object or person as a force to weight ratio. We call this tho g-foree, For example, a g-orce of 2g means the force onan object a Initial velocity of bullet = 90mm/s twice its weight. You would Final velocity of bullet = 0 experience a g-‘orce of Change of velocity = final velocity — initial velocity © about3-49 ona faligiound ride that whirs you round @ about 10g ina low-speed 0 - 90m/s = -90nvs (where the minus sign tells us the change of velocity is a decrease) ‘change of valocity Deceleraton = Sange-ofwele = -300000m/st car crash bb Using force = maze x acceleration’ impact force = 0.004 hg x © more than 80g in a high- =305000mle? = ~1200N speed car crash, You would be lucky to survive! © Calculate the impact foros if tho impact Two-vehicle collisions When two vehicies ccllide, they exert equal and apposite imoact forces on each other at the same time. The change of momentum of one vehicle is therefore equal and opposile to the change of mementum of the other vehicle, The total momentum of the two vehicles is the same after the impact as it was before the impact, so momentum is conserved — assuming no external forces act. For example, suppose a fast-moving truck runs into the back of a stationary car. The impact decelevates the truck and accelerates the car. Assuming the ‘truck's mass is graater than tha mass of the car, the truck lases momentum and the car gains momentum, Etre i eypmen moma ema ear eta eee Resta ere rete eee ree ee reales waup tnacoral te b Wo ts clot cold, ny out free on och or re a © When two vehicles collide, the vehicle with the. mass has a force of the impact depends greater change of velocity. eM en 2. ana0okg cr raeting at sms s stopped sce wren ne vakes | odontnbibalia ‘are applied. What deceleration and braking force is required to stop it [a5 inteon? 300? SSS b itveliceinpertatad been sopped ina colson sing ssiten | [aera own, opanatytetoceontwoukabonme gece: | (geal ‘8. A2000kg van moving at a velocity of 12nr/s crashes into the back of a ets stationary truck of mass 10000kg. Immediately after the impact, the two vehicles move together. 1 Show that the velocity of the van end the truck immediately after the impact was 2mis. b The impact lasted for 0.3 seconds. Calcviate the i deceleration of the = thelr total momentum le ii force of tho impact on tho van. Pe at OE) Pei ued CeJO How Sconce vons Work, onorgyand momentum a ‘When you travel in a car, you want to feel safe ifthe cars in a crash, In this UREN topic, we look at different car safety features that are designed to keep us sate Clunk click! When seat belts were frst introcuced, some car users claimed they should not ba forced by law to wear them. A very suocessful campaign was launched to convince car users to ‘belt up’ It included the catchy phrase ‘Clunk click every trip. As 2 result, deaths and injuries in road accidents fell significantly. A seat belt stops its wearer from continuing forwerds when the car suddenly stops. Someone without a sect belt would hit the windscreen in a ‘short sharp’ impact and suffer major injury. © The time taken to stop somecne in a car is longer if they are wearing a seat bolt than if they are not. So the decelerating force is reduced by wearing a seat bet © The seat belt acts across the chest so it spreads the force out. Without the seat belt, the force would act on the head when it hts the windscreen. @ Aseat belt ‘locks’ when in an impact. What would happen to the wearer if it didn't loc? Air bags Most naw cars are fitted with front air bags that protect the driver and the front passenger, Some new cars also have side air bags. These bags protect people in the car from an impact an the side of the car. In a car erash, an Figure 1 An airbag inaction inflated air bag spreads the force of an impact across the upper par of the body. It also increases the duration of the impact time. So the effest of the force is lessened compared with a seat belt. Child car seats Any baby or child in 2 car must be strapped in a child car seat. This aw applies to children up to 12 years old or up to 1.35 metres in height. Different ‘typos of child car seat must be used for babies up to 9 months old, infants up ‘to about 4 years old and children over 4, © Baby seats must face backwards. © Children under 4 years old should usually be in a child car seat fitted to 2 back seat. ‘The law was brought in to reduce deaths and serious injuries of children in cars. Before the law wes passed, dozens of children were killed and hundreds were seriously injured each year in car accidents. Many such accidents happened during the school run, The driver is responsible for making sure every child in thoir car is soatad safoly in a correct typo of coat. b Why are ordinary car seat belts unsafe for children? a A child carseatSafety costs eee ple zona Car makers need to eel cars. If their cars are too expensive, people won't buy them. Safety features adc to the cost of anew car. Some safety foatures (e.g. coat bolts} are required by law and some (e.g. side impact bars) are a With the help of your friends, find out what safety features are in new cars. Find ‘out if they are compulsory or optional. List the price (including tax) of each car. 'b Use your information to say if cheaper cars have fewor safety foaturos than moro expensive cars, impact bars Figure 9 Car sefaty features ‘1 Why are rear-facing oar seats for babies safer than front-facing seats? 2 Explain why an inflated air bag in front of a car user reduces the force on auserin a ‘head-on’ crash. 8 Acar crashed into a lorry that was crossing a busy road. The speed limit ‘onthe road was 60 miles per hour (27 m/s). Figure 4 Arcad accident ‘The following measurements were made by police oificers at the scene ofaroad crash: ¢ The car and lorry ended up 6m from the point of impact. @ The car's mass was 750kg and the lorry's mass was 2150kg. ‘The speed of a vehicle for a braking distance of 6m is 9's. a Use this speed to calculate the momentum of the car and the lorry immediately atter the impact b Use conservation of momentum to calculate the velocity of the car immediately before the collision. © Was the car travelling aver the speed limit before the crash? cramp zone Clepsible ‘staonng whoo. ro Brakes are very important vehicle safety features! Flywheel brakes can transfer large amounts of energy very quickly and vory officiently, unlike ordinary friction brakes which can overheat and wear away. Electric brakes (seo 23.3) waste energy cue to the heating effect of the electric current. a State and explain the advantages of fitting flywheel brakes in addition to friction brakes in a racing cor. Explain why flywheel brakes would be better than electric brakes for additional braking on a racing car. © Seat belts and air bags Pe ha nteet cd Coed Te ue fea cumple zones ‘give way’ in Patan hi kus eee of momentum to find the speed of a car before an otRaul deuce ul aes eae ed Summary questions oO 4a Copy and complete i and ii using the words below. Each term can be used once, twice or not at all equalto —grealerthan less than When a braking force acts on a vehicle and slows it down, I the work done by the force is the energy transferred from the object, the kinetic energy after the brakes have been applied is, the Kinaic energy before they were appliod. b Astudent pushes a trolley of weight 150N up a slope of length 20m. The slope is 1.2m high. i Calculate the gravitational potential energy gained by the trolley. The student pushed the trolley up the slope with a force of 11 N. Show that the work done by the student was 220J. Give one reason why all the work cone by the studont was not transferred to the trolley as gravitational potential eneray. 2) A 700kg car moving at 20 m/s is stoppad in a distance of ‘80m when the brakes are applied. @ Show that the kinetic energy of the car at 20m/s 's 440000J. b Calculate the braking force on the car. 3 A student of mass 40kg standing at rest on a skateboard ‘of mass 2.0kg jumps off the skateboard at a speed of 0.20mvs. Calculate: a the momentum of the student b the recoil velocity af the skateboard. @ Acar bumper is designed not to bend in impacts at, less than 4 mys. Itwas fitted to a car of mass 900kg and tested by driving the car into a wall at 4m/s. The time of impact was measured and found to be 1.8. ‘Show that the deceleration of the car was 2.2 mist. a Copy and complete i and ii using the words below. Each term can be used once, twice or not atall. elastic potential energy gravitational potential energy An object is catapulted from a catapult. I Is stored in the catapult when itis stretched. The object has when it leaves the catapult, b Asione of mass 0.015kg is calapulted into the air and itreaches a height of 20m befora it descends and hits the ground some distance away. i Calculate the increase of gravitational potential energy of the stone when it reached Its maximurn height (g = 40N/kg). i State two reasons why the catapult stored more energy than that calculated in part b i? kinetic energy (FA 1200kg rail wagon moving ata velocity of .0mm/s on a level track collides with a stationary wagon of mass 8009. The 1200 truck Is slowed dawn te 2 vet of {Oma as a resut of the collision, ame—-ims 0? ‘2009 200 1g ‘@ Caloulate the momentum of the 1200kg wagon 1 before tha collision after the collision. b Calculate the momentum, and the velocity of the 800kg wagen after the collision. ¢ Caloulate the kinetic energy of: the 1200ka wagon before the collision i the 1200kg wagon after the collision tha 800kg wagon after the collision 4d Givoa reasen why the total kinotio energy after tho colision is not equal to the total kinetic energy before the collision,End of chapter questions AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 1 a Copy and complete the following sentences using, the list of words and phrases below. Each one can be used ones. kinotic onergy work —_powor gravitational potential energy Energy is transferred when iedore. o is the energy that an objact has by virtue of lis position in a gravitational field, () ‘of an object doponds on its mass and o agiventime. (1) b Explain why a metgorite ‘burns up’ as it enters the Earth's atmosphoro. Uso idoas about work and eneray. @ 2) The diagram shows three cars, A, B and C, travelling along a straight, level road. A Speed 40m/s tn/s toms 160049 a Calculate the momentum of each of the vehicles and explain which one has the greatest momentum. Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer and give the unit. @ b Car, travelling at 15m/s, crashes into the back of car ‘Awhen car A is stationary. The cars move together after the ccllisian. [Calculate the total momentum of the cars just after the collision w ji Calculate the speed of the two cars just after the collision. @ Explain, using ideas about momentum changes, how ‘tho crumple zone at the front of car C may reduce the chance of injury to the occupants during the collision, @ 3) When ploughing a field a horse and plough move 170m and the horse pulls with a force of 800N. ‘a Calculate the work done by tha horse. Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how ‘you work out your answer and give the unit. 8) b i The horse takes 3 minutes to plough 170m. Calculate the power of the horse. ‘Write down the equation you usa. Show clearly how you work out your answer and give the unit. (3) Calculate the kinetic energy of the horse. ‘Write down the equation you usa. Show clearly how you work out your answer and give the unit Mass of horse = 960 kg @) © Explain why the horse has to do more work if the field slopes uphill than it would do on level ground. (2) @ The picture shows a catapult When a force is applied to the stone, work ie done in stretching the elastic and the stone moves backwards. ‘@ Calculate the work done if the average force applied to tha stone Is 20N, The force moves it backwards (045m, Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer and give the unit. (3) b Calculate the maximum speed of the stone after the catapults released. The mass of the stone is 0.049kg. ‘Assume all the work dore is transferred to the stone as kinetic energy whan the catapult is ralaased. ‘Write down the equation you use. Show clearly ow you werk out your answer and give the unit. @) cPeru Kee) oe Ce eu Beso kau ctu hace Celene eld Oe ued etic ‘Take aff a woolly jumper and listen out! You can hear it crackle as tiny sparks from static electricity are created. It the room is dark, you can even see the sparks. You can get charged up just by sit ing in a plastic chair. this, happens, you may feel a slight shock from statc electricity when you stand up. ree © lestron @ Proton @ Noutron Current electricity Pater etches (say Have you ever stuck a balloon on a calling? All you need to de is to rub the balloon on your clothing before you touch it on the ceiling. The rubbing action charges the balloon with static electricity. in other words, the balloon becomes: electrically charged. Tha charge on the balloon attracts it to the ceiling, ‘Why doos a TV screen crackle when you switch it on? Perc The Van de Graaff generator ‘Aan de Graaff generator can make your hair stand on end. The dome charges up when the generator is switched on, Massive sparks are produced if the charge on tha dome builds up too much. Meal ‘ome cath Fetoad {inet holder) Figure 1 Tho Van de Graaf gonorator ‘The Van de Graatt generator charges up because: = the belt rubs against a felt pad and becomes charged = the belt carries the charge onto an insulated metal dome ~ sparks are produced when the dome can no longer hold any more charge. ‘© Why should you keop away from a Van de Graaff gonoraior? Inside the atom Tho protons and neutrons make up the nuclous of the atom. Electrons move about in the space round the nucleus, © A proton has a positive charge. @ An electron has an equal negative charge. © Aneutron is uncharged. Anuncharged atom has equal numbers of electrons and protons, Only electrons: ‘can be transfarred'to or from an atom. A charged atom is raferrad to 2s an ion. 1 Adding electrons to an uncharged atom makes it negative (because the atom then has more electrons than protons). 2 Removing electrons from an uncharged atom makes it positive (because the atom has fewar electrons than protons). a 2 Insidean stomCee Charging by friction ‘coms become raing OY - postive asa ‘Some insulators become charged by rubbing tham with a dry cloth. sectors cane resutaflesrg ‘© Rubbing a polythene rod with a dry cloth transfers alactrons to tha surface = byrd atoms of the fod from the cloth. So the polyihene rod becomes negalively N charged. €@ Rubbing a perspox rod with a cry cloth tranefors oloctrons from the surface atoms of he rod on to the cloth. So the perspex rod becomes positively. @%% charged. oh yy con _ b Glass ia charged positively when ita rubbed with a oloth. Does giass gain or lose electrons when itis charged? toms bevome econs n siiveas 2 ined Err fata eohg By eloh lextors The force between two charged objects Two charged objects exert a forca an each other. Figure 4 shows how you can investigate this force. © what happens? © Dry oath Figure 3 Charging ty friction Figure 4 The law cf force for charges Your results in the experiment above should show that: © two objects with the same type of charge (2. like charges) repel each other © two objects with different types of charge (12. unlike charges) attract each other. Like charges repel. Unlike charges attract. © What force keeps the electrons inside an atom? © Certain insulating materials IC ate ae ean Oe ra used more than once. ‘hon objects become fo from loses gains Cd ‘a When a polythene rod is charged using a dry oloth, it becomes negative ed because it... slactrons that transfer... it Deny b When a perspex rod is charaed using a dry cloth, it becomes positive Cee hue tty because it. Cee 2 When rubbed with a dry cloth, perspex becomes positively charged. Se tccued Polythone and obonite become nogatively charged. Stato whether or not Dey eis tu) attraction or repulsion takes place when: Cs ‘a perspex rod is held near a polythene rod ba perspex rod is hald near an ebonite rod er eta ¢ apolythene rod is held near an ebonite rod. charges attract.Tahoe See eens Cus eu between a battery and a cell? ete ia ieee Pout Cerca) from the charge flow and the Current electricity Petite eel ty An lectric torch can be very useful in ‘a power cut at night But it needs to be checked to make sure it works. Figure 1 shows what is inside a torch. The circuit shows how the torch bulb is connected 10 fring the switch and the two cells. Accrouit diagram shows us how the components in a circuit are connected together. Each component has its own symbol. Figure 2 shows the symbols for some of the components you will mact in this course. The function of each component is also described. You need to recognise these symbols and Slide switeh Phase case Bub (QV). Glass cover Figure 1 An electric torch remember what each component is used for— otherwise you'll gel mixed up in. your exams. More importantly, you could get a big shock if you mix them up! A cel is nacossaryto push electrons arourd a completo clout Abatory consists of wo er mere cells ‘Afed resistor imits the current in acca A cutoh enebbe the curentina ‘ecu to be switched on of ‘Avatable resstoralows the current to be vate, Anindicatoris designed to emit Fight asa slona when a current passes lvough kar as 41h ‘Alusels designed to melt and ‘meretere ‘oreak te cut the fouree euch at abl oo tenaveni cura trugh ft oetar hana A dose alowscureretreughin certain ant one decton en ‘Aneser's desonedto taster avian ca cee 46 —§ __inbigvinins tet hees eter eneny teat he ‘hough it Anammeer is used to measure leat curren ‘Avolimeter is used to measure potential ditference (ce vltage). Electric current ‘An electric current is a flow of charge. When an electric torch is on, millions, of electrons pass through the torch bulb and through the call every sacond. Each eleotran carries @ negative charge. Meta's contain lots of electrons that move about freely between the positively charged metel ions. These electrons if stop the ions moving away from each cther. The electrons pass through the bbulb because its filament is mace of a metal. Tha slectrons transfer energy from the cell to tha torch bulb. ‘The size of an electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge. This is the flow of charge per second. The greater the number of electrons that pass ‘through a component, the bigger the current passing through it. Figure 2 Components and symbols ‘CO links ‘See P2 4.4 for two other symbols you need io know.Electric charge is measured in coulombs (C). Electric current is measured in amperes (A) sometimas abbraviated as ‘amps’ An electric current of 1 ampere ie a rate of flow of charge of 1 coulomb per second, Ifa certain amaunt of charge flows steadily through a wire or a component in a certain time, charge flow in coulombs the current in amperes = Te taken in seconds ‘We can write the equation above using symbols as ‘ollows: Where: = current in amperes, A Q = charge in coulombs, C ima taken in seconds, s Worked example A charge of 8.0 passes through a bulb in 4.0 seconds. Caloulate the current through the bulb. Solution Q_80c \F= T= aos = 208 Circuit tests Connact a variable rasistor in series with " the torch bulb and a cell, as shown in Figure 8. oi ® Figure 6 Using a variable resistor Adjust the slider of the variable resistor. This altors tho amount of current flowing through the bulb and therefore affects its biighinass. © In Figure 6, the torch bulb goes dim when the slider is moved one ‘way. What happens if the slider is moved kack again? ‘© What happens if you include a diode in the circuit? ‘11 Name the numbered components in the cirouit diagram in Figure 7. 2 @ Redraw the circuit diagram in Question’ with a diode in place of the switch so it allows current through. b What further component would you need Figure 7 inthis circuit to alter the currant in it? 8 a Whatis a lightemitting diode? b Whatis a variable resistor used for? call aria Ete ‘You would damage a portable radio if you put the batteries in the wrong way round, unless a ciode is in series with the battery. The cicde only allows current through when itis connected as shown in Figure 6. >) iia Figure § Using a diode € Would the radio in Figure 5 work if the diode was tured round in the circuit? ond Po boned Fe ued Cee Teac) oud © Abattery consists of two Se etre Coed Caer eck) erated CeeSug Posie kui ei kd ued Reon Deeg) tho current in a resistor? Worked example ‘Tho onorgy transferred to a bulb is 24J when 80 of charge passes through it. Calculate the potential citterence across the bulb. Solution ‘Ammeters are always connected in series and voltmeters are always conneoted in parallel. Current electricity Resistance &) Ammeters and voltmeters Look at the circuit in Figure 1. The battery forces elections to pass through the ammetor andthe bulb. ® ® ¢ Tho ammotor moasures the current @ ‘through the torch bulb. tis connected Figure 1 Using an ammeter and a in series with the bulb so the current volmetor through them is the same. Tha ammeter reading gives the current in ‘amperes (or milliamperes (mA) for small currents, where 1mA = 0.001). © The voltmeter measures the potential difference (pd) across the torch bulb. ‘This is the amount of work done or energy transforrad to the bulb by each coulomb of charge that passes through it. The unit of potential citierence is the volt (V). We sometimes use the word ‘voltage’ for potential difference. © The voltmeter is connected in parallel with the torch bulb so it measures the pd across it. The voltmeter reading gives the pd in volts (V). When charge flows steadily through a component, the potential difference —_ work done in joules across the component in volts ~ charge in coulombs ‘We can write the equation above using symbols as: work done or energy transferred charge in coulombs, C. Q Electrons passing through a torch bulb have to push their way through lots of vibrating ions in the metal filament. The ions resist the passage of electrons through tha torch bulb. We define the resistance of an slectrical component as: potential difference (volts) Resistance (ohms) current (amperes) ‘The unit of resistance is the ohm. The symbol for the ohm is the Greek letter (2 (omega). Note that a resistor in a circuit limits the current. For a given pd, the larger the resistance of a rasistor, the smaller the currant is. ‘We can write the definition above as: R He Where: R= resistance (ohms) V= potential difference (volts) ‘current (amperes).etc Investigating the resistance of a wire Does the resistance of a wire change when the current through it Is changed? Figure 2 shows how we can use a varlable resistor to change the current through a wire. Make your own measurements and use them to plot a current-potential difference graph like the ‘one in Figure 2. © Discuss how your measurements compare with the cnes from the table used to piot the graph in Figure 2. © Calculate the resistance of the wire you tested, Current (A) 0 | 005 | 0.10 | 015 | 020 Potential difference vy | 0 | 050| 100 | +50 | 200 Figure 2 Investigating the resistance ofa wire 28 Circut diagram b A current- potential cfference graph fora wre b Calculate the rasistance of the wire that gave the results in the practical table. Current-potential difference graphs The graph in Figure 2 is a straight line through the origin. This means that the current is ditectly proportional to the potential difference. In other words, the resistance (= pd + current) is constant. This was first discovered for a wire at constant temperature by Georg Ohm and is known as Ohm's law: ‘The current through a resistor at constant temperature Proportional to the potential difference across the resistor. We say 2 wirois an ohmic conductor because its resistance is constant. AS ‘shown in Figure 3, reversing the pd makes no difference to the shape of the line, The resistance is the same whichever drection the current is in. tly. 1 Gopy and complete a and b using the words below. Each word can be usad once, twice or not at all decreases increases reverses stays the same Ifthe current through a resistor is decreased, the pd across the resistor bb Ifthe current through a resistor is reversed, the pd across the resistor and the rasistance of the resistor... 2 Calculate the missing value in each Ine of the table, using the equation V = TR ora rearrangement of i. Resistor | Current(a) | Potential arference(v) | Resistance (11) wW 20 120 x 40 20 Y 6a 3.0 Bs (Curent @) itferancs Figure 8 A current-potential diference ‘graph for a resistor ey tee Pree nl Creed CRU eo) Grr ukecu © Resistance (in ohms) = Potential difference (volts) EToukcusoc) ce Cece ued Oued, Cea kd Peek eee es ‘© Reversing the current Crom at reverses the pd across It.‘What happens to the ed Poon eed ed See al on the potential difference da Cio resistance of a thermistor ued and of an LDR as the light end ures A) od Figure 1A current potential diference gaph fora flemant bub cuentas pd Figure 2 A curreni-potential diference ph fora diads Current electricity More current-potential difference Haye you ever switched a light bulb on only to hear it ‘pop’ and fail? Electrical appliances can fail at vary inconverient times. Most electrical failures are because too much current passes through a component in the appliance. Investigating different components We can use the circuit in Figure 2 on the previous page to find outif the resistance of a component depends on the current. We can also see if reversing the component in the circuit has any effect. ‘Make your own measurements using 4 resistor, a filament bulb and a diode. Plot your measurements on a current-potential difference graph. Plot the ‘reverse’ measurements on the negative section of each axis. ‘© Why can you use a line graph to display your data? (See H3 Using cata) Using current-potential difference graphs A filament bulb Figure 1 shows the graph for torch bulb (.e. a low-voltage filament bulb}. © The line eurves away from the current axis. So the currentis not directly proportional to the potential gifterence. The filament bulb is anon-ohmic conductor. @ Tha resistance (= potential differanca/current} increases as the current increases. So the resistance of a filament bulb increases as the filament ‘temperature increases. The resistance of the metal filament increases as its tomperature increases. This is because the ions in the metal filament vibrate more as the temperature incteases. So they resist the passage of the elections through the filament more. ‘© Reversing the potential difference makes no difference to the shape of the curva. The resistance is the same for the same current, regardless of its direction. The diode Look at Figure 2, a graph for a dioda. @ In the ‘forward’ direction, the line curves towards the current axis. So the current is not directly proportional ‘o the potential difference. A diode is not an ohmic conductor. @ In the reverse direction, the current is negligible. So iis resistance in the reverse direction is much higher than in the forward direction, Noto that a light omitting diodo {LED) omits light whon a curront passos through it in the forward direction.Gi Gerace Thermistors and light-dependent ‘When a light bulb fails, resistors (LDRs) ~ itusually happens when you switch it on. Because resistance is low when the bul is off, a large current passes dependent resistor. The resistance of an through itwhen you switch i LDR depends on how much light is on it. on. It the current is too large, Test a thermistor and then an LDR in series bbuins the filament out. with @ battery and an ammeter. Figure 3 a A thermistor ard its cirait symocl b An LOR ‘© What did you find out about each Se eee component tested? We use thermistors and LDRs in sensor circuits, A thormistor is a temporaturo: Current-potential difference graphs for a thermistor and an LDR For a thermistor, Figure 4 shows the currenpotertial difference graph at two difforont temporaturos. @ Atconstant temperature, the ling is straight so its resistance is constant Ifthe temperature is increased, its resistance decreases. ’ rmtadiane ‘Curent For a light-dependent resistor, Figure 5 shows the current-potential Figure 4 Thenristor graph difference graph in bright ght and in dim light. © What does the graph tell us about an LDP’s resistance ifthe light intensity is constant? if the light intensity is increased, what happens to the resistance of the ght ug LDR? 1 Copy and complete sentences ato d using the words bel diode filament bulb resistor thermistor a The resistance of a decreases as its temperature increases, 0 Povetial cisrence b The resistance of a........ depends on which way round itis Figure § LDR graph connected in a circuit. The resistance of a........ ncraasas as the current through it eae TE Key points | 2 A thermistor is connected in series, ery with an ammeter and a 3.0 battery, ee i 5 shown. Cuenta te AL 15°C, the current through the thermistor is 0.2 and the potential difference aaross itis 3.0V. Calculate its rasistance at this temperature, Leo b Stale and exolain what happens to the ammeter reading if the Cee uy thormister’s tamporaturo is increased. ed Figure 6 8 The thermistor in Figure 6 is replaced by « light dependent resistor ‘© LDR: resistance decreases (LDR). State and explain what happens to the ammeter reading when ifthe light intensity on it the LDR is covered. odCurrent electricity Series circuits Circuit rules In the torch circuit in Figure 1, the bulb, the cell and the switch are connected in series with each other. The sme number of elecvons passes through each component avery second. So the same current passes through each ‘component. Learning objectives © What can we say about the current and potential Ce eke aa) eed ‘The same current passes through components in series with each other. re) ee de ey Ifthe current through the bulb is 0.12 A, what is the current through the eed cell? © What can we say about the etek eee) Oecd In Figure 2, each electron trom the cell passes through two bulbs. The electrons are pushed through each bull by the call. The potential difference (or voltage) o' the call isa measure of the energy transferred from the call by each electron that passes through it Since each electron in the circuit in Figure 2 goes through doth bulbs, the potential difference of the call is shared sane between the bulbs. This rule applies to any series circuit. ‘The total potential difference of the voltage eupply in a series circuitis a shared between the components. etesfons b InFigure 2, if the potential difference of the cell is 1.2 and the potential difference across one bull is 0.8, what is the potential difference across the other bulb? Figure 1A torch bub circuit Cells in series @ @ \What happens i wo uso two or more cells in serie ina circuit? Provided we Figure? Bus in series Connect the cells 50 they act inthe same direction, eacn electron gets a push from each cell So an electron would get the came push from a battery of three 1.5V cells in series as it would from a single 4.5 V cell. In other words, provided the calls act in the same direction: ‘The total potential difference of cells in series Is the sum of the potential difference of oach coll. Gr Investigating potential differences in a series circuit Figure 3 shows how to test the potental difference rule for a series circuit. The circuit ona [a omae) | cannemrmetentmcmaate bulb y, (volts) | V, (volts) readings change when we alter the current. val 4H sa | es fen) | See ee 6 @ How do they compare with the data in im 09 08 ‘Table 1? Figure 3 Voltage testsOGRE ‘The measurements in the table show that the voltmeter readings for each setting add up to 1.5V. This is the potential difference of the cell. The share of the cell's potential difference across each component depends on the setting of tho variable resistor. © What would voltmeter V,read if voltmeter V, showed 0.4V? The resistance rule for components in series In Figure 2, suppose the current through the bulb is 0.1 Awhen the bulb Using deta from Table 1: @ the resistance of the bulo would then be 90 (= 0.9V+0.1A), © the resistance of the variable resistor at this setting would be 62 (06V+014). Hfwe replaced these two components by a single resistor, what should its resistance be for the same current of 0:1 A? We can caleulate this because we know the potential difference across it would be 1.5V (from the cell). So the resistance would need to be 15.2 (= 1.6V 0.1 A). This is the sum of the resistance of the two components. The rule appiies to any serias circuit. The total resistance of components in series is equal to the sum of the resistance of each component. What is the total resistance of a 20 resistor in series with a 302 resistor? SC Ub A Coed 4 Copy and complete a and b using the words below. Each word can be used once, twice or notat all. greater than less than the same as For the circuit in Figure 5: The current through the battery is van th currant through resistor P. b The potential difference across resistor Q is the potential differance across the battery. A1.6V coll is connocted to 23.00. resistor and 2.092 resistor in series with each other. Wo LS Vc iI 702 ‘(ea 20 Figure 5 Draw the circuit diagram for this arrangement. b Calculate: 1 the total resistance of the two resistors the current through the resiatore. For the circ: a Caloulate: 1 the total resistance of the two resistors the total potential difference of the two cells. b Show that the current through the battery is 0.25. © Galoulate the potential difference across each resistor. in Question 1, each cell has a potential difference of 1.5V. Re = = Total resistence = A + Figure 4 Resistors in soioe OWE Remamber thatin a series Gircut the same current passes through all tho components, rc ues ST) Cee enay Se ey differences gives the total eed toca Gives the total resistance of ee © For cells In series, acting outst Ce oad Can De ere’‘What can we say about the Cec et Cait Potential differences across Pic ue) erg Peete a Feeney Pee etc) errr ‘A bypass isa parallel route. A heart bypass is another route forthe flow of blood. A road bypass is a road that passes a town contro insioad of going through it. For components in parallel, charge flows seperately through each component. The total flow of charge is the sum of the flow through each component. Figure 2 Componerte in parallol Current electricity Parallel circuits Investigating parallel circuits ga} __| earenisnoeierteen ae ee eae Cheenti eaitseenaes i secrete real Rien Taea Sonar eS current through each component. Figure 1 At junction Set up your own circuit and collect your data. ‘© How do your measurements compare with the ones for different settings of the variable resistor shown in Table 1 below? © Discuss if your own measurements show the same pattern. Look at the sample data below. wholes ‘nmeerA(a) [Armee ae) | Annetera,a) | 050 030 om 020 020 ow | ove ove oo | In each case, the reading of ammeter A, is equal to the sum of the readings of ammeters A, and A,. This shows that the current through the cell is equal to sum of the currents through the two bulbs. This rule applies wherever components are in parallal. ‘The total current through the whole circuit is the sum of the currents through the separate components. Potential difference in a parallel circuit Figure 2 shows two resisters X and Y in parallel with each other. A voltmeter is connectad across each resistor. The voltmeter across resistor X shows the ‘same reading as the voltmeter across resister Y. This is because each electron from the cell either passes through X or through Y. So it delivers the same amount of energy from the cell, whichever resistor It goes tough. In other words: For components in parallel, the potential difference across each componentis the same.ee Calculations on parallel circuits Components in parallel have the same potential difference across them. ‘The current through each component depends on the resistance of the ‘component. © The bigger the resistance of the component, the smeller the current through it, The resistor which has the largest resistance passes the smallest current. We can calculate the current using the equation: potential differance (volts) Tesisiance (ohms) ‘current (amperes) Worked example ‘The circuit diagram snows three resistors R, connected in parallel to a 6V battery. 9,R, = 2Qan0 R, ev Calculate f--4 a the currant through aach resistor 4 bb the currant through the battary — ke Solution i 6A 4 ou 3A Figure 3 41 Copy anc complete a anc b using the words below: currant potential difference Components in parallal with each othar have the sama » For components in parallel, each component has a diferent 2. A1.5V coll is connected across a 30 resistor in parallel with a 62 resistor. a Draw the circuit diagram for ths ecul b Show that the curent through: 1 the BQresistoris 0.50A Wi the GI2resistors 0.254. lca ar cara ae oe fo ~ 4 3 The circuit diagram shows three resistors R, = 20,R, = 3Q.and ‘0. connected to each other Figure — in parallel and to a 6V battery. Calculate: a the current through each resistor bb the current through the battery. een cnc Suc) Ce ata Ceo! SE ol Cee cd its current is. ead ee kuteel acl Pa Sere as Caan) Peo ty rad Co) Stee) Porc)Current electricity: P2 4.1-P2 4.6 Summary questions oO 1 Sketch a circuit diagram to show: a torch bulb, a cell and a diode connects that the torch bulb is on series so b avvariable resistor, two cells in serias and a torch bulb ‘whose brightness can be varied by adjusting the variable rasistor. 2 Match each component in the list to each statament a to 4 that desoribes it. Giode fllament bulb resistor thermistor a Its resistance increases if the current through it increases. b The current through itis proportional to the potential differance across it. ¢ Its rasitance decreases if its temperature is increased. d ts rasistance depends on which way round itis connected in a circuit. 3a Sketch a circuit diagram to show two resistors P and Q connected in series to a battery of two cells in series with each ather bb Intho circuit in part a, resistor P has a resistanco of 40, resistor Q has a resistance of 242 and each cell has a potential cfference of 1.5V., Calculate: 1 the total potential difference of the two calls the total resistance of the two resistors the current in the circuit iv the potential difference across each resistor. @ a Sketch a circuit diagram to show two resistors Rand S in parallel with each other connected to a single cell b inthe circut in part a, resistor R has a resistance of 20, resistor S has a resistance of 42 and the cell has a potential difference of 2V. Calculate: [the current through resistor R the ourrent through resistor S the ourrent through the cell in the circuit. 5) Copy and complete a and b using the phrases below. Each option can be used once, twice or notat all. aitferent from equal 10 a For two components X and Y in s differance across X is usually difference across Y. b Fortwo components X and Y in parallel, the potential difference across X is the potential difference across ¥. , the potential the potontal Figure 1 shows a light-dependent resistor is series with a 20082 resistor, a 3.0 battery and an ammeter. 8 a —— ‘os Lor 200, Figure + a With the LDR in daylight, the ammeter reads 0.010. 1 Calculate the potential dtference across the 20082 resistor whon the current through itis O.010A. Show thet the potential difference across the LDR. is 1.0V when the ammeter reads 0.0104. b Ifthe LDR is then covered, explain whethar the ammeter reading inoreases or decreases or stays the same. In Figure 1 in Question 6, the LDR is replaced by a 1000 resistor and a voltmeter connected in parallel with this, rosistor. ‘@ Drew the circuit diagram for thie cirouit. b Calculate: tho total resistance of the two resistors in the o'rcuit the current through the ammeter the voltmeter reading iv the potential differance across the 2000 resistor. Figure 2 shows a light-emitting diode (LED) in series with a resistor and a 3.0V battery. aov Pt = 1 10008 Figure 2 a The LED in the circuit emits ight. The potential difforonco across it whon it emits light is 0.6 V. i Explain why the potential difference across the 100022 resistor is 2.4V. Calculate the current in the circuit. b Iftho LED in the circuit is reversed, what would bo the current in the circuit? Give a reason for your answer. State and explain how the rasistance ofa filament bulb changes when the current through the flament is increased. TH]AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 1 A plastic rod is rubbed with a dry cloth a Explain how tha rod bacames negativaly charged. (3) b What charge is left on the cloth? a) ¢ What happens if the negatively charged rod is brought clase to another nagativaly charged rod? (t) 2 a Copy and complete the table cf circuit symbols and ‘thelr names. o Cireult symbol Name —o— ' uw ammeter = Ww LR wv b Copy and complete the following sentances using the ist of words and phrases below. Each word can be used onca, more than once er not at al energy transferred charge resistance voltage Electric current is a flow of ‘The potential cifference between two points in a circuit isthe per unit of that passas between the points. ‘The greater the the lower the current for a given potential difforenca, 4) 8 Complete the following caloulations. Write down the ‘equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer and give the unit. ey {| A on x a ea ai Calculate the potential difference between A and B. a Tho potential difrence across the 150 resistor is5¥. Celeuate the potontalciorence cross the 120 resistor. a b © Calculate the resistance of the resistorlaballod R. (2) Calculate the charge that flows through resistor R in End of chapter questions i Calculate the combined resistance of the 122 and the 152 resistors in series. ) Caloulate the ourrant that flows through the circu atx. @ Iii Calculate the current flowing through the circuit aty. « 2 minutes, @) Caloulate the work done (energy transferred) by the cell if the total charge that has flowed through itis 30006. @ ‘Sketch and label a graph of current against potential difference for a diode, @ ‘Tho graph of current against potential differonce for 2 filament bulb is shown. Counertin amos 3.08, > Ponta diferane invols 1 i Calculate the potential difference when the resisiance ofthe flament bub is 20 when the current is 1.6. Write down the equation you use. ‘Show clearly how you work out your answer and give the unit ® ii Calculate the resistance at a potential difference of 12V. Write down the equation you use, Show loarly how you work out your answor and give ‘the unit. 8) In this question you wil be assessed an using good English, organising information cfeerly anc using ‘spocialist forma whoro appropriata. Exolain the change in esistance ofthe flarment bulb in terms of ions and electrons. [H] 6)Ru ead Beet hae Cur) etd kad oa kate) Peete lua et ee aed Sc kre) Geers re ra Teelecnalcieuicd frequency of an altemating current? rt} Figure 1 Maine voltage v ime The oscilloscope We use an oscillascape ta show how an alterneting potential difference (pd) changes wih time. 41 Connect a signal generator to an oscilloscope, ‘as shown in Figure 2 Mains electricity PN Rl in aes The battery in a torch makes the current to go round the circuit in one direction only. We say the current in the circuit is a direct current (dc) because itis in one direction only. ‘When you switc” a light on at home, you use alternating current (ac) because mains electricity is an ac supply. An alternating current repeatedly reverses its direction. It flows one way then the opposite way in successive cycles. Its frequency is the number cf cycles it passes through each second. In the UK, the mains frequency is 50 cyclas per second (or 50 Hz). A light bulb ‘works just as well at this trequenoy as it would with a direct current. @_ Why would a much lower frequency than 50Hz be unsuitable for a light bulb? Mains circuits Every mains circuit has a live wire and a neutral wire, Tho current through mains appliance altematas. That's because the mains supply provides an alternating potential difference between the two wires. ‘The neutral wire is earthed at the local substation. The potential difference between the live wire and ‘earth’ is usually referred to as the ‘potential’ or voltage of the live wire, The live wira is dangerous because its voltage repeatecly changes from + to—and back every cycle. It reaches over 300V in each direction, as shown in Figure 1. ‘Signal generator ~ The trace on the oscilloscope screen shows electrical waves. They are caused by the potential differance increasing and decreasing continuous. The highest potential difference is reached at ‘each peak. The poak potontial differance or the peak voltage is the difference in volts betwean the peak and the middle level of the waves. Increasing the pd ofthe ac supply makes the waves on the screen taller. Increasing the frequency of the ac supply increases the number of cycles you see on the screen. So the waves on the screen get squashed together. © How would the trace change if tha pd of the ac supply were reduced” 2 Connect a battery to the oscilloscope. You should see a flat line at a constant potential difference. © What difference is made by reversing the battery?Ee Measuring an alternating potential difference We can use an oscilloscope to measure the peak potential difference and the Breakdown vans usually carry frequency of a low voltage ac supoly. For example, in Figure 2: ‘fast charger’ to recharge a @ the peak voltage is 2.1V ifthe peaks are 8.4cm above the troughs. Each “tla car battery as quickly as peak is 4.2cm above the middle which is at zero pd. The Y-gain control at possible, A flat battory needs a 0.5V/om talls us each centimette of height is due to a potential difference of | 12 battery charger to charge (0.5V. So the peak potential differonca is 2.1 V (= 0.5Vjem x 42cm). it, An ordinary battery charger converts ac from the mains to @ the frequency is 12.5H2 if each cycle on the screen is 8 em across. The 12V de but it can take hours to time base control at 10 milliseconds per centimetre (ms/cm) tells us each recharge a flat battery contimotro across the scroan is a time interval of {0me. So tho time taken for one cycle is 80ms (= 10msicm x 8am). The frequency is therefore 12.5Hz (= 1/80ms or 1/0.08s). Note: the frequency af ac supply 1 The time for one cycle More about mains circuits Look at Figure 1 again. it shows how the potential of the live wire varies with time. © The live wire altermates between +325V and ~326V. In terms of electrical power, this is equivalent to a direct vollage of 280V, So we say the voltage of tha mains is 230V. Figure $ A bettery cnarger zon ote Powe 1 aes 002 second. THe reauency of he mans supcy (he narber of los per eecond sheet 50H = grt) 'b Whatis the maxmum potental difference between the live wire and the neutral wire in Figure 1? Oe uca eed Ce ace) Summary questions Ca irection. Choose the correct potential difference from the list for each appliance Ben atod © The peak voltage of an 1.5V 12V 230V 325V Qa pes a acarbatiery ¢ atorch cell pata ar b the mains voltage d the maximum potential of the lve wire. Ce TIED In Figure 2, how would the trace on the screen change if he frequency of the ac supply was: a increased b reduced? In Figure 2, whats the frequency It one cycle measures 4.cm across the screen for the same time base setting? (HI ore Ti Ce ay fae pene nent shah Boho @ How does an altemating current difer ac spy from a direct current? c b Figure 4 shows a dlode and a resistor in eerios with each other connected to an ac supply. Explain why the current Hh inthe Greuitisacrect curtentnotan Figure 4 atornating current. oe teckel Ca apie) Peet Se ae utd Lally rc Oa eT oeMains electricity Cables and plugs ‘When you plug in a heater with a metal case into a wall socket, you ‘earth’ the metal case automatically. This stops the metal case becoming ‘lve’ ifthe CTE eres Weve bresks and touches the case, if the case dl become fvo and you eae touched it, you woul lectrocuted. ern Paastic materials are very good insulators, An appliance with a plastic case is SFT SRTE EN d2ubly.insuatod and caries the double insulation [G3] symbcl. rere iy Plugs, sockets and cables tna chs “The outer casings of plugs, sockets and cables ofall mains circuits and Maule appliances are made of hard-wearing electrical insulators. That's because Pee ta plugs, sockets and cables contain live wires. Most mains appliances are connected via a wall socket to the mains using a cable anc a three-pin plug Sockets are mada of stiff plastic materials with the wires inside. Figure 1 shows part of a wall socket circult I has an eartn wire as well as a live wire Mains electicty is dangerous.) and a neutral wire. By law, mains wiring must be ‘cone by properly qualified ‘electricians. — tath ‘otuse box 4 Nou wire ‘le © The earth wire of this circuit is connected to the ground at your home, © The longest pin of a three-pin plug is cesigned to make contact with ine earth wire of a wall socket circuit. So when you plug an appliance with a metal casa to a wall socket, the case is automatically earthed Plugs have cases made of stiff plastio materials. Tha live pin, the neutral pia and the earth pin, stick out through the plug case. Figure 2 shows inside a throo-pin plug. ‘© Tho pins are made of brass because brass is @ good conductor and does not, rust or oxidise. Copper isn't as hard as brass even though it conducts better. © The case material is an electrical insulator. The inside of the case is shaped 20 the wires and the pins cannot touch each other when the plug is sealed. © The plug contains a fuse between the live pin and the live wire. Iftoo much B current passes through the wire in the fuse, it melts and cuts the live wire off, =| aT Figure 1 A wall socket cteuitCerny b Why is brass, an alloy of coppor and zinc, better than coppor for tho pins of a three-pin plug? © The brown wire is connected to the live pin. @ The blue wire is connected to the neutral pi EARTH. ‘© The green and yellow wire (ofathree-core cable) is (grea and yew wie) connected to the earth pin. A two-core cable does not have an earth wire, Cables used for mains appliances (and for mains, circuits) consist of two oF three insulated copper wires NEUTRAL Live ‘surrounded by an outer layer of rubber or flexible plastic (tive wire) {brown wire) material. © Copper is used for the wires because itis a good electrical conductor and it bends easily. Figure 2 Insige a tree-pin plug « Plastic is a good oloctical ineulator and thoreforo Prevents anyone touching the cable trom receiving an electric shock. @ Two-core cables are used for apy 1cas which have plastic cases (e.g. haircryers, radios). j j © Gables of diffrent thicknesses are used for different purposes. For example, the cables jcining the wall sockets in a house must be much thicker than the cables joining the light fitngs. Ths is because more current pases along wall socket oablos than along lighting circuit Go the wires jin them must be much thicker. This stops the heating effect of the current making the wires toc hot. © Why are cables that are worn away or damaged dangerous? In Figure 3, which wire in each cable is the earth wire? Figure 3 Mains cebles (jE rela testa earth live neutral series parallel Pests el The......... wire in a mains plug is biue. eat bb If too much currant passes through the fuse, itbloms and cuts the Pe eee) wire off eee ad © Appliances plugged into the same mains circuit are in... with Pree ED each other, or three insulated copper d The metal frame of an appliance is connected to the wire ofa Pee eeeraineeeT SHA mains circuit when itis plugged in. outer layer of flexible plastic e The fuse in a plug is in........ with the live wire. el ‘a Match the list of parts 1-4 in a three-pin plug with the list of materials Ina three-pin plug or a AD. Ce 1. cable insulation A brass ete had 2 case B copper eek 3 pin rubber Poona 4 wire D siiff plastic bb Explain your choice of material for each partin a. WC cas) Oye ute) a Why is each of the three wires in a three-core mains cable insulated? to earth the metal case ofa b How is the metal case of an electrical appliance connected to earth? pare eyWirtoorore ac Pet akon cd Be abt asad Re eet Pie ed Ceo t uit Ere appliance touches a neutral wire, a very large current Passes between the two wires al the point of contact. We call this a short circuit. the fuse blows, itcuts the current off. KOEI ‘The earth wire protacts the user and the fuse protects the appliance and the wiring cf the circu, Mains electricity Ifyou need fo buy a fuse for a maine appliance, make sure you know the fuse ing. Otherwise, the new fuse might ‘blow’ as soon as itis usad. Worse stil, it might let too much current through and cause a fre, © A fuse contains a thin wire that heats up and melis if too much current passes through it, If this happons, we say the fuse ‘blows". (© Tha rating of a fuse is tha maximum current that can pass through it without melting the fuse wire. © The fuse should alvrays be in series with the live wire between the live wire and, the appliance. Ifthe fuse blows, the appliance is then cut off from the live wire. Atuse in a mains plug must always have the correct current rating for the appliance. Ifthe current rating is too largo, the fuse will not biow when it should, The heating effact of the current could set the appliance or its connecting cable on fire. Provided the correct fuse is fitted, the connecting ‘cable must be thick enough (60 its resistance is mall enough) to make the heating effect of the current in the cable insignificant. sue Figure 1 a Acattidge fuse bArewioable fuse The importance of earthing Figuro 2 shows why an olostric hoatoris mado safer by earthing its metal framo. In Figure 2a, the heater works normally and its frame is earthed. The frame is safo to touch. In Figure 2b, the earth wire is broken. The frame would becom live if the wire touchad it. aSste bUnsate Fuso Heaiagebrent = ——, 4 E Ean cretion oken Curent path <—— << Figure 2 and b Earthing an electic heater Metal caseIn Figure 2c, the heater element has touched the unearthed frame so the frame is live. Anyone touching it would be electrocuted. Tha fuse provides no protection to the user as a current of no more than 20 mA can be lethal. In Figure 24, the earth wire has been repaired but the heater element stl touches the frame. The current is greater than ina or b because It only passes ‘through part of tha heater olemont. Bocause the frame is earthed, anyone ‘touching it would not be electrocuted. But Figure 2¢ is stil dangerous. This is because although the current might not be enough to blow the fuse, it might cause the wires of the appliance to overheat. b Why is the current in Figure 2¢ greater than normal? Circuit breakers A circuit breaker is an electromagnet switch that opens (switchas aff or “rips}) when there Is a fault. This stops the current in the live wire fowing. The electromagnet is in gories with the live wire. If the ourrant in the live wire is too large, the magnetic field of the electromagnet is sirong enough fo pull the switch contacis apart. Once the switch is open, it stays open. It can then be reset once the fault that made it trip has been put right. Circuit breakers are user can be reset more quickly. stead of fuses. They work faster than fuses and. ‘The Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB) works even faster than the ordinary circuit breaker described above. An RCCB cuts off the currantin the live wire when Its different from the current in the neutral wire. The RGB can be used where there is no earth connection. The RCCB is also more sensitive than either a fuse or an ordinary circuit breaker. © What should you do it a circuit breaker irips again after being reset? Etim eon 1a Whatis the purpose of a fuse in a mains circuit? b Why Is the fuse of an appliance always on the lve side? © What advantages does a circuit breaker have compared with afusa? Figure 4 shows the circuit of an electric heater that has been wired Incorrectly. a Doos the heater work whon tho switch is closed? When the switch is open, why is it dangerous to touch the element? ¢ __J Redraw the circuit correctly wired. Switch \Lcreereroe 1 L Figure + Whatis the difference between an ordinary circuit breaker anda Residual Current Circuit Broakar (RCCE)? What are the advantages of an RGCB mains socket compared with an ordinary mains socket with a fuse in it? Heating element touches the ‘metal case, rrakng Ive Earth connection broken Victim touches tha metal case, and because the aarth wire is broken, conducts currentio earth 1 Stl dangerous as it may overheat t ‘ 4 Figure 3 A circuit brecker er rd ‘that heats up, melts, and cuts offthe current if the current is Ps ere series with the live wire. This Ce atu the live wire if the fuse blows. OTe Sea week icak a Cm uct) Ce etd current passes through the ieee au ee Le ee eet Les Pe ened CeesMains electricity Electrical power and potential he acu ‘When you use an electrical appliance, it transfers electrical energy into other forms of energy. The power of the appliance, in watts, is the energy Sra aT ittransters, in joules per second, We can show this as the following equation peu aaeeen ed _ energy transferred (joules, J) Sees Power (watts, W) = ime (seconds, s) pelea pele We can write the equation for tha power of an appliance as: Cee retina pu= Poe a Cee ung errr snergy transferred in joules, J ima taken in seconds, s. A-surgaon fiting an artficial heart in a patient needs to make sure the battery will ast a long time. Even so, the battery may havo to ke replaced every few years. Worked example A light bulb transters 30 000 J of electrical energy when it is on for 300 s. Calculate its power. Solution = energy wansfered _ 300004 _ Power = We 00g = 10OW Calculating power Millions of electrons pass through the circuit of an artificial heart every second. Each electron transfers a small amount of energy to it from the battery. So the total energy transferred to it each second is large enough to enable the appliance to work. For any electrical appliance: f@ the current through it is the charge that flows through it each second, the potential difference across itis the energy transferred to the appliance by each coulomb of charge that passes through it © the power supplied to itis the energy transferred to it each second. This is ‘the electrical energy ittransfers every second. Therefore: tho onorgy transfer to the appliance each second = the chargo flow por ‘second x the energy transter per unit charge. Figure 1 An artificial heart In other words: power supplied = current x potential difference (watts, W) (amperes, A) (voits, V)[Electrical power and potential dtterence ‘The equation can be written as: P=Ixv Where: electrical power in watts, W current in amperes, A V= potential difference in volts, V. For example, the power supplied ‘o: © 2 4A, 12V cloctrio motor is 48W (= 4A x 12V) © 2.0.1, 3V torch lamp is 0.3W (= O.1A x 3.0V). 'b Calculate the power suppliad to a 5A, 230V electric heater. Rearancin thee tlon P= 1 Ves prientalciforance, v= Poe curent.1=8 Figure 2 Chancing a fuse Choosing a fuse Domostio appliances are often ftted with a 3A, 6A or 13, fuse. if you don't know which one to use for an appliance, you can work it out. You use the power rating of the appliance ard its potertial difference (voltage). The next tima you change a fuse, do a quick calculation to make sure its rating is, correct for the appliance (see the worked example opposite). Worked example Calculate the normal currant through 2 600W, 230¥ heater. b Which fuse, 34, 5A or 1A, would you use for the appliance? © Why would a 19 fuse be unsultable for 2 230, 100W table lamo? Ginna aoe 1 Copy and complete a and b using the words below. Each word can be usd moro than onco. Solution a Current = S00W _ 229 current potential difference power = pa0v = 2: ‘a Whon an oloctical applianse is on, .... i Supplied to it 26a rosult b You would use a 3A fuse. of... Passing through it. b When an electrical appliance is on, a... is applied to it which ccauses.......to pass through i. 2 a Caloulate the power supplisd to each oF the following dovioos in normal use: 4 12V, SA light bulb 2 230, 2A heater. Which type of fuse, 3A, 5A or 19, would you select for: a 24W, 12V heater? eee a 280V, 800W microwave over? (watts) io ls Ce ey Pee ke lcci) Why would 2 32 fuse be unsuitable for a 230V, 800 microwave Seg ed ree [rdsetieeKsuibakussed dale d The heating element of a 12V heater has a resistance of 4.00. When oe i) the heating element is connected to a 12V power supply, calculate: fora fuse: 1 the ourrent through it lectrical power (watts) fi the electrical power supplied to it = potential difference (volts)Mains electricity Electrical energy and charge Calculating charge When an elecirical appliance is on, electrons are forced through the appliance RUSTE GeG by tho potential ctference of the power supply unit. The potential difference ESET S GEE my) causes a flow of charge through the appliance carried by electrons. Cee ary ‘As explained in P2 4.2, the electric currant is the rate of flow of charge through CLs ‘the appliance. The unit of charge, the coulomb (C), is the amount of charge Meee SC ES EEE owing tough a wire or a componentin 1 when the currentis 1A, Re ‘The charge passing along a wire or through a component in a certain time peg dopende en the current and the tims. Fecal] Wecan caloulate the charge using the equation: ee eel charge _ current time Potential difference? [H] (coulombs) ~ (amperes) * (seconds) Seen The oquation can bo written as: electrical energy supplied by MRNIes Liab Adbehcihnbteliana) © = charge in coulombs, C Cou rete T= current amperes, A Tothe components? [1] Rees i == Energy and potential difference ‘When a resistor is connecied to a battery, electrons are made to pass through tho resistor by the battery. Each electron repeatedly collides with the vibrating ‘metal ions of the resistor, transferring eneray to them. The ions of the resistor Figure 1 Charge and current ‘therefore gain kinetic energy and viorate even more. The resistor becomes hotter. ‘When charge flows through a resistor, energy i transferred to the fees resistor so the resistor becomes hotter. Worked example ‘The energy trancierred in a certain time in a resistor depends on: Calculate the charge flow when | @ the amount of charge that pascos through it ‘the current Is 8A for 805. ‘© tho potential difference across the resistor. =ixe Charge fiow = current time Solution Because energy = power x time = potential difference x current x time, we Gharge flow = current x time can calculata the energy transferred using the equation: = 8Ax 808 energy transferred _ potential difference | charge 400 (joues,) = (alts, vj * (coulombs, The equation can be written as: E=¥KQ Where: £ = eneray transferred in joules, J V = potential difference in volts, V Q = charge in coulombs, C.Energy transfer ina circuit == 424 The circuit in Figure 2 shows a 12V battery Worked example In series with a torch bulb and a variable Calculate the energy transferred Teeistor. When the volmeter reacie 10V, ze. @ in 8. component when the ‘the potential cifterence across the variable @- charge passing through itis: resistor is 2V. 30C and the potential dference Figure 2 Energytransterina circuit | Each coulomb of charge: " wh is 20v. @ leaves the battery with 12,J of eneray (because eneray from the battery charge x battery potential difference) ¢¢ transfors 10J of enorgy to the torch bulb (becausa onergy transfer to bulb = charge x potential cifterence across bulb) @ transfers 2 J of energy to the variable resistor. Solution Enorgy transferred = 20 x 30C The enargy transforred to the bulb makes the bulb hot and emit light. The Smet energy transferred tothe variable resistor makes the resistor warm, so eneray Pf ntake cure you know and is therefore rensferced to the surroundings by both bulb and resistor. understand the relationship ‘So the eneray from the battery is equal to the sum of the energy transferred to. batween charge, ourrentand the bulb and to the variable resistor. tina. 4 Copy and completa a to d using the words below: charge current energy potential difference ‘a The coulomb is the unit of LT Keypoinis | Fae eee “ Oe d Energy transferred = x charge. of flow of charge, caer 1 acurrent of 4A for 20s RR ee ‘@ ourront of 0.2 for 60 minutes. (amperes) x time (seconds). Calculate the eneray transfer: al) {or a charge flow of 206 when the potential difference is 6.0V ‘© When an electrical charge {or a curront of A that passes through a rosistorfor 208, when the flows through a resistor, potential dference is 5V. (HI Sy In Figure 3, a 400 resistor and an 800 cov Ce resistor In sertes with each other are -——t--4 ‘© Energy transferred (joules) = connected to a 6.0V battery potentlal diference (volts) x Celeulate: Loy} eet aC 2 the resistance ofthe two resistors in aa Sen series Figure 3 et Ly b tho current through the resistors Cari aed © the charge flow through each resistor in 60 seconds Pair rlrsenslin erie d the potential dfference across each resistor Cee € the energy transferred to each resistor in 60 seconds peineyenecapiirnsing t the energy supplied by the battery in 60 seconds. eos fo}LES ag Tet fr| LU ery ‘An clectrical fault is dangerous. It could give someone a nasty shook or even Learning objectives ‘© Why are electrical faults Co og Stoked aod Cree eed er tubes! appliance, what factors in See hr Co rite lighting compare in terms of Ce en ence? Activity Spot the hazards! How many electrical faults and hazards can you find in ‘Shockam Hall? Sae how many you can spot in the main hall. What kills you~ current or voltage? Mains electricity is dangerous. A current of ‘no more than about 0.038 ‘through your body would give you a severe shock and might even kill you. Your bady has a rasistance of about 10000 including contact resistance at the skin. If your hands get wet, your resisiance Is even lower. eectrocute them, resulting in death. Also, a fault can causea fire, This happens when too much current passes through a wire or an appliance and heats it up. Fault prevention lootrical faults can happen if sockets, plugs, cables or appliances ara damaged. Users need to check for loose fittings, cracked plugs and sockels and worn cables. Any such damaged items need to be repaired o replaced by a qualified electician, @ Ifa fuse blows or a circuit breaker trips when a mains appliance is in use, switch the appliance off. Then don’t use it untl it has been checked by a qualified olectrician. @ Ian applianco (or its calblo or plug or socket) overheats and/or you got a istinctive burning small from it, switch it off. Acain, don’t use it unti it has been checked, ‘Too many appliances connected to a socket may cause the socket 10 ‘overheat. IF this happens, switch the appliances and the socket off and disconnect the appliances from the socket. ‘Smoke alarms and infrared sensors connected to an alarm system are activated if fire breaks out. An elactiical fault could cause an appliance or a ‘cable to become hot and could set fire to curtains or other material in a room. ‘Smoke alarms and sensors should be checked regularly to make sure they work properly. ‘An olectrician selecting a cablo for an appliance needs te use: © 2 two-core cable ifthe appliance is ‘double-insulated’ and no earth wire is neaded © a three-core cable if an earth wie is needed because the appliance has a metal caso ‘© a cable with conductors of suitable thickness a0 the heating affect of the current in the cable is insignificant. a i Ia mains appliance suddenly stops working, why is it a mistake to replace the fuse straightaway? li Should tha cable of an electric iron be a two-core or a three-core cable? New bulbs for old When choosing an electrical appliance, most people compare saveral different appliances. The cost of the appliance is just one factor that may need to be considered. Other factors might include the power of the appliance and its efficiency. Ifyou want to replace a bulb, a visit to an electrical shop can present you with a bewildering range of bulbs. A filament bulb is very inefficient. The energy from the hot bulb gradually makes the plastic parts of the bulb socket brittle and they crack.Low energy bulbs are much more efficient so they don't become hot like filament bulbs do. Different types of lov energy bulb are now available: © Low-energy compact fluorescent bulbs (CFLs) are now used for room lighting instead of filament bulbs. © Low-energy light-emitting diodes (LEDs) used for spotlights are usually roferrad to as high powor LEDs. Thoy operate at low voltage and low power. ‘They are much more efficient than filament bulbs or halogen bulbs and they last much longer. ‘This table gives more information about these different bulbs. ‘All new appliances like washing machines and fraazers sold in the EU are labelled clearly with an efficiency rating. Tho rating is trom A (very efficient) to G (lowest efficiency). Li are also labelle the packaging, Type Power | Efficiency | Lifetime | Cost | Typical use Inhours of bulb Fllament bulb raow | 20% 4000 | 50p__| roomlighting Halegen bul | row | 25% 2500 | £200 | apetight Low-energy compact | 25w | 20% 18000 | £250 | roomlighting uorescent bull (CFL) Low-energy light- aw | cow 30000 | £7.09 | spotlight emitting diode (LED) b Ahousehoider wants to replace a 100W room light with a rovr of low-energy LEDs with the same light output. Use the information in the table above fo answer the following questions. i How many times would the filament bulb need to be replaced in the lifetimo of an LED? li, How many LEDs would be needed to give the same light output as a 4100W filament bulb? lif Tha householder rackons the cast of the electricity for each LED at ‘0p per kWh over its lifetime of 30000 hours would be £6. Show that the cost of the electricity for a 100W bulb over this time would be £300. iv Use your answers above to calculate how much the householder would save by replacing the filament bulb with LEDs. ‘An ‘CCB’ socket should be used for mains appliances such as. lawnmowers where there is a possible hazard when the appliance is, used. Such a socket contains a residual current circuit breaker instead of a fuse. This type of circuit breaker switches the current off ifthe live current and the neutral current differ by more than 30mA. This can happen, for example, if the blades of a lawnmower cut into the cable. Create a table to show a possible ‘electrical’ hazard for each of these appliances: lawnmower, elactric dril, electric saw, hairdryer, vacuum cleaner. The first entry has been done for you. Appliance: Hazard Lawnmower ‘The blades might cut the cable. Figure 2 Efficiency measures Sere Cent cause electric shocks and fires. ee ey appliance (or plug or socket) Pe aicektral abare wire or a terminal at a otk uae ee eal PR ud eu cui) Getcha Ts Sei hunts Dead acd Pde kd the appliance need to be Cees Sie Pe esd CarsMains electricity: P2 5.1-P2 5.6 Summary questions oO a Inamains circuit, which wire: i is earthed at the local substation alternates in potential? b An oscilloscope is used to display the potential ference of an alternating voltage supply unit. How would the trace change if: tho pd is increased the frequency is increased? 2) Copy and complete a and b using the words below. Each word can be used more than once. earth five neutral ‘@ When a mains appliance is switched on, current passes through it via the wire andthe wire. b Inamains circui wire is green and yellow. a Copy and completo the following contoncos: 1 Wall sockats are connected in with each other. A fuse in a mains plug is in with the appliance and cuts off the wire ifto0 much current pasaes through the appliance. b i What is the main difference between a fuse and & circuit breaker? Give two reasons why a crcutt Dreaker is safer than a fuse. @ ai Celculate the current in a 250V, 2.6KW eleotrio kettle I Which fuse, 3A, 84 oF 18, would you tin the kettle plug? b Calculate the power supplied to a 280V electric toaster when the current through itis 4.0, 5 A650 resistors in series with a bulb, a switch and 2 12V batery. a Draw the circuit diagram. b When the switch is closed for 60 saconds, a direct current of 0.6A passes through the resistor. Galculate: the energy supplied by the battery ji the energy transterred to the resistor lit the energy transferred to the bulb. [HI ¢ The bulb is replaced by a 2512 resistor. Calculate the total resistance of the two resistors. ‘Show that 2 currant of 0.4 passas through the battery. Calculate the power supplied by the battery and the power delivered to each resistor. 6 When a 6V bulb operates normally, the electrical power supplied to itis 151. a Calculate: i the current through the bulb when it operates normally IL the resistance of the bub when it operates, normally b Ifthe bulb is connected to a SV battery, state end explain why its rasistance is less than at 6V. @ A12V 36 bullbis connected to a 12V supply. ‘a Caloulate: i the current through the bulb. Hl the charge flovr tough the bulb in 2008. [H] bL_ Show that 7200J of electrical energy Is delivered to the bulb in 2008, Calculate the energy delivered to the bulb by each coulomb of charge that passes through it, = [H] [An electrician has the job of connecting a 6.6KW electric ‘oven to the 230 mains supply in a house, @ Caloulate the currant needad to supply 6 6kW of electrical power at 230V. b The table below shows the maximum current that can pass safely through tive different mains cables. For each cablo the oross-sectional aroa (esa) of each conductor is civen in square milimetres (mm) Cross-sectional ‘Maximum sate ‘area of conductor ‘current (rome «@ a 40 4 B 45, 18 © 25 28 D 40 36 E 60 46 1 To connect the oven to the mains supply, which cable should the electrician choose? Give a roacon ‘or your answer. State and explain what would happer a cable with thinner conductors? she choseAQ#/Examination-style questions @ 4 The pictures show situations in which electricity is not being used safely. For each picture a, b and ¢, explain how electricity is not being used safely. @ @ @ 4 The colour ofthe earth wire in a plug is “ € The pins of the plug are made of brass because it isa good o # The voltage on the neutral wire is about .....V. (1) g RCCB stands for a 2 Most domestic appliances are connected to the 230 mains supply with a 3-pin plug containing a fuse. 3A, 5A and 19A fuses are available. a Abulb fora desk lamp has a normal current of 0.26A. | Which of the three fuses chould be usec? a) li. Calculate the power of the lamp. Qo Ill Calculate how many coulombs of charge pass through the lamp ifit is loft on for t hour. [H] (8) End of chapter questions bi Calculate the current passing through a 1.15kW electic fan heater. @ Which fuso chould be usod in tho plug for this heater? a) ¢ Calculate how much electrical energy is transferred when the fan heater islet on for 30 minutes. Write dow tho oquation you uso. Show olearly how you work out your answer and give the unit. @) d In this question you will be assessed on using good English, organising information cleerly and using specialist torms whore appropriata. The heater is made of metal and has an earth wire connected tot. Explain how thefuse and earta wire together protect the wiring ofthe ccult. © Akettle Is connected to the UK mains supply and bolted. ‘An energy monitoring device measures thet 420000J has been transferred to the kettla in the time it takes to boil Calculate how much charge has flowed through the kettle. Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer and give the unit. [H] 6) b The power of the kettle is 2.2kW. How long did the kettle take to boil? ® ‘An oscilloscope is connected to a power supply. The trace is shown en a cantimatre grid, ‘Explain how you know thet it ie an ac supply boing measured, 0) b Give the peak voltage if each division on the y-axis is a2viom, ” © Each x-axis division is 0.01 s/cm, Calculate the time period of the supply. ” Calculato tho frequoncy of the supply. [HI] @) Describe the position and appearance of the trace on the screen if the supply was switched to6Vde. (2)Radioactivity Observing nuclear radiation A key discovery Peru Kee) et fen _> Photographic pate recut Re oe ed Peer au) Oa De tee Figure 1 Becquerel’s key Pepe SERA RINE yourotcce stoned mystrous image, wa! wed you hk In 856, ho Marie Curie Becquerel asked a young research worker, Marle Curle, to investigate. She found that the ealts gave out radiation all the time. It happened ro matter what, was done to them. She used the word radioactivity to describe this strange new property of uranium, ‘She and her husband, Pierre, did more research into this new branch ot science. They discovered new radioactive elements. They named one of the elements polonium, after Marie's native country, Poland. ‘@ You can stop a lamp giving out light by switching it of. Is it possible to ‘stop uranium giving cut radiation? Becquerel and the Cures were awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of radioactivity, When Pierre died in a road accident, Marie went on with thelr work, She was awarded a second Nobel Prize in 1911 for the discovary of polonium and radium. She cied in 1934 from leukaernia, a disease of the blood calls. it was probably caused by the radiation from the radicactive Figure 2 Marie Curie 1887-1994 a materials che worked with, fri Investigating radioactivity Wo can use a Geiger counter to detect radioactivity. Look at Goigr tie Figure 3. The counter clicks each time a particle of radiation from a radioactive substance enters the Goiger tube. = ; Figure 3 Using a Geiger counter‘What stops the radiation? Emest Rutherford carried out tests to answer this question about a cantury ago. He put different materials batwaen the radioactive substance and a detector, He discovered two types of radiaton: © One type (alpha radiation, symbol c) was stopped by paper. @ The other type (beta radiation, symbol f) went through the paper. Scientists later discovered a third type, gamma radiation (eymbol yj, even more penetrating than beta radiation. b Can gamma radiation go through paper? A radioactive puzzle Why are some substances radioactive? Every atom has a nucleus made up Of protons and neutrons. Electrons move about in energy levels (or shells) surrounding the nucleus. Most alors each have a siable nucleus that doesn't change. But the atoms of 2 radioactive substance each have a nucleus that is unstable. An unstable nucleus becomes stable by emitting alpha, beta or gamma radiation. We say fan unstable nucleus decays when it emits radiation. ‘We can'ttell when an unstable nucleus will decay. Its a random event that happens without anything being done to the nucleus. ‘© Why is tho radiation from a racicactive substance sometimos callod ‘nuclear radiation’? The origins of background radiation A Geiger counter clicks even when itis not near a radicaotive sourca. This effect is due to background radiation. This is radiation from radioactive substances: the environment (e.g. in the air or the ground or in building materials), or © from space (cosmie rays), or @ from dovices such as X-ray tubes. ‘Some of these radioactive substances are present because of nuclear woapons testing and nuclear powor stations, But most of itis from naturally ‘occurring substances in the Earth. For axamole, racon gas is radiozctive and jis @ product of the decay of uranium fourd in the rocks in certain areas. Eines 1 Copy and complete a and b using the words below. Each word can be used moro than onco. protons neutrons nucleus radiation a The.........of an atom is made up of... and b When an unstable cecays, it emits 2. The radiation from a radioactive source is stopped by paper. What type of radiation dogs the source emit? b The radiation from a different eource goes through paper. What can you say about this radiation? 3 a Explain why some substances are radioactive. bb State two sources of background radioactivity. Observing nuclear radiation unstane Becton orbit ‘wound te mucus Figure 4 Redioacive decay Particle emitted by the nucleus Nuclear weapons 02% Arravel 02% ucla actors 1% Figure § The origins of background radiation Poon Ce id become stable by emitting ee © There are three main types Cee ey substances - alpha, beta and eect Seca Led ee ed Cee ad oe © Background radiation is from ate! Crug Feet Una CeesLearning objectives rete ure ee uke ols ua ‘Model of the atom rejected? ‘© Why was the nuclear model Cd CEI Emest Putherford was awarded ‘the Nobal Prizo in 1908 for his discoveries on radioactivity. His famous discovery of the nucleus was made in 1913. He was knighted in 1914 and made a member of the House of Lords in 1931. He hoped that no one would discover how to release energy from the ruoleus until people leamed to live at peace with their neighbours. He died in 1937 before the ciscovery of nuclear fission. Figure 2 Emest Futhertord rv Lucky strike! Fixa small metal disc about 2.em thick at the centre ofa table. Hide the dise under a cardooard disc about 20 em in diameter. See if you can hit the metal disc with a rolling marble. Radioactivity The discovery of the nucleus Erost Ruthoriord mado many important discoveries about radioactvty. He discovered that alpha and beta radiation consists of cifferent types of particles. He realised alpha (a) particles could be used to probe the alom. He asked two of his research workers, Hans Geiger and Emest Marsden, to Investigate. They used a thin metal foll 0 scattar a beam of alpha particies. Figure 1 shows the arrangement they used. xed thin metal fail ‘The apparatus was ina vacuum charrber ‘ea pravent ar mlesuls absorbing the alphe (a) parties. Tha detector was moved to different positions Ateach postion, the number of sets of fight observed ina certain te was counted. ‘The cetacor consist ofa microscope focused ona sal gis laa ach ine an elpha pert he pate ce souce in aleadbox Evacuated a Succ gh nes observed ‘wth a narrow hole ‘oramber wa Figure 1 Alpha particle scattering ‘They measured the number of alpha parlicies deflected per second through difforont angles. Tho results showod that: ‘© most of the alpha particles passed siraight through the metal foil @ the number of alpha particles deflected per minute decreased as the angle of deflection increased © about 1 in 10000 alpha parlicles were deflected by more than 90°, If you kicked a football at an empty goal and the ball bounced back at you, what would you conclude? Ruthorford was astonished by tho results. He said itwas like firing ‘naval ‘shells’ at tissue oaper and discovering the occasional shell rebounds. He knew thet « pariicles are positively charged. He deduced from the resutts thet, there is a nucleus at the centre of avery atom that is: © positively charged bacause it repals cr particles (famamber that like charges repel and unlike charges attract) © much smaller than the ator because most « particles pass through without deflection ‘© where most cf the mass of the atom is located Using this model, Rutherford worked out the proportion of «particles that ‘would be deflected for a given angle. He found an exact agreemant with Geiger and Marsden’s measurements. He used his theory 10 estimate the diamoter of the nucleus. He found it was about 100000 times emaller than the atom.Rutherforc’s nuclear model of the atom was quickly accepted because: @ It agreed exactly with the measurements Geiger and Marsden made in their experiments. @ Itexplains radioactivity in terms of changes that happen ‘to an unstable nucleus when it emits radi © It precicted the existance of the neutron, which was later discovered. 'b What difference would it have made if Geiger and Marsden's measurements had not fitted Rutherford’s nuclear modal? Goodbye to the plum pudding model! Before the nucleus was discovered in 1914, scientists didnt know what the siructure ofthe atom was. They did krow atoms contained electrons and they knew these ara tiny nagetivaly charged particles. But they didn't know how the positive charge was arranged in en atom, although there were cftferent ‘models in circulation. Some ecientiste thought the atom wes like a ‘plum pudding’ with: @ the positively charged matter in the atom evenly spread about (as in a pudding), and ¢ electrons buried inside (ike plums in the pudding). Futhertorc's discovery meant farewell to the ‘plum pudding’ atom. Se Ad 4 Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below: charge diameter mass ‘@ Anucleus has the same type of .....- a8 an alpha particle. b Anucleus has a much smaller... than the atom, © Most of the... of the atoms in the nucleus. 2 a Figure 6 shows four possible paths, labelled A, B, C and D, ofan alpha particle deflected by a nucleus. Which peth would the alpha particle travel along? Explain why each of the other paths in part a is not possible. Figure 5 Describe two differences between the nuclear model of the alom and the plum pudding model, Explain why the alpha-scattering experiment led to the acceptance of the nuclear mode! of the atom and the rejection of the plum pudding model. Figure 3 Alpha (a) parce paths — Sphere of pesiive ‘charge P_ electrons Figure 4 The plum pudcing atom >? ‘aie ‘Almost all the mass of an atom is in its nucleus. The density of the nucleus is about thousand million million of water. A times the den: matchbox of nuclear matter would weigh about a million nillion tonnest el) DEE scattering experimonts to prove that an atom has a ‘small positively charged Cee head Ceol oe Seu be Cty eu deuaLebnaaabal Soka ilot ad ers ee duekekd Ee oe) De ant eed eee hurd are scattered through large oreit eubed Sed nee ck Pe ead CO ni eed Learning objectives cca ae tary Dee uid —— Kw to Number of protons plus neutrons __— chemical symbol Zz umber of protons Example: tho symbol forthe uranium isctope with 92 protons and 143 neutrons is aa U_ (or sometimes U-228) o Figure 1 Representing en isotope Tablet Rolative | Relative mass | charge proton 1 4 neutron 1 © electron | 0.0005 a ‘The rudeus emits anocoatoe and forms anew mucus Qrom 226 er) Th — Rat o 90) ats Radioactivity Nuclear reactions « In.c (alpha) or B (bet) decay, the number of protons in a nucleus changes. In dacay, the number of neutrons also changes, We will now lock at the changes that happen in @ and B decay and how we an represent these changes, Table 1 gives the ‘elalive masses and the relative electric charges of a proton, anoutron and an electron. ‘Atoms aro uncharged. Thay havo equal numbers of protons (+) and electrons (Q.A charged particle, called an ion, is formed when an atom gains or loses ‘one or more electrons. Then there are unequal numbers of pretons and electrons in the ion. ‘The atoms of the same element each have the same numbar of protons. The ‘umber of protons in a nucleus is given the symbol Z, Itis called the atomic number (or proton number). Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. The isotopes of an element have nuclei with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. ‘The number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus is called its mass number, Wo givo it tho symbol A. An isotope of an element X, which has Z protons and A protons plus neutrons, is represented by the symbol $X. For example, the uranium isotope *2:U contains 82 protons and 146 neutrons {= 238 - 92) in each nucleus. So its relative mass 's 238 and the relative charge of the nucleus is +92. ‘a How many protons and how many neutrons are in the nucleus of the uranium isotope 22U? Radioactive decay ‘Aniunstable nucleus becomes more stable by emitting an o: (alpha) or a B (beta) particle or by emitting 7 (gamma} radiation. emission ‘An cx particle consists of two protons and two neutrons. Its relative mass is 4 and its relative charge is +2. So we can representit by the symbol 4. by 2 andits mass number goes down by 4, For example, the thorium isctope “Th dacays by emitting an «particle. So it forms the radium isotope “Ra. Figure 2 shows an equation to represent this decay. © The numbers along the top represent the mass number which Is the number of protons and neutrons in each nuolous and in the « particle. © The equation shows that the total number of protons and neutrons after tha change (= 224 + 4) is equal to the total number of neutrons and protons: bofore the change (= 228) © The numbers along the bottom represent the atomic number which is the ‘number of protons in each nucleus and in the a particle, © Tho equation shows that tho total numbor of protons after tho chango (© 88 + 2) is equal to the total number of protons betore the change (= 90). \Whon an unstable nucleus emits an a patio, i atomio number goss down pb How many protons and how many neutrons are in %8Th and #4Ra? emission © Af partic is an electron created and emitted by a nuclous which has too many neutrons compared with its protons. A neutron in the nucleus changes ino a proton and a B particle. This is instantly emitted at high speed by the nucleus. @ The relative mass of a B particle is effectively zero and its relative charge is “1. So we can representa B particle by the symbol 28. (© When an unstable nucleus emits a B particle, the atomic number ofthe ‘nucleus goes up by 1 but its mass number stays the same (because a neutron changes into a proton), For example, the potassium Isotope #K decays by emitting 2 f particle. Sot forms a nuclous of tho calcium isotopo $8Ca. €¢ The numbers along the top represent the mass number which is the ‘number of protons and neutrons for gach nucleus and—1 for he 8 particle, © The equation shows that the total number of protons and neutrons after the change (= 40 + 0) is equal to the total number of neutrons and protons bofore the change (= 40). © Tha numbers along the bottom represent tha atomic number. This is the number of protons for each nucleus and for the B particle, as explained bolow. @ The equation shows that the total charge (in relative units) after the change (© 20 -1) Is equal to the total charge before the change (= 19). (Note the relative charge of the B particle is -1 so we represent its etomic umber as —1 in these nuclear equations, even though it has no protons at all.) How many protons and how many neutrons are in SK and :2Ca? emission ‘yradiation is emitted by some unstable nuclei after an « particle or a B particle has been emitted, radiation is uncharged and has no mass. So i does not change the number of protons or the number of neutrons in a nucleus 11 How many protons and how many noutrons are there in the nucleus of each of the following isotopes? ac b 860 emu 2 A substance contains the radioactive isotope *U, which emits alpha radiation. The product nucleus X emits beta radiation and forms a nucleus Y. How many protons and how many neutrons are present @ anucleus ofU b anucleusofX © anucleus of Y? Copy and complete the following equations for a. and B decay. 2'MU!Th+ 4a b SCu+i2n+ Ip [HI Aneuvan in be ruleus changes intoa proton ry K—- 10 Figure 3 6 or Appar ic created in the huceus and instamly emitted ° a) + 2©8+ rote Sg Teed and eta aa Su Seared ae ea pei Change In the ‘Nucleus loses 2 profane ane 2neutrons 2 protons anc 2neutrons emitted as an apartice AX Va nucleus ‘Aneutron in she nucleus changes into a proton 's created in ‘he nucleus and instantly emittedrae) Ru ead © How far can each type of Deu oa what stops it? oo Pee reo Cee uy ets aie) Pett} Figure 2 Tho penatrating powere of, § ang radiation Beam of radation enters a magnetic field Arragnetic id at righ angles to me pane of the parer 1 radon is ¢ ofoctod in tho ce radator is ‘opposite cirecton Cente by the ‘to aradaton magna fold +y ation ard nestor are Lndeflscte by he magnetic field Radioactivity More about alpha, beta and eRe LLL) Penetrating power Aipha radiation can't penetrate paper. But what stops beta and gamma radiation? And how far can each type of radiation travel through air? We can use @ Geiger counter to find out, but we must take account of background radiation. To do this we shoul 1 Measure the count rate (which is the number of counts per second) without the radioactive source present. Tais isthe background count rate, the count rate due to background radiation 2 Measure the count rate with the source in place. Subtracting the background ‘count rete from this givea the count rato due to the source alone. Redinactve Absorber emissions Cigar tub Sout in sealed > Bolectronic comianes = counter Figure 1 Absorption tests ‘We can then tast absorber materials and the range in alr. © To test different materials, we need to place each material between the tube and the radioactive sources. Then we measure the count rate. We can add ‘more layers of material until the count rate due to the source is zero. The radiation from the source has then been stopped by the absorber material. © Totest the range in air, we need 10 move the tube away from the scurce. ‘When the tube is beyond the range of the radiation, the count rate due to the source is zero. ‘The table below shows the rasults of the two tests. Type of raciation | Absorber materials Range in alr alpha («) Thin sheet of paper about § em beta () ‘Aluminium sheet (about § mm thick) about m Lead sheet (2-3 mm thick) ‘gamma () “Thick loed chest (ceveral em thick) untimited Concrete (more than 1 m thick) Gamma radiation spreads out in air without being absorbed. It does get weaker as it sproads out. ‘a Why is a radioactive source storad in a lead-ined box? The nature of alpha, beta and gamma radiation \We can separata these radiations using a magnetic field or an electric fl Deflection by a magnetic field @ B radiation is easily deflected, in the same way as electrons. So the radiation Consists of negatively chaiged particles. in fac, a B partcleisa fast-moving electron, tis emitted by an unstable nucleus that contains too many neutrons {gure 3 Redlaton in a magnetic fold =|pore eed © cradiation is defeectad in the opposite direction to Brediation. Sow etic ne radiation consists of positvely charged pelos. c patcias are harcer ten pstheant to deflect than § radiation. This is because an cepariclhasamuch "ve retal pte greator macs than a f particle has. An alpha particle is two protons and —feartal - ‘two neutrons stuck together, the same as a helium nucleus. radaton «© yraciation Is not deflected by a magnetic eld or an electric feld. This s b bocause gamma raciation is electramagnotic radiation so ia uncharged. Figure 4 Radian sessing hough an eectic file Deflection by an electric field cand B particies passing through an electric field are deflected in opposite directions, as shown in Figure 4. © The o particles are attracted towards the negative plate because they are positively chargod. @ Tho B particles are attractad towards the positive plate bacause they are negatively charged, In Figures 3 and 4, an alpha particle is deflacted much lass than the beta particle, The charge of an alpha particle is twice that of a beta parlicle, so the force is twice as great. But tho mass of an alpha particle is about 8000 times that of a beta particle, so the detlection of the alpha particle is much less. b_ How do we know that gamma radiation Is not made up of charged particles? Figure 6 Radioactive warnings Radioactivity dangers “The radiation ‘rom a radioactive aubetance can knock electrons out of atoms. The stoms become charged becaune eles alacrons: Treprecess's (QC LC called ionisation. (Remember that a charged particle is called an ion) OG Ey X:rays also cause lorisation. lorisaton ina ving cell can damage or kil the pre call, Damago to tho gonce in a coll ean bo passed oni tho call gonoratos ee] more cells. Strict safety rules must always be followed when radioactive ee) ‘substances are used. composed of two protons ‘Alpha radiation is more dangerous in the body than beta or gamma radiation. ‘and two neutrons. This is because it has a grecter ioni ing effect than beta or gamma radiation Tro Deepa? © Why should long-handlad tongs be used to move a radioactive source? eee ees Cd Err Ce oom as Copy and complote a and b using the words below. Each word can bo ele used more than once. Ce cc) aipna beta gamma ube beara jectromagns ros a Electromagnetic radiation trom a radioactive substance is called Coe radiation. ‘© Amagnotio or an electrio b A thick metal plate will stop and radiation but Deo NOt wnnen Fadiation, abeam of alpha, beta and 2 Which type of radiation ae ‘a uncharged —_b positively charged —_e negatively charged? erated uuu © postive Cee ee) 3 a Explain vihy ionising radiation is dangerous. Lapeer opnray renee sey b Explain how you would use a Geiger counter to find the range ofthe eu ng radiation from a source of «radiation. Poatela Beane) ied DL Cee ed ed SS Re Cee ers Cod eae Some radioactive isotopes have hai-lives ofa fraction of a second, whereas others have haiflives of more than a billion years. The nitrogen isotope N12 has a half- life of 0.0125 seconds. The uranium isotope U-238 has a haltiife of 45 billion years Radioactivity atl) Every atom of an element always has the same number of protons in its nucleus. However, the number of neutrons in the nucleus can differ. Each type of atom is called an isotope. (So isotopes of an element contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.) ‘The activity of a radioactive isotope is the number of atoms that decay per second. As the nucleus of cach unstable atom (the ‘paront’ atom) decays, ‘the number of parent atoms goes down. Thereiore the aciivty of the sample decreases. We can use 2 Geiger counter to monitor the activity of a radioactve sample. We need to measure the count rate due to the sample. This is the number of counts per second (or per minute). Tha graph below shows how the count rate of a sample decreases. 600) 300] Count at (courts minute) 50 100 780 Tire (rin) Figure 1 Racioactive decay. @ graph of count ate against time ‘The graph shows that the count rate decreases with time. The count rate falls from: 600 counts per minute (c.p.m,j to 300 c.p.m. in the first 45 minutes 300 counts per minute (c.p.m, to 150 c.p.m. in the next 45 minutes. ‘The average time taken for the count rate (and therefore the number of parent atoms) to fall by half is always the same. This time is called the hall-life. The half-life shown on the graph is 45 minutes. The hal life of a radioactive isotope is the average time it takes: ¢ for the numbor of nuclei of the isotope in a sample (and therofore the mass of parent atoms) to halve @ for the count rate of the isotope in a sample to fall to half its initial value.$$ aa The random nature of radioactive decay Radioactive decay is a random process. We can't 000 predict when an individual atom will suddenly decay. But we can pradict how mary atoms will decay in a ccartain time — because there are so many of them. co Tnisisabt ike throwing dos. You cant predict what number youwillgotwithasinglo thon. Butt Eso, you threw 1000 dice, you would expect one-sixth to = come up with a particular number i Suppose we stert with 1000 unstebieaioms. Look at“ the graph on the right: z 2 x0 It 10% decay every hour: © 100 atoms will decay In the first hour, leaving 9800 © 80 atoms (= 10% cf 900) will decay in the second + 4 hour, leaving 810. ‘The table below snows what you get f you continue the calculations, The results are plotted asa graph in Figure 2. Time from start of «| 2] s] 4] s) 6) 7 (hours) No.otunstabie | 1000 | 900 | sic | 72e| 656) 590 530 477 atome preeont No. of unstable too] 9o/ si] 7s| 6| se) sa) 4 fatome thet decay Inthe next hour b Use the graph in Figure 2 to work out the haltlife of this radioactive isotope. SC Ub A Coed 1. Copy and complete a and b using the words below. Each word can be used more than onca. halflile stable unstable a Ina radioactive substance ........ atoms decay and become... The.......0f a tadioactive isotope is the time taken for the number of, atoms to decrease to hal 2 Aradioactive isotope has a halt life of 16 hours. A sealed tube contains 8 miligrams of this isotope. What mass ofthe isotope is in the tube: a 15 hours later? b 45 hours later? 3 A sample of a radioactive isotope contains 320 million atoms of the isotope. How many atoms of the isotope are present after: a one haitiife b five hal-ives? 3 4 8 6 7F Time (nous) 292 Did you know ...? Next time you help someone chocse numbers for the lottery, think about whether this is something you can predict. The balls come out of the machine at random; is there any way of predicting what they will bo? io er) Peed ce Ld Deal Croan’ Ces Seid Ce yuna Dees ekeeid eked Ld) Cede ee aU peoCoo! eon) ated ocd keene for monitoring? Re cuted Ree er Follrs Source of Geiger ‘ute Machinery to conial rls Figure 1 Thickness moritering using a radioacive source Radioactivity Radioactivity at work Radioactivity has many uses. For each use, we need a radioactive isotope that emits a certain type of radiation and has a suitable half-life. Automatic thickness monitoring Tr Is used when making metal foil Look at Figure 4. The radicactive source emits f raciation. The amount of radiation passing through tha foil depends on the thickness of the foil. A detector on the other side of the metal foil measures the amount of radiation passing through it. @ litho thicknoss of tho @ The detector sends a metal sheat. 9 increasos too much, the detector reading drops. pal to tha rollers to increase the pressure on the This makes the foil thinner ag: Radioactive tracers ( ‘These are used to trace the ‘low of a substance through a system. For ‘example, doctors use radioactive iodine to find out if a pationt’s kidney is blocked. Chart meorder A 10 0 Mins Chart eearter B 10 0 ae : Figure 2 Using a tracer to moriter a patients kidneys Before the tesi, the patient drinks water containing a tny amount of the radioactive substance. A dotector is then placed againet ach kidney. Each detector is connected to a chart recordar. © The radioactive substance flows in and out of anormal kicney. So the detector reading goes up then down, © For a blocked kidney, the reading goes up and stays up. This is because the radioactive substance goes into the kidney but doesn't flow out again,Le Radioactive iodine is used for this test because: © Ite half-life is 8 days, 90 it lasts long enough for the test to be done but decays almost completely aftar a few weeks. @ Itemits gamma radiation, so it can be detected outside the body. Cae ‘Smoke alarms save lives. A racicactive soures inside the alarm sends out alpha particles © It decays into a stable product. into a gap in a couitin the alarm. The alpha particles ioniae the air in the gap soit conducts a current across the Radioactive dating ‘gap. In a fre, smoke absorbs the ions created by the alpha pamticles so they don't cross ¢ In Figure 2, which kidney is blocked, A or B? ‘This 's used to find the age of ancient material. We can use: © Carbon dating — this Is used 10 find the age of ancient wood and other the gap. The ourrent across ‘organic material, Living wood contains a tiny proportion of radioactive the gap drops and the alarm carbon. This has a halt-lfe of 5600 years. When atree dies, it no longer eounda. The battery in a smoke absorbs any carbon. So the amount of radioactive carbon initdecreases. To | alarm needs to be checked find the age of a sample, we need to measure the count rate from the wood. regularly — to make sure itis sill ‘This Is compared with the count rate from the same mass of ving wood. For working! example, suppose the count rate in a sample of wood is hell the count rate of an equal mass of living wood. Then the sampla must be 5600 years ald, @ Uranium dating - this is usad to find the age of igneous rocks. ‘These rocks contain radioactive uranium, whieh has a halFlife of 4500 nnillion yoars. Each uranium atm decays into an atom of lead. We can work out the ace of a sample by measuring the number of atoms of uranium and lead. For example, if a sample contains 1 atom of lead for every ator of the uranium, the age of the sample must be 4500 milion years. This is because there must have originally been 2 atoms of uranium for each atom of uranium now present. Figure 8 A smoke alam 14 What could you say about an igneous rock with uranium but ao load init? Aire tens Copy and complete ato using the words below. Each word can be used more than once. © The use we can make of a radioactive isotope depends alpha beta gemma se Inte coniuois reduction cfthin meal soos aaa.eo ot OTD radiation should be used to moritor the thickness ofthe shoe Aradioactive tracer given to a hospital patient needs to emit... bie teed " Pi kans radiation. The radioactive source used to trace a leak in an underground Pee pipeline should be a source of... redition, Petr ieen ness Explain why 7 radiation isnot suitable for monitoring the thickness of eT motal eyed When a radioactive tracer is used, why isit bast to use a radioactive cart isotope that decays into a stable isotope? eed What are the ideal properties of a radioactive isotope used as a For radioactive dating medical tracer? ony sample of old wood was carbon dated and found to have 25% of red the count rate measured in an equal mass of living wood. The hall- Peete dai life ofthe radioactive carbon is 5600 years. How old is the sample of ee ar) wood? traeee Summary questions oO 3 a How many protons and how many neutrons are nucleus of eaci of the following isotopes? NG ii sr b YC amits.a B particle and becomes an isotope of nitrogen (N). i How many protons and how mary neutrons are in is nitrogen isotope? White down the symbol for this isotope. © ¢Th emits an «particle and becomes an isotope of radium (Ra). i How many protons and how many neutrons are in this isotope of radium? ii. White down the symbol for this isotope. 2) Which type of radiation, alpha, beta or gamma: can pass through lead? bb travels no further than about 10 om in air? ¢ stopped by an aluminium metal plate but not by paper? ¢ consists of electrons? € consists of helium nuclel? 1 ‘sunchargec? 9 The table below gives information about four radioactive isotopes A,B, C and D. Isotope Type ofradiation | Halt-lite emitted ‘Acalifornium-241 alpha 4 minutes B cobalt gamma 5 years © hydrogen. beta years Destrontium-90 beta 28 years Match each statement 1 to 4 with A, B, C or D. 1 the isotope that gives oi radiation with an unlimited range 2 tho isotope that has tho longost helt 3 the isotope that decays the fastest 4 the isotope with the smallest mass of each atom, ‘The following measurements were made of tha count rate due to a radioactive source. Time (hours) Countrate due to the source (counts per minute) a Piot a graph of the count rate (on the vertical axis) agains! time. b Use your graph to find the halflife of the source. Ina carbon dating experiment of ancient wood, a sample ofthe wood gave & count rate of 0.4 counts par minute. ‘The same mass of living wood gave a count rata of 1.6. ‘counts per minute. a How many half-lives did the count rate take to decrease from 1.6 to 0.4 counts per minute? b The half-life of the radioactive carbon in the wood is, 5600 years. What is the age of the sample? In an investigation to find out what typo of radiation Was emitted trom a given source, the following measurements were made with a Geiger counter. Source ‘Average count rate (n counts per minute) No source present 29 ‘Source at 20mm from tube 208 with no absorber between ‘Source at 20mm from tube 384 with a sheet of metal fol between ‘Source at 20mm from tube ey ‘with a 10mm thick aluminium plate between ‘a What caused the count rato when no source was present? b What was the count rata due to the source with no absorbers present? © What type of radiation was emitied by tne source? Explain how you arrive at your answer. Figure 1 shows the path of two «particles labelled A. and B that are deflected by the nuclous of an atom. ‘a Why are they deflected by the nucleus? b Why is B deflected less than A? i © Why do most «particles | directed at a thin matal foil pace straight through it? 2 ‘Nuclus Figure 1Ermtr ert oe! AQ4A/Examination-style questions 1 Diagrams A and B show two atoms of carbon, ‘a Copy and complete the following centences using the list of words and phrases below. Each ona can be: used once, more than once or notat all. electrons positive isotopes nuclear plum pudding negative nucleus ions neutrons Particles shown by the symbol xin the diagram are called - They obit the of an atom. This is made up of protons and Protons have a charge. This diagram shows the model of the atom whieh replaced the model. © b Explain how a carbon ion would be different from atom A, a) © Give the mass number of lon A. a Give the atomic number of atom A. a e Compare atom B with atom A. a 2 a A geologist wishes to know what types of radiation are emitted by three radioactive rock samples. Different absorbers are placed between oach samplo and a detector. The counts per second are shown in the table. Counts per second ‘Absorber | Sample 1 | Sample 2 | Sample a temotar 40 2 wo [ paper 90 | 50 70 | ‘mm of 30 | 0 ° aluninum temottead | 0 4 ° For each sample state which of the three types of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma) are emitted. A rock may emit more than one type. @ b Describe the nature of an alpha particle. @ ¢ List the three types of nuclear radiation in order of their rolative ionising power fram the least ionising to tho 3 The source of radiation shown below errits alpha, beta and gamma. When the radiation travels through air in an electric field botwaen two plates, the three types of radiation behave differently. Negative pate ——_—— ‘Alp Source Postve plate i Analpha particle has more charge than a beta particle. Explein why the beta particle is deflected more by the electric field and in the oppesita direction. [1 @) Explain why the gamma radiation ia not affected by the elect feld “) Explain why the alpha particle does not reach the plate ) 3 Tochnetiurn.99 is a gamma-omitting radioisotope used as a tracer inside the body in order to diagnose problems with various organs. Cobalt-60 is a gamma ‘omittor used for radiotherapy where the source is used outside tre body to kill cancer cells on tha inside. Halt-life | Radiation| Relative lonising power technetium-99 | 6.0 hours gamma 1 ‘eobalt-60 5.3 years gamma 10 ‘a Technetium-09 emits a gamma ray and then decays to an isotope of ruthenium (Ru) by beta decay. Balance the nuclear equation by giving the appropriate atomic numbers and mass numbers. 99 “ wy Ste — {Ru + (iB [HI @) b In this question you will be assessed on using good English, organising information cleerly and using ‘specialist torms where appropriato. Explain why cobalt-60 is noi used as a medical tracer in humans and way tachnotium-09 is used for this purpose, @ <Energy from the nucleus Nuclear fission {« Chain reactions et Keeani) Energy is released in a nuclear reactor as a resuit of nuclear fission. In this Ol i echinaesalll process, the nucleus of an atom of a fissionable subsiance splits into two SSSI smaller iragment’ nucle. This event can cause other fssionable nuclei to spit undergo fission? ‘This then produces a chain reaction of fission events. ete oe Fission neutrons Peto —-@» HireesenppelrsobesesstI| — Whon a nuolous undergoes fesion,itreleases: « two orthrae noutrons (rofereed to 26 fission 5 neutrons) at high speeds © energy, inthe form of radiation, plus kinetic energy of the fission 7e oe £% SE°86-@6 \ The fission neutrons ™~o h “Gn / may ease fuer tion resulting in a chain reaction. In a RK, Rieter sion eae o7 sora, sect Zo N J \ / \ i ‘one fission neutron from each fission event goes @ \ ‘on to produce further fission. This ensures energy —@r acta mactor,sathreaeon is released ata steady rate inthe reactor. No ‘causes more reactions which cause sc " more ‘eactons, etc. Figure 2 A chain reaction in arnuclear reactor ‘@ What would happen If, on average, more than one fission neutron per ‘event went on to produce further fission? Figure 1A chain reaction >? 29? Did you know .. Fisslonable Isotopes ‘The fuel in a nuclear reactor must contain fissionable isotopes. Anuoloar bomb is two lumps fs P of pure urarium-288 or © Most reactors at the present time are designed to use ‘enriched uranium’ pluton'um 239. Each lump 2s the fuel. This consists mostly of he non-fssionable uranium isotope Can't produce @ chain reaction 341) (U-288) and about 22% of the uranium isotope "BU (U-235) which is fissionabla. In comparison, natural uranium is more than 99% U-238. because it loses too many fission nautrons. Butf you The U-238 nucte in a nuclear reaotor do not undergo fission but they bring the two together. change into ather heavy nuclei, including plutanium-239 (the isotope “2 PU. This isotope is fissionable. It can ba used in a cifforent type of raactor but not in a uranium reactor. Inside a nuclear reactor ‘Anuclear reactor consists of uranium fuel rods spaced eveniy in the reactor core. Figure 3 shows a cross-section of a pressurised water reactor (PWR). @ The reactor core contains the fuel rods, control rods and water at high pressure. The fission neutrons ara slowed down by collisions with the atoms in the water molecules. This Is necessary as fast neutrons do not cause further fission of U-236. We say the water acts ce a moderator because t slaws down the fission neutrons.ere «© Control rods inthe core absorb surplus neutrons. This keeps the chain reaction under control. The depth ofthe rods in the core is adjusted to mainiain a steady chain reaction. «The wator aot as a coolant Its molecules gain kinetic energy irom the neutrons and the fuel rods. The water is pumped through the core. Then it goes through sealed pines to and trom a heat exchanger outside the core The water transfers energy for heating tothe heat exchanger from the core. The reactor cote ts made of thick steel to withstand the | . eee = veryhgn temperaureand = prossure intho coro. Tho °cf0 figure a nucle actor is enclosed by thick concrete walls. These absorb radiation that escapes through the walls ofthe stael vessel During nuclear fission a large nucleus breaks up inio two b What would happen if the control rods were removed from the core? smaller nuslol Make eure you know how to spell fission’ — ith two 1 Copy and complete a and b using the words below. Each word can be used more than once. nucleus uranium-235 uranium-238 plutonium-239 7 ced a Nuclear fission happens when a, of or splits. a Pata e Se ue) ‘two approximately equal ee ra Put the statements A to D in the list below into the correct sequence to Sine y describe a steady chain reaction in a nuclear reactor. A aU-236 nucleus splits eee B aneutron hits a U-235 nucleus le neutrons are released b Anucleus of. In a nuclear reactor changes without fission into a nucleus of. Deer ree) ,@, t 8 Dleneray leralezsed ya Eee cnt Look at the chain reaction shown a inFigure 4. 2 r e Peon tr a i Which of the nuclei A to F Be ieee have been hit by a neutron? e Fission (rareethaselpmrmmetoicet What has happened to pata Lae thase nuclei? Figure 4 ieee Jil Which two of the other Feta nucioi A to F could undorgo fission from a fission neutron shown? Cee eo b State one process that could happen to a fission neutron that does only one neutron per fission not produce further fission. Pee ed fission.Re eeu d Oe ee Peta u ey Ceeieng ‘Why Is It difficutt to make a Eide tod ree oe ‘A hydrogen bomb is a uranium bom® surrounded by the hydrogen isotope, +H. When the uranium bomb explodes, it makes the surrounding hydrogen fuse and release even more energy. A single hydrogen bomb could completaly destroy London. Energy from the nucleus Nuclear fusion Imagine if we could get energy from water. Stars release energy as a result of fusing small nuclei such as hydrogen to form larger nuclei. Water contains lots of hydrogen aloms. A glass of wale: could provide the same amount of energy as a tanker full of petrol. But only f we could make a fusion reacior here on Earth, Fusion reactions “Two small nuclei release energy when they are fused togeter to forma single larger nucleus. This process is called nuclear fusion. It releases energy only ifthe relative mass of the nucleus formed is no more than about 55 [about the ‘same as an iron nucleus]. Eneray must be supplied to create bigger nuclel. Figure 1 A nuclear fusion reason The Sun is about 75 per cent hydrogen and 25 per cent helium. The core is so. hot that t consists of a‘plasmat of bare nucle wth no electrons. These nuclel move about and fuse together whan they collide When they fuse, they release energy. Figure 2 shows how protons fuse together to form a ‘He nucleus. Energy ia relensed at each stege. OK ‘¢ Whon two protons (ie. hydrogen nuclei) fusa, they form a ‘heavy hydrogen! nucleus, °H. Other particles are created anc emitted at the samo ime. «© Two more protons collide separately with two 'H nuclei and turn them into hoavier nuctc. Tho two hoavior nucio! collide to form tho helium nuctous ‘Ho, Tho energy released at each stagois carried away as kinetic energy ofthe Product nucleus and other particles emitted. Figure 2 Fusion @ Neuron reactions in the SunFusion reactors ‘There are enormous technical difficulties with making fusion a useful source of energy. The piasma of light nuclei must be heated to very high temperatures: before the nuclei will fuse. This ia because two nuclei approaching each other will pal each other due to their positive charges. Ifthe nuclei are moving fast enough, they can overcome the force of repulsion and fuse together. In a fusion reactor: @ tho plasma is hoated by passing a very largo electric current through it © tho plasma is contained by a magnetic field co it doosn’t touch the reactor walls. fit did, it would go cold and fusion would stop. Scientists hava been working on these problems sinca the 1960s. A successtul fusion reactor would release more energy than it uses to heat the plasma. At the present time, scientists working on experimental fusion reactors are able to do this by fusing heavy hydrogen nuclei to form hallum uclel - but only for a few minutes! Figure 9 An experimental fusion reactor b Why is a fusion reactor unlikely to explode? A promising future @ Practical fusion reaotore could meet all our energy noods. @ The fuel for fusion reactors is readily available as heavy hydrogen and is naturally presentin sea water, «© The reaction product helium, is a nor-racioactive inert gas, so is hamrless @ The energy released could be used io generate electricity In comparison fssion reactors most use uranium, which is only found in certain parts ofthe word, Alo, they produce nuclear waste thathas tobe stored securaly for mary years. However, fission reactors have bean in operation for ‘over 50 years, unlike fusion reactors, which are stil under development. Qurrenyee Ne 4 Copy and completo aand b using the word below: eee ton large small stablo enough together so they form a When two... nuclei moving at high speed collide, they form a CO TEE TEE nucleus. «© Nuclear fusion can be b Energy is released in nuclear fusion if the product nucleus is not as Caen ne {as an iron nucleus. teed 2 a Why doos tho plasma of light nuoloi in a fusion reactor need to bo La baa very hot? OS a bb Why would a fusion reactor that needs more energy than it produces re) not be much use? Or) ed ola ha 2 How many protons anc how many noutrone ara prosent in aH nucleus? b Copy and complete the equation below to show the reaction that © A fusion reactor needs to be Pe ued ee ue aed H+ iH THe Dee em takes place when two *H nucle use together t frm a heim nucleus.PRK ocd eter eka cat ed id Ree Pond CO Kinks For more information on ionising radiation, look back at P2 6.4 More about alpha, bela and gamma raclation. a) ira TT eed Nuclear waste Used fuel rods are very het and very radioactive. © After removal from a reactor, ‘thoy are stored in largo tanks of water for up to a year. The water cocls the rods down, © Remote-control machines are then used to open ‘the fuel rods. The unused uranium and plutonium are removed chemically from the used fuel, These are stored in sealed containers so they can be used again. @ The remaining material contains many radioactive 'sotopes with long halt- lives. This radioactive waste | must be stored in secure conditions for many years. \ Rone strsgeicesrmae ) Pa un ay Nuclear issues Radioactivity all around us ‘When we use a Geiger counter, it clicks even without a radioactive source near IL. ThisIs cue to background radiation, Radioactive substances are found naturally all around us. Cosmic mys Food and chink Medial Airtrovel ‘ Lame ob ures aa es 4 atradiation (23))(s2) (aw ino) ( se) § > @ meer inthe UK J kar oer Ground ane buifings Natural ractoacvty in at suse we pons ~ ii Figure 1 Rediosctviy Figure 1 shows the sourcas of background radiation. As explained in P2 6.4, the radiation from radioactive substances is hazardous, as iti it passes through. The numbers in Figure 1 tell you the radi ‘much radiation on average each parson gels in a year from each source. © Medical sources include X-rays as well as radioactive substances, as X-rays have an ionising affect. People wha work in jobs that involve the usa of lonising radiation have to wear personal radiation monitors to ensure they ‘ro not exposed to too much ionising radiation, © Background radiation in the air is clue mostly to radon gas that seeps ‘through the ground from radioactive substances in rocks deep underground. Radon gas omits alpha particlos so itis a health hazard if itis breathed in. It can seep into homes and other buildings in cartain locations. In homes and buildings where people are present for long periods, methods ead to be taken to reduce exposure to radon gas. For example, pipes under the building can be insialled and fitted to a suction pump to draw the (gas out of the ground before it seeps into the building a What is the biggest source of background radioactivity? b Which source in the chart contributes least to background radioactivity? Chernobyl In 4986, a nuclear reactor in Ukraine exploded. Emergency workers and scientists, struggled for days to contain the fre. A cloud of radioactive material from the fre died over many parts of Europe, including Britain. More than 100000 people were evacuated from Chernobyl and the surrouncing area. Over 30 people died inthe accident. Mary more have developed leukasmia or cancer since then. It was and remains (up to now) the world's worst nuclear accidert.Could tt happen again? © Most nuclear reactors are of a different design. © Tho Chernobyl accident did not have a high-speed shutdown system lice most reactors have. @ The operators at Cernoby! ignored safety instructions. © There are thousands of nuc‘ear reactors in the world. They have been working eafoly for many years. Radioactive risks ‘The effect on living cells of radiation from radioactive substances depends on: @ the type and the amount of radiation received (the dose) ‘© whether the source of the radiation is inside o- outside the body .g cells are exposed to the radiation, © how long the Alpha radiation Beta radiation | Gamma radiation source inside | very dangerous affects | dangerous reaches calis the body allthe surrounding tssue | throughout the body source outside | some danger—absored tho body by akin; damages ekin cells © The larger the dose of radiation someone gets, the greater the risk of cancer. High doses kill living cells. © The smaller the dose, the less the risk - but itis never zere. So there isa very low level of risk to each and every ane of us because of background radioactivity. Workers who ara at risk from ionising radiations cut down thelr expesura to the radiation by: © keeping as far as possible from the source of radiation, using special handling tools with long handles @ spending as little time as possible in ‘at-risk’ areas €@ shielding thamselvas fram the radiation by staying behind thick concrete barriers and/or using thick lead plates. © Why does radioactive waste need to be stored i securely il for many years? Why is a source of alpha radiation vary dangerous inside tho body but ot outside it? Eire toecans In some locations, the biggest radiation hazard comes from radon gas which seeps up through the ground and into buildings. The dangers of radon gas can be minimised by building new houses that are slightly raised on brick pillars and medifying existing houses. Radon gas is an -emitting isotope. a Why is radon gas dangerous in a house? b Describe one way of making an existing house safe from radon gas. ‘Should the UK government repiace our existing nuclear reactors with new reactors, either fission or fusion or beth? Answer this question by discussing the benafits and drawbacks of new fission and fusion reactors. Nuclear lesues New improved nuclear reactors Most of the world's nuclear reactors in use now will need to be replaced in the nant 20, years. New improved ‘third generation’ nuclear reactors, will replace them, The new types of reactors have: © a standard design to cut down costs and construction time © a longer operating lite — typicelly 60 years ‘@ more safety features, such as convection of outside air through cooling panels along the reactor walls, @ much less effect on the environment. ior ken eee ee eur Cee aa Deere ol Cee aa) Dei Cd Chemobyl reactors that Ce [rea teed Peake Peanut aoe) Pauly Pe Dec) removed from it.rT mn ay OME LANA ee) ‘The Big Bang that created the universe was about 13 thousand milion (13 Learning objectives billion) years ago. Space, time and radiation ware created in the Big Bang. errr) A frst, the universe wes a hot glowing bal of radiation and matter, AS It oxpandod, its tomporature fell. Now the universe is cold and dark, excopt for SR eel! hot spots we call stars. oped Fc ets ed Cece eu eta ES etn Se au Donat Ey Ped De aE un aCe FUE eo iy In the Cold War, US satellites detactad bursts of gamma radiation from space. At first, the US military thought rucloar weapons were being tested in space by Russia. Thon astronomers found the bursts weere from violent events long ago in distant galaxies - maybe stars being sucked into black. holes! Figure 1 Timeline for the universe ‘Tho stars we £09 in the night sky aro all in the Milky Way galaxy, our homo galaxy. The Sun is just one of billions of stars in the Milky Way galaxy. Using Powerful telescopes, we can see many more stars in the Milky Way galaxy. We can also see individual stars in other galaxies. We now know there are billions of galaxies in the universe. There is vast empty space between them. Light from the furthest galaxies that we can see has taken billions of years to reach us. ‘a Why do powerful telescopes give us a picture of the universe long ago? Figure 2 Andromeda ~ the neerestbig any fo te Miky Way 8The Dark Age of the universe ‘As the universe expanded, it became transparant as radiation passed through the empty space between its atoms. The background microwave radiation ‘that causes the epote cn an untuned television was released at this stage. The Dark Age of the universe had begun! For the next few billion years, the universa was a comoletaly dark, patchy, expanding cloud of hydrogen anc hellum. Then the stars and galaxies formed and lit up the universel b_ How long, to the nearest billion years, has background microwave. radiation been travelling for? The force of gravity takes over Uncharged ators don't repel gach other. But they can attract each other. During the Dark Age of the universe, the force of gravitetional attraction was at work without any opposition from repulsive forces. ‘As tho universe continued to expand, it bocame more patchy as the densor parts attracted nearby matter. Gravity pulled more matter into the denser parts and tuned them into gigantic clumps. Eventually, the force of gravity turned the clumps into galaxies and stars. A few billion years after the Big Bang, the Dark Age came to an end, as the stars lt up the universe. © Why would the force of gravity between two helium nucie’ be unable to pull the nuclei together? Eimer tec 1 Gopy and complete a to ¢ using the words below: attracted cooled expanded formed a As the universe at . b Uncharged atoms ........ each other. ¢ Galaxies and stars from uncharged atoms. ‘a i Why can't we take a photo ofthe Milky Way galaxy from outside? Why can't we take photos af a distant galaxy at different stages in its formation? bi Why do the stars in a galaxy not drift away from each other? Il Why are there vast spaces between the galaxies? Put these events in the corract sequence with the earliest event first. 1 Cosmic background radiation was released. 2. Hydrogen nuclei were first fused to form helium nuclei. 3 The Big Bang took place. 4 Neutrons and protons formed. Ws Figure 3 Amo Alan Penzies and Robert \Waodrow Wilson stancing on the reco ‘antenna that unexpectedly discovered the universe's microwave background radiation Figure 4 The force of gravily tekes aver © A galaxy Is a collection of billions of stars held together by their own gravity. © Before galaxies and stars Sed See bal oie ea Leu ered) Ca el ooLearning objectives Sted ‘© What are the stages in the Ife Cea DR Uc arc Cyd Oe ac Figure 1 Starbith ed ‘© The Sun is about 5000 milion, years old and will probably continue to shine for another 5000 milion years. © The Sun will turn into ared giant bigger than the orbit of Maroury. By then, the human race wil probably have long Passed into history. But will Intelligent life stil exist? Ere Energy from the nucleus The life history of a star The birth of a star Stars form out of clouds of cust and gas. © The particles in the clouds are pulled together by their own gravitational attraction. Tho clouds margo together. They became more and more concentrated to form a protostar, the name for a star to be. @ Asa protostar becomes denser, it gets hotter. tit becomes hot enough, the nuclei of hydrogen atoms and other light elements fuse together. Energy released in this fusion so the core gets hotter and brighter and starts to shine. A star is born! © Objects may form that are too small 1o become star's, Such objects may be attracted by a protostar to bocome planets. ‘Where does the energy to heat 2 protostar come from? Shining stars Stars lke the Sun radiate energy because of hycrogen fusion in the core. They are caled main sequence stars because ths i the main stage in the life ct asiar. It can maintain its energy output for millions of years until the star runs out of hydrogen nuclei to fuse together. «© Energy ‘eleased in the core keeps the core hot so the process of fusion continuos. Radiation lowe out steadily from tho care in all directions. Tho staris stable bocause the forovs within it are balancad. The force of gravity that makes a star contractis balanced by the outward force ot the radiation irom its core. These forcea atay in balance unt most of the hrydragen nucle in the core have baen fusad together. b Why doesn't the Sun collapse under its own gravity? The end of a star ‘When a star runs out of hydrogen nuclei to fuse together, itreaches the end of, its main sequence stage and it swalls cut Stars about tho samo sizo as the Sun (or smaller) ewoll out, 200! dawn and tun red. © ‘The star is now a red giant. At this stage, helium and other light elements in ‘core fuse to form heavier elements. ‘© When there are no more light elements in its core, fusion stops and no more radiation is released. Due to its own gravity, the star collapses in on itsalt Ast collapses, It heats up and turns from red to yellow to white. Ii becomes a whito dwarf. This isa hot, donse white star much smaller in diamoter than it was. Stars like the Sun then fade out, go cold and become black dwarfs. Stars much biggor than the Sun ond thoi lives much more dramatically. © Such a star swells out to bocome 2 rod supergiant which thon collapses. @ In the collapsa, the mattar surrounding the star's core compresses the care more and more. Then the compression suddenly reverses in a cataclysmic explosion known as a supernova. Such an event can outshine an entire galaxy for saveral weeks,8 Neutor sor 7 a tack hols # mass, net ~ aa ue = | — suretuoia { Figure 2 7 fe cyde ofa siar © What force causes a red giant to collapse? ‘The explosion compresses the core of the star into a neutron stat. This is an extremely dense cbject composed only of neutrons. Ifthe ster is massive enough, it becomes a black hole instead of a neutron star. The gravitational field of a biack hole Is so strong that nothing can escape from it, Not even light, or any other form of electromagnetic radiation, can escape. Figure 2. Ma7 ie a galaxy that epine ‘0 fas atts contre tha itis thought to Contain a olack nol wen a bilion umes more mass than the Sun d_ What force causes matter to be dragged into a black hole? 1a The list below shows some of tha stages in the life of a star like the Sun. Put the stages in the correct sequence. A main sequence B protostar C ted giant D white dwarf 1 Which stage in the above lists the Sun at now? ‘What will happen to the Sun after it has gone through the above stages? 2 a Copy and complete i and used more than once, collapse expand explode using the words below. Each ward can be 1 The Sun will eventually then Ared supergiant will... then What is the main condition needad for a supergiant to form a black hole? Why is it not possible for light to escape from a black hole? What force makes a red supergiant ccllapse? What force prevents a main sequence star from collapsing? b Why does a white dwarf eventually become a black dwart?Energy from the nucleus How the chemical elements formed The birthplace of the chemical elements @ Light elements are formed as a result of fusion in stars. Stars like the Sun fuse hydrogen nuclei (ie. protons) into helium and simi ‘small nuclei, including carbon, When itbecomes a red giant, itfuses helium Teton Ga aca nbc Gl) and tho other small nucle into larger nuciei. CECE Nuclei larger than iron cannot be formed by this process because too much ‘Why does the Earth contain gees DOC © Heavy elements are formed when a massive star collapses then explodes as a supernova. ‘The enormous force of the collapse fuses small nucle’ into nuclei larger than iron. The explosion scatters the star into space. ‘The debris from a supernova contains all the known elements irom the lightest to the heaviest, Eventually, new stars form as gravity pulls the debris together. 7 Planets form from debris surrounding a new star. As 4 result, such planets will The Crab Nebula is the be composed of all the known elements too. remnants of a supernova Sosentarwm chron» | Lan yeu torn on FH ee wee? the 11th century. In 1987, a star in the southem hemisphere exploded and became the biggest supernova to be seen Met Ticd forfour centuries. Astronomers ‘realised that it was Sandaluk I, astar in the Andromeda galaxy milions of ight years trom Earth. SoS e Cnet etd PP Ce Lae la star near the Sun exploded, the Earth would probably be ene blasted out of ts orbit. We would see the explosion before the shock wave hit us. cory MSO een eee! eeu ece Cec Lie Figure 1 The Crab Neoula Figure 2 Formation ofthe Solar SysternMolecules of carbon-based chemicals are present in space. Life on Earth prebably developad fram chemicals reacting in lightning storms. So are we looking for any scientific evidence about Ife on other planets, ‘ther in our own Solar System or around othor stars? © Space probes sent to Mars have tested the atmosphere, rocks and soll ‘on Mars locking for microbes or chemicals that might indicate Ife was once present on Mars. Water is necessary for life, Astronomers now havo strong ovidence of the presanco of ‘underground! wator breaking ‘through to the surface of Mars. © Tho search for extra-torrostrial intelligonce, known as SETI, has gone (on for more than 40 years using radio telescopes. Signals from space would indicato the existance of living boings with technologios at least as advanced as our own. No signals have been cetected - yet! Figure 2 The NASA Exploration Rovers looked for signs of life on Nas Planet Earth ‘The heaviest known natural element is uranium. Ithas a haltite of 4500 milion years. The presence of uranium in the Earth is evidence that the Solar System ‘must have formed from the remnants of a supernova. Elements such as plutonium are heavier than uranium. Scientists can make these elements by bombarding heavy elements like uranium with high-speed neutrons. They would have been present in the debris which formed the Soler ‘System. Elemants heavier than uranium formed then hava lang since decayed. b Plutonium-239 has a halt-lfe of about 24.000 years. Why is itnnot found naturally ike uranium? © Why is carbon an important element? BME ead 1 Match each statement below with an elementin te ft. helium ygrogen json waniam 4 Holum roel ere formed when nudli ofthis element are fused. b This element is formed in a supernova explosion. € Stars form nucle of these two eloments (and others not sted) by fuaing emallor nuclei. d The early universe mostly consisted of this element. 2 Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below. Each word can be used more than once. galaxy planets stars supemova «Fusion inside... ereetea ight slements, Fusion ina heavy elements. b A... Setters the eloments throughout a.. ¢ «and planets formed from the debris ofa... contain allthe known elements. 3 Uranium.298s a radioactive isotope found naturally nthe Earth. thasa | [Ccumeu eeg an half of about 4500 milion years. It ves formed tom lighter elomerts. Filed pele a1 Whatietho name ofthe physical prooges in which this isotope io RE cu formed? Re eee I What is the name for the astronomical event in which the above De aunty process takes place? ee oer ry b Why has all the uranium in the Earth not decayed by now? Te nical Fe en eaeTT auc ee A Summary questions oO 4a Copy and complete ito ili using the words below: decreases increases stays the same When energy is released at a steady rata in a nuclear reactor, i the number of fission evants each second in the core : the amount of uranium-235 in the core : the number of radioactive isotopes in the fuel rods Expiain what would happen in a nuclear reactor if the coolant fluid leaked out of the core the coniral rods were pushed further into the reactor core. a1 What do we mean by nuclear fusion? Why do two nuclei repel each ether when they get close? I Why do they need to collide at high speed in order to fuse together? Give two reasons why nuclear fusion is difficult to achieve in a reactor. Copy and complete i to ili using the words below. Each word can be used more than ance. fission fusion tina reactor, two small nuclel join together and release energy. Ina reactor, a large nucleus splits and releases energy. The fuel in a Stato two advantages that nucloar fusion reactors ‘would have in comparison with nuclear fission reactors. reactor contains uranium-236. @ ai What physical process causes energy to be released in the Sun? li. Which element is used in the physical process armed in part ito release energy in the Sun? How will the Sun change in the next stage of Its Ife cycle when it has used up all the element named in part aii? '® Copy and complete a to d using the words below. Each word can be used more than once, galaxy planet stars aA isn't big enough to be a star. b The Sunisinside a e became het after they formed trom matter pulled together by the force of gravity, 4. The force of gravity keeps... logether inside a ‘o€'# Whatforce pule dust and gee in epace? bb Why do large planets ike Jupiter net produce thsi own ight? Whats the name for the type of reaction that reloasoe energy in the core of the Sun? a The stages in the development of the Sun are listed below. Put the stages in the correct sequence. dust and gas present stage protostar red giant white dwart After the white dwart stage, what will haopen to the Sun? ‘What will happen to a star that has much more mass than the Sun? “moom> s What is a supernova? How could we tell the difference between a. supemova and 2 distant star like the Sun at present? Whatis a black hole? What would happen to stars and planets near a black hola? eal Which element as wall as hydrogen is formad in tha early univers? Which of the two elements is formed from the other nein a star? Which two of the elements listed below is not formed in a star that cives out radiation at a steady rate? eal carbon iron lead urenium How de we know that the Sun formed from the debris of a supernova?End of chapter questions AQ#/Examination-style questions @ 4 a Copy and complete the following diagram to show how a chain reaction may occur inside a nuclear fuel rod containing many uranium-235 nuclei. @ Neutron @. Susi rucleus b Name the other fiesionable substance that ia used in some nuclear reactors, a The passages below reflect same af the conflicting opinions about nuclear power. ‘Nuclear power isa low-emission source of energy and isthe only readily available, large-scale alternative to fossil fuels for a continuous, reliable supply of electricity. The waste from nuclear power occupies a tiay volume and can be safely returned to the Eacth for underground storage. Anew generation of nuclear poner stations will only reduce our emissions by four per cent by 2024: far too little, far too late, to stop global warming. They ‘will create tens of thousands of tonnes of the most hazardous radioactive waste, which remains dangerous for up to a million years. 1 What ara the ‘emissions’ that both sourcas refer to? o Why can nuclear waste remain dangerous for nillions of years? a) IE Give one advantage and one disadvantage of the storage of nucloar wasto underground. @ iv Explain why it would not be possible to replace fossil fuels with wind power alone. Q For over 50 years scientists have been experimenting with fusion reactors with the aim of eventually generating electricity. The latest research project, called ITER, Is scheduled to start operating in France in 2018 and is a collaboration betweon many countries. 1 State two of the potential benefits of fusion power. a li_ Why are some people opposed to the research into fusion power? @ 2 a Copy and complete the following sentences using the list of words and phrases below. Each one can be used once, more than once or net at all. split fusion join alargor one fission two smaller nuclei ‘The Sun's energy is produced by nuclear : ‘This is where atomic nuclei toform @) b Which elemant was the first to form in the universe? (1) ‘© Tho red upor giant star Botolgouso is likoly to explodo aS a supernova and then form a neutron star. The: red supergiant VV Cephel is likely to explode as a supernova and become a black hole, What causes the fate of these two stars to be different? @ 1d Which type of star producas all the elements up to ton? 1) The diagram shows the forces acting within a star. ‘The grey arrows show the outward force created by radiation. Star A is stable but in star B the outward force has become less. “SN i What type of force is counteracting the outward force from radiation? o What is about to happen to star B? a) ‘Suggest why the force from radiation may suddenly decrease, @ 3 In this question you will be assessed on using good English, organising information clearly and using specialist terms where appropriate. Explain how the solar system formed and why there were elements heavier than iron present when itformed. (6)Examination-style questions 1 Atoycannon uses a A Betoreting Siting spring to fire a metal ball bearing. B dest ates fing sy oS o> Calculate the deceleration of the cannon after itis fired and recoils to the left. ‘The initial velocity of the cannon was-0.3m\s, then it slows down and stops in 0.6 seconds. 2 Yo find out how fast the ball bearing travels when itis fired, the student measures the recoil velocity (¥,) of the cannon using a light gate. b What is meant by the conservation of momentum? Q © Calculate the velocity of the ball bearing ity, is -0.3m/s. ‘Mass of canroa = 0.15kg ‘Mass of ball bearing = 0.0045 kg ‘Write down the equation you use, Show clearly how you work out the answer and ge the unt. 1H1@) 4 Calelate the kinetic energy of the cannon just after iti fired 2 €-1 Calculate the spring constant ithe force required to compress the spring & distance of 2em was 23N. 8 Describe the energy transfers that take place between diagram A and diagram B. : tov THI @) 1. FH 5 180 a Oy a r OG a fF is Explain why the resistance between B and Cis les than the resistance between ‘A and B when switch S is closed. 2 bb The potential differ between A and B is 8V when switch Sis closed. What isthe potentia! difference between B and C? a ¢ 1 Calculate the current through bulb L1. a ii Caleulate the current through bulb L3. 3 4 Switch $isopened 1 Explain what effect this will have oa the brighiness of bulb Li. @ Ji Calculate the resistance botween A and C. a iil Show that the current through Li is now 0.33. a tv Calculate the total power delivered to both bulbs. 2 ¢ With the switch open the battery will deliver 500C of charge before the bulbs start to dim. How long can the cireuit be left on before this happens? 2 KOU Bath acoeleration and eceleration are calculated using tho samo equation. ‘The object is decelerating ifthe equation gives a negative value for the acceleration. Loam definitions and laws like the one for the lavr of conservation of momentum. XCQA Examiner's tip Good knowledge of the circuit rules is essential to answer this question, When you are calculat ‘the current through a component, make sure you are using the potential difference across that ‘component only.3 Plutonium-239 has a halt-life of 24200 years and decays into uranium-235 with a half: life of 703 million years. These substances are both fissionable, a i Explain what is moant by fissionable, @Q ‘What is meant by ‘a halflife of 24200 years"? Q) A sample of phutonium-239 of mass 0.8kg is being stored. How many years will ‘pass before the sample contains (.7kg of uranium-235? Show clearly hew you work out your answer, @ iy Tthe sample were kept at a higher temperature and pressure, what effect would this have on your answer to part a ii? wo b Explain how a small amount of uranium:235 is found i the Earth's erust in rocks such as granite, when hardly any plutonium is found occurring naturally and nearly all ofit is formed in nuclear reactors. 2) Name one other natural source of background radiation that we are constantly exposed to, apart from rocks. a Plutonium (Pu) has 94 protons. Copy and complete the following decay equation to show how it decays into uranium235, [HI (6) ee € List the stages below in the correct order to describe the life eycle of a star that is about the same size as the Sun, One of the stages is not part of the life eyele of this, type ofstar. 6) Protos wt ea gir anart Bc Ne — Sipeneve 4 in tisquston you wilde assed on asing good English, organising information clearly and using specialist terms where appropriate. In 1911 Ernest Rutherford published a scientific paper in which he suggested the cxistence of a very small region at the centre of every atom where most of the charge and mass is concentrated. Rutherford was interpreting the results of an experiment carried out by his research workers Geiger and Marsden in 1909. ‘Outline the main results of this experiment and explain why these results led Rutherford to suggest the existeace of the atomic nucleus. (6) End of unit questions @ Tricky caleuiations involving halflife start to become quite straight. forward when you have practisod a fow. When completing any decay equation, the atomic rumbers on the right must add to give the atomic umber on the latt. The ‘same rule applies to the meas numbers, oe FAC QA Examiner's tip ‘A question that requires an extended writton answer will have 6 marks available and the quality cf your writtan English willl influence your mark. Once you have written your answer, read the question again, bafore reading your answer through to check that all parts of Don't just know the results of the Rutherford end Marsden scattering experiments, know why ‘these results were so important.Figure 1 a Taking a chest Xxay b A chest wo Ire? Spot the break i) Haye you ever broken an erm or @ leg? Ifyou have, you will have gone to your local hospital for an X-ray photograph. X-rays are electromagnatc waves at the short-wavelength end of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are produce an X-ray tube when fast-moving electrons hit a target. Their wavelengths are about the same as the diameter of an alom. To make a radiograph or X-ray photograph, X-rays from an X-ray tube are directed at the patient. A lightprocf cassetta containing a photographie film or a flat-panel detector is placed on the other side of the patient. ‘© When tho X.ray tubo is ewitehed on, X-rays from the tube pass through the. part of the patient's body under investigation. © X-rays pass through soft tissue but they are absorbed by bones, teeth and metal objects that are not too thin. The parts of the film or the detector that the X-rays reach become darker than the other parts. So the bones appear lightar than the surrounding tissua which appears dark. The radiograph shows 2 ‘negative image’ of the bones. A hole or a cavity ina tooth shows up as a dark aroa in the bright image cf the tooth, e An organ that consists of soft tissue can be filled with a substance called a contrast medium which absorbs X-rays easily. This enables the internal surfaces in the organ to be seen on the radiograph, For example, to obtain a radiograph of the stomach, the patient is given a barium meal before the X-ray machine is used, The barium campound is a good absorber of X-rays. © Lead ‘absorber’ plates between the tube and the patent stop X-rays reaching ther parts of the body. Lead is used because it is a good absorber of Xrays. The X-rays reaching tha patient pass through 2 gap between the plates. A flat-panel detector is a small screen that contains a CCD (charge-coupled device). The sensors in the CCD are covered by a layer of a substance that converts X-rays to ight. The light rays then create electronic signals in the sensors that are sent to a computer which displays a digital X-ray image. a Why is acrack in a bone visible on a radiograph (X-ray image)? Xraclation, as well as gamma radiation, is dangerous because It lonises substances it passes through. High doses kil ving oolls. Low doses can cause cell mutation and cancerous growth. There is no evidence of a safe limit below which living cells would not be damaged. Workers who use equipment or substances that produce Xradiation (or alpha, bata or gamma radiation) must wear a flm badge. Ifthe badge is overexpasad ‘to such radiation, its weaver is stopped from working with the equipment. Why does a film badge have a plastic case, and nota metal case? Dootors use X-ray thorapy to destrey cancerous tumours in the body. Thick plates between the X-ray tube and the body stop X-rays from reaching healthy body ‘tissues, A gap between the plates allows X-rays through to reach the tumour. X-rays for therapy ara shorter in wavelength than X-rays used for imaging, © Why is itimportant to stop X-rays reaching healthy body tissues?The CT scanner ‘A.computerised tomography scannar (CT scanner) produces a digital image of any cross-section through the body. It can also be used to construct a thrae-dimensionel {3-D) image of an organ. Figure 3 shows an end-view of a CT scanner. The patient lies, stationary on a bed thet isin a ring of detectors. ‘© Tho Xray tubs automatically moves round the inside of the ting small steps. © At each position, X-rays from the tube pass through the patient and reach the detector ting. ¢ Electronic signals from the detector are recorded by a computer until the tube has moved round the ring. © The computer displays a digital image of the scanned area. Each detector receives X-rays that have travelled through ciffarent types of tissue. The detector signal depends on: © the different types of tissue along the X-ray path © how far the X-rays pass through each type cf tissue. ‘Table-1 Comparison of a CT scanner with an ordinaly Kay machine (CT scanner Ordinary Xray machine Image clstinguishes between Yes Yes bone and softtissue Image elstinguishes between Yes No ltferent types of soft tissue Three-dimensional image Yes No Radiation dose CT scanner gives a much higher dose than an ordinery X-ray machine Gost GT equipment cost Is much greater than an ordinary X-ray maHine Summary questions 1 Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below: absorb damage penetrate a Xrays__. thin metal sheets. b Thick lead plates will Xays. Xrays, living tissue. 2 When an X-ray photograph is taken, why is it necessary: to place tha patient between the X-ray tube and the film cassatte? b to have the film in a lightproof cassette? ¢ to shield those parts of the patient not under investigation from rays? Explain what would happen to healthy cel's. 3 State one advantage and one disadvantage of a CT scanner in ‘comparison with an ordinary X-ray machine. ‘connected io computer Figure 8 The CT scarner~ ican citinguish between ifforen: typoe of sof seu, as well as bone CO links For more information about ‘soanners used in hospitals, see P92.8 Aphysios case study. a] Figure 4 A fim badge tlls you how ‘much ionising radiation the wearer has received. Whe might weer these? Om Spree) SE uk Peony 2 to destroy tumours at or near the body suriace. Peake a Peta crus ere euceked Peretti os ret between different types eae between bone (or teeth) and eseu eee od Dy used for in medicine? SOE ee eee) Ceo Ro el Sku einer i CO Kinks For more information on the use of an oscilloscope, look back at P2 6.1 Alternating current. _— Display Control system Figure 2 2 An ultrasound scanner systern 1b An ulasound image of a baby in the Medical applications of physics Ultrasound (« ‘The human ear can detect sound waves in the frequency range irom about 2012 to about 20000Hz, Sound waves above the highest frequency that, humans can detect are called ultrasound waves. ete Testing ultrasound High tequenoy Figure 1 Tasting utrasounds Use a loudspeaker connected to a signal generator to produce ultrasound waves. Connect a microphone to an oscilloscope to detect the waves and display them. You can use the apparatus to: © measure the frequency of the ultrasound waves © test different materials to see i they absorb ultrasound waves © show that ultrasounc waves can be partly reflected. ‘When a layar of material is placed between the loudspeaker and the microphone, the waves on the soreen become smaller in amplitude. What conclusions can you draw from this? Ultrasound scanners Ultrasound waves are used for prenatal scans of @ baby in the womb. They are also used to ‘see! organs in the body such as a kidney or damaged ligaments and muscles. An ultrasound scanner consists of a transducer placed on tho body surfaco, a control eystom and a display seveon. The transducer produces and detects pulses of ultrasound waves. Each pulso trom the transducer: @ is partially raflected from the different tissue boundaries in its path © rotumns to the transducer as a saquence of reflectad pulses from the boundaries, arriving back at different times. ‘The transducer is moved across the surface of part of the body. The pulses are then detected by the transducer. They are used to build up an image on a screen of the internal tissue boundaries in the body. ‘The advantages of using ultrasound waves instead of X-rays for madical scanning are that ultrasound waves (unlike X-rays) ere: @ non ionising and therefore harmless when used for scanning @ roflectod at boundaries botweon differant types of tissue so they can bo used to scan organs and other soft tissues in the body. o-$$ ___________ ea ee Distance measurements Sight can sometimes be restored to High traquorey blind porson by replacing tho oyo bulse generator lens with an artificial lens, Before this Trnsiucar is done, the eye surgeon needs te know how long the eyeball is. This Is to make sure the new lens gives clear vision, Figure 3 shows how ultrasound is usad fo measure the engtt of the eyeball. This type of scan is called an A-scan. Figure 8 Pleo ie duo to partal reflecion atthe ‘ent surtace ofthe eye ‘A\transducer at the front of the eye sends ultrasound pulses into the eye Pulse Bs due to partil reflection atthe The roflected pulses aro dotected by the transducer and displayed on an surfaces of the eye lens. Pie Cis due to reflaction tthe beck ofthe eye. Sema further pulses are present due 1 partial reflecion beyond the back of the eye oscilloscope screen or on a computer monitor, as shown in Figure 3. b In Figure 3, how can we tell that the eye lens is nearer to the front of the eye than itis to the back of the eye? ‘We can use the oscilloscope to measure the ‘vansit time’ of each pulse. This is the time takon by the pulse to travel from the transmitter at the surface to ‘Tho distance oquat symbols: and from the boundary that reflected it. To calculate distance travelled: s=vxt the distance travelled _ speed of utrasounc its transit Where: bythe pulse ~ waves in body tissue“ tme is the distance in metres, m Since the pulse travels from the surface to the boundary then back to the vie the spoed in matres oer surface, the depth of the boundary below the surface is therefore half the second, mis. distance travelled by each pulse to and fiom the boundary, So tis the time taken in seconds, s. the depth ofthe boundary _ 1 speedfthe transit below the surface 2“ utrasound waves “timo TTarsmited puse ___Farsidepuse Untrasound therapy Kidney stones can be very paintul. Powerful ultrasound waves can be used to break a kidney stone into tiny bits. The fragments are small enough to leave the kidney naturally. The transmitier is used in an A-scan system so that the waves are aimed exactyy at the kidney stone, Figure 4 The screen cf an oscllescope 7 ‘connected to an utrasaund detocter on eA the surface ofa patent's body 4 a Why aro ultrasound waves partly rolootod by body organs? ® Wy an uvatoure cone bet aan Yay Soamer for Te scanning a body organ? eer) 2 Look at the serven in Figure 4. It shows the reflected pulses that are Peenionier revo detected for each transmitted pulse. Eee a How many internal boundaries ere present according to this display? b The cscilloscope beam takes 32 milionths of a sacond to travel across each grid square on the screen. 1 How long does each pulse take to travel from the body surface to Ep aD ‘the nearest internal boundary? = IL The speed of ultrasound in the body Is 1500rm/s. What Is the Stradale distance ‘rom tho body surface to the nearest tissue boundary? eee ented 3a InanA.soan of a ‘model’ eye, the distance from the front to the De ener) ack of the eye was known to be 48mm. I Figure 3 represented the as oscilloscope display for the mocel eye, what would be the distance OM Ie from the aye lens to the front of the model eya? eee rape aa b Estimate the accuracy ofthe distance you calculated in a and oo ee ar eeRu ead Og the refractive Index of a Ree ad Fada seukied angles of incidence and Dee nha Figure 1 A laser beam entering water ORE Remember that angles / andr ‘are measured between the ray and tha normal Using a calculator Tofind the vaiue of the sine of a given angie in degreas or the angle in degrees for a given sine value, make sure your calculators in degree mode. Key the angle in degrees into your calculator thon pros ‘the button marked ‘sin’ (or on some calculators press ‘sin’ first). The calculator wil then display the sine of the anole, To find the angle for a given sine value, key the sine value into your ealoulator and press the button marked ‘inv sin’ (or ‘sin *‘on some calculators). Medical applications of physics Refractive index (« ‘When a light ray tavele from air into a transparent substance, ite direction may change. We say refraction of the light ray takes place at the boundary between the air and the transparent substance. Figure 1 shows the refraction of @ lightray travelling from air into water. Ifthe incident light ray hac bean directed at rant angles to the surface (Le. along the normal), no change of direction would have occurred. Bro Investigating how the angle of refraction varies with, the angle of incidence We can use a semicircular transparent glass block as shown Incident ay in Figure 2. © Measure the angle of refraction, 1 for differant angles of Incidence, i © Record all your measurements ina tablo. Figure 2 Using « eomicicular block Fora light ray travelling into glass from air as in Figure 2, your results should show that: 1 the angle of refraction is always loss than the angle of insidence 2 the greater the angle of incidence, i, the greater the angle of retraction, r. Snell's law ‘Some typical results are shown below in Table 1. Tablet aint 10 ro sin sine ae. 100 65 otra o.tts 1.54 200 130 o.sae 0225 152, 300 190 “The measurernris canbe used to show tat 2"! aways has the samo vaio, regardless ofthe ang of incdence. This rlatonship was first ciacovred in {eiB.and ekrown as Snell's law ater it lsooverer Calle the mean value o or your own moasurements. Thi is the refractive index of the Dock you Test,The law of refraction Fora light ray travelling from air into a transparent substance, the ratio of is always the same for the same substance. sinr Worked example A lightray travels trom giass into air across a straight boundary, as shown at P in Figure 3. The angle of incidence of the light ray in the glass is 32.0". The refractive index of the glass is 1.85, Calcuiate the angle of refraction of the light ray in the ‘This ratio is callad the reiractive index of the substance. In other words: the rofract index of the substance, n = Sint where /is the angle of incidence and ris the angle of refraction. Rearranging the above equation to make sin tha subject gives sin Roarranging the above equation to make sin r the subject gives sin a InTable 1, the angle of refraction is 19.0° for an angle of incidence of $0". gir, Use this information to calculate the refractive index of the block. Give one reason why the refractive index values from a differ from Solution hose oven rsseh Let be the angle of refraction ‘The sine of the angle in air = 1 xxthe sine of the angle in glass hence sin r = 1.55 xin 32.0° 821 Ithe light ray in Figure 3 were reversed, the direction arrows would be Therafore r = 65.1° reversed but the path would bo the same, Wo can adapt the law of refraction to cover both situations by writing itas: When a light ray travels from a transparent substance into air at anon- zero angle of incidence: €@ the light ray is refracted away from the normal, ace point P in Figure 3. @ tho larger the angle of incidence is, the larger the angle of refraction, the sine of the angle in air = n x the sine of the angl glass 1 Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below. Each word can be used more than once. ess more @ When @ lightray travels from air to glass, the angle of refraction is always.........than the angle of incidence. b When a light ray travels rom water Into ar, the angle of incidence in the water is... than the angle of refraction in air. ¢ Whan a light ray travelling from air into glass is refracted, reducing the angle of incidence makes the angie of retraction... In Table 1, when / = 40°, r= 26% ‘8 Show thet the value of refractive indox given by the above values of angles j and ris 1.47 b Give one possible reason why the value of refractive index in a differs 0 much from the values shown in the tablo. The refractive index of water is 1.38. Tee 2 Aight ray enters a flat water surface at an angle of incidence of 35.0° ey Caloulate the angle of refraction ofthe light ray. ieee en i g b Aight ray travels from water into air. Tho angle of insidence of the ca light ray in the water is 45.0°. Calculate the angle of refraction of the light ray in the ar, vy Figure 3 From glass to air _sint CdMedical applications of physics BM Ts (tere) 1 Ms Optical fibres are very thin glass fibres that are designed to transmit light or Learning objectives infrared radiaton. We use them in medicine to see inside the body without outing the body open. In telecommunications they are used to send signals ry Parry Wplmp hele AMN) — sccurely. Tha cht rays can't escape irom the bre. Each ight ray entoring a fibre at one end leaves the fibre atthe ther end even ifthe fibre bends round, rch This is because a light ray in the fibre is totally intemally reflected each time TORE uC eel) it reaches tha fibra’s boundary (Figure 4). Cee eis fi} OM) Investigating total internal reflection internal reflection? In the previous topic, we saw that alight ray travelling from glass into air at non-zero angle of incidence is refracted away from the normal. A partially tl reflacted ray is also seen, as shown in Figure 2. The angle of reflection of this, Diced ial ray in the glass is the same as the angle of incidence. @ Ifthe angle of incidence in the glass is gradually increased, the angle of rofracticn increases until the retracted ray emerges along the boundary, as shown in Figure 3. The angle of incidence at this position is referred to as the eritical angle, labelled c in Figure 3. —. ‘Whats the angle between the normal and the refracted ray when the Fay of ight ‘optcal bre ‘angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle? Figure 1 Light rays in an optical fibre @ Ithe angle of incidence is increased beyond the critical angle, the light ray jotally internally reflected at P, as chown in Figure 4. When total internal reflection occurs, the angle of refiecton r, at P, is equal to th angle of jence, i Ifthe light ray in Figure 2was reversed, —_incdentry, the direction arrows would be reversed but the path would be the seme, We can adept the law of rafraction to cover this situation by writing it as: P rrnal ot P the sine of the angle in sine of the angle in glass We can appiy this equation to the critical ray in Figure 3, The angle in ar is 90° and Roasted Figure 2 Pertalreecton and retacton the angle in glass is c, =nxthe Paria ~ reflection Figure $ Atthe ctical angle sin 90° = nxsine eres Because sin 90° = 1, the equation above becomes 1 = nxsinc. Rearranging this equation gives Worked example 1 Caloulate the critical angle for glass of refractive index 1.59. a or sinc= € b Tho critical anglo for a certain typo Solution 4 of glass is 43.0°. Calculate the sinc = += 75 = 0.609 refractive index of this glass. Therefore ¢ = 39.0" cae Figure 4 Total internal refectonEe The endoscope “The endoscope is used by a surgeon to see inside a body cavity, such as the stomach, without cutting the body open. The endoscope is inserted into the stomach via the patient's throat. The endoscope contains two bundles, of optical flzres alongside gach other. One of the bundlas Is used to shine light into the cavity and the other to eee the intomal suriaces of the cavity. A tiny lens over the second bundle is used to form an image on the ends of the fibres in the bundle. The image can then be seen directly or by using a digital ccamora at tho othor ond ofthe fibre bundlo. For example, the endoscope can be used to observe a stomach ulcer or a bone fragment in the knee joint, The surgeon can then use keyhole surgery to remove them, Laser light may be used as a source of energy in an endoscope to carry out some surgical procedures. It can cut away or burn away and destroy diseased tissue, Itcan also seal off (cauterise) eaking blood vessels. This is possible with laser ight because the energy can be focused on toa very small area of a surface. In addition, the colour of laser light can be matched to the type of tissue. By choosing an appropriate laser source, it ensures the most effective absorption. Eye surgery on the retina can be cauried out by apolying the laser light through the pupil ofthe eye for a vary short time. Satety note: Never look into or along a laser bear, even alter reflection. It will damage the retina and may cause permanent blindness. Special safety goggles should always be worn in the presence of @ laser beam ECU A Cece aed 4 Copy and complete a to d using the words below: retraction refiection partial reflection total internal reflection Wher « light ray travele from air into glass and changes direction, it undergoes When a light ray inside glass reaches the surface with air and stays in the glass, it undergoes... When 2 ligntray passes from glass to air, some of the light uncergoes Whan 2 light ray inside glass reaches the surface with undergoes .......and ........ Ifthe angle of incidence Is less than the ctitioal angle. P Figure 6 shows a light ray optical fibre. The angle of of the light ray at P is greater than the ctitioal angle cf the optical fibre. Copy the diagram and complete the path of the light ray inside the optical flbre. Stato two advantagos of using an ‘endoscope instead of X-rays to observe fragments of bone in a knee joint? Figure 6 The roftactive indox of wator is 1.88. Calculato the critical angio of water. b The critical angle for a certain tyoe of glass is 42.0°. Calculate the refractive index of the glass. Optica nie (H] Figure § A stomach uicer viewed ‘through an endoscope °© The critical angle Is the angle Cree idl Sees Ft eat rd CCL Roce Rad to a accrd Cou a incidence of a ight ray in ST oie) Cy or Se ek Deen ccdRu ead © What is a converging Ae Me OR rg ree What Is a virtual image? er nos poten ed Figure 2 A clgital camera Oye Remember that a diverging lore makes light rays from @ point object soread cut diverge} more. Investigating the converging lens © Use the arrangement in Figure 5 to investigate the image formed by a converging lens. Figure 5 Investigating images Medical applications of physics LLonaoe are used in optical devices such as the camera. Although a digital camera is very different from the frst cameras made over 160 years ago. they both contain a lens that is used to form an image. Converging lene Types of lenses Alons works by changing the direction af ight fn passing thrcugh it. Figure 1 shcws the etfect of a lens on the ight raye from array box. Figure + Investigating lenses ‘The curved shape of the lens surfaces retracts the rays so they mest at a point. Different lens shapes can be tasted using this arrangement. @ Acconverging (convex) lens makes parallel rays converge to a focus. The point where parallel rays are focused to is the principal focus (or focal point) of the lons. Seo Figure 3. We use a converging lens as a magnifying lass and in a camera to form a clear image of a distant object. © Adiverging (concave) lens makes parallel rays diverge (spread out). The point where the rays aopear to come from is the principal iocus of the lens See Figure 4, We use diverging lenses to correct short sight. @ In both cases, the distance from the centre of the lens to the principal focus Is the focal length of the lens. Notice that the principal focus is usually shown in ray diagrams on oach side of the lors. a Which is more poweriul, a lens with a focal length of Sem or one with a focal length of 50cm? Diverging en Fane ays 7 Paral rays of ght Converging lens Prine ase ott 7 7 pri panda focus fonusF Focallingth | Focaltengh 2? Figure 3 The ocallength ofa converging Figure 4 The cal engin ofadivergng (creowes rs {orconcave) rs The converging lens Practical Lamp box viewed ®@ e So ‘Converging fons Lamp white ‘ox screen ‘Screen vowed ‘rom font1 With the object at different distances beyond the principal @ — focus of the lens, adjust the position of the screen until you see a clear Image of the object on it. This is called a real ‘age because it is formed on the screen where the light rays meet. @ When the object is a long distance away, the image is ‘formed at the principal focus of the lens. This is bacause ‘the rays from any point on the object are effectively parallel to each cther when they reach the lens. b ~ ¢@ Ii the object is moved nearer the lens towerds its principal Comergnglons focus, the screen must be moved further from the lens to see a clear image. The nearer the object is to the lens, the larger the image is. —_ Figure 6 a The image ot adistant object, ban enlarged image Converging lens b Is the image inverted or upright in Figure 8a? 2 With the object nearer to the lens than the principal focus, a magnified image is formad. The image is called a virtual image bocause itis formed where tho rays appear to come from. But you can only see the image whan you look into the lens from the side opposite to the abject. The lens acts as a magnifying glass in this situation ¢ Why is a diamond usually inspacted with a magnifying glass? Magnification ati _ image height ‘The magnification produced by a lens = ‘object height Ifthe image is larger than the object, as in Figure 6b and Figura 7, the ‘magnification is greater than 4, It the image is smaller than the object, as in Figure 6a, the magnification is less than 1. era ee La BCU As ceed focuses parallel rays to a 4 Copy and completa a and b using the words below: point called the principal converging diverging real virtual Lead a A.........lens can be used to focus light from an abject on toa See aad ‘screen. The image of the object is a. image. Ce ol [aml ener natiaentatrcieiiitae tone peat cise Crear) spread out more. The image of the object is a image. Trl Chabal alah al ‘A postage stamp is inspected using a converging lens as a magnifying glass. Describe the image. ee a) ‘Aconverging lene le used fo form a magnified imege ofa slide on fo a Cee end screen ee Rud 1 Describe the image formed by the lens. Pe eae Tho sersen is moved avray from tho lons. What adjustmont must TT be made to the position ofthe slide to focus its image on the Peart ry screen again? Ctr dad 3 a Describe the image of the bird in Figure 6b and estimate the Ca oe ‘magnification ofthe lons. Cel ae b Describe how the image changes ifthe lens is moved further away image height {rom the bird and the card is moved to obtain a new clear image. OrsoPee eierccud Pe ee Ce ed eau eu) bya converging lens when ey en bettie eee Dieta aes camera and in a magnitying Poa ‘What type of image is Seer Lury magnifying glass, and by a Creel cet arg OWE TTI Make sure your ray diagrams ‘are neat and that you put arrows on the rays. You need to be able to draw a scale cciagram to find the focal length of ¢ lens for a particular magnification, See Summary ‘question 3. Medical applications of physics Using lenses The position and nature of the image formed by a lens depends on: @ tho focal longth, i, of the lons © the distance from the object to the lens. we know the focal length and the object distance, we can find the position and nature of tha image by drawing a ray diagram. Formation of a real image by a converging lens To form a real image using a converging (convex) lens, the odject must bs beyond the principal focus, F, of the lens. Sea Figure 1. The image is formed on the other side of the lens to the object. Converging bs (shownas thnine wn arewtec) alimace pn aimiishesy PUG Principal Obet OF F Fay ¢ isparall to the xi and efactd trough F Ray @ passes sraght hough the cenbe of me lens ppascesthraughF andi rafacad paall tothe ais Figure 1 Formation ofa real image by a converging lens. The diagram shows that we can use three key ‘construction’ reys from a single paint of the object to locate tha image. © The principal axis of the lens is the straight line that passes along the normal at the centre of each lens surface. Notice we draw the lens asa straight line with ‘outward’ arrows to shaw itis a converging lens. © Tha image is real, inverted and smaller than the object. Notice that: 1 ray 1 is rofracted through F, the principal focus of the lons, bocause it is parallel to the principal axis of the lens betore it passes through the lens 2 ray 2 passes through the centre of the lens (its pole) without change of direction; this is because the lens surfaces at the principal axis are parallel to aach other 3 ray 3 passes through F, the principal focus of the lens, before the lens, so it refracted by the lens parallel to the principal axis. ‘The image is smaller than the object because the object distance is greater than twice the focal length (f) of the lens. This is how a camera is used,The camera ‘Shutter In a camera, @ converging lens is used to procuce a real image ofan object on Co"seing ns Fimon film (or on an array of ‘pixels’ in the case of a cigital camera). The position of — d/eet which the ‘the lens is adjusted to focus the image on the film. ‘famed, © Fora distart object. the distance from thelens othe fim must be ecualto the focal langth of the ens. yar oy tot © The nearer an object isto the lens, the greater the distance from the lens to Teaching te fim the fl. Figure 2 The cemera b Ifan object moves closer to the camera, does the lens of a camera nead * to be moved towards or away from the object? Conerging os Formation of a virtual image by a converging lens Venn ‘The object must be between the lens and its principal focus, as shown in To) Figure 2. Tho image is formed on the same side of the lons as the object. \ “The image is virtual, upright and larger than the object. \ ‘Tho image can only be soon by looking at it through tho lons. This is how a. Bec magnifying glass works. Obsarver Figure 2 Formation ofa vitualimage by Formation of a virtual image by a diverging lens seonweging brs ‘The image formad by 2 diverging (concave) lens is always virtual, upright and ‘smaller than the object. Figure 4 shows why. A civeraing lens is shown as 2 line with ‘inward? arrows. © Why is adivorging lons no use as a magnifying glass? Object F image Aimee toca 1 a Copy and complete the ray diagram in Figure § to show how a Converging lens forms an image of an abject which is smaller than the | Figure # image fermation by acverging object, as ina camera. on oneness = | ST ior cued co to find the position and eee Su cos Figure 5 =a Oued) ; Peer eer ur bed b State whether the image ae eh i realor virtual eee) Il magnified or diminished papel alain loi upright or inverted. fens as the object. 2a Drawa ray diagram to show how a converging lens is used asa magnifying glass. Sekt) b State whether the imace is Irealor virtual ii magniied or diminished Pe ard iii upright or inverted. object. 3A converging lens produces a magnification of x2 when itis used to form a roal imago that is at a distance of €.0om from the objost. _Drawa scale ray diagram to show the formation of this image. b Use your ciagram to find the focal length of the lens. Diverging fons ee ar) ST a Ce TOR to form a virtual image of an CsLearning objectives ed Oe kaa anormal human eye? uence) eet a) aera ‘The conjuotiva membrane is a thin transparent membrane ‘ever the front of the eyo. A, ‘watery fluid from your tear glands under the eyelids spreads across this membrana every time you blink, The fuld contains lyesyme — a chemical that destroys bacteria. rE ‘The blind spot is a region where the retina is not sensitive to light (no light-sansttive cells present). Medical applications of physics Inside the eye Figure 1 shows the inside of a human eye. Light enters the eye through a tough transparent layor called the cornea. This protacte the eye and helps to focus light onto the retina. This is a layer of light-sensitive cells at the back of the inside of the eye. “The amount of ight entering the eye is controlled by the iris which edlusts the sizo ofthe pupil -the circular opening at the contro of tha iris. The eye lens focuses light to give a sharp image on the retina. Although the image on the retina is inverted, the brain interprets it s0 you can see it the right way up. Ins ~ coloured sing of muscle that contols ‘the amount ooh entering the eye ye lens ~ tocuses lint ort the retina ‘vareous numau transparent jaly-ite substance that Supports the bad ofthe eye ‘Aqusous humour trarsparert watery quid thet eupports fhe Retina—the fron of the eye light snsitve ‘els aun the ‘Openea — tarsparent inside ofthe eye layer that protects the aya and nes to focus Hight onto retina Bind spot region CConjunctive membrane ‘wre the ret s rot sensitiv to ight (Co gat sonsiive Pupil - tne cenval ole torres cals preset) by theirs. Light enters ths eye ‘through the pup Optic rewa— cartes ners impulses from ‘he feta tote brain Ciliary muscles —atached to tha lens by suspensory ligaments “The muscles change te hiskness ofthe aye ls Figure 1 The human eye Eye muscles —move the eye inthe socket @ You nead to know what the parts listed below are for. Gopy the list and ‘see if you can remember what each part of the eye is for. Ciliary muscles Eye lens Pupil ‘Suspensory ligaments Gomnea his Retina How does the eye focus on objects at different distances? if you look Up from this book and gaze out of e window, your eye lens automatically becomes thinner to keep what you see in focus. The eiliary muscles alter the thickness of the eye lens. They are attached to the edge of the lens by means of tho suspensory ligaments, Tho fibros of tho ciliary musolos aro parallol to the circular edge of the aye lens. When they contract, they shorten and ‘squeeze the eye lens, making it thicker. ‘Tne normal human eye has a range of vision from 25cm to infinity. This means it can sea clearly any cbject that is 25cm ar more from the eye. In ather words, the normal eye has anear point of 25cm and a far point at infinity. b Why does the pupil of the ey? appear much wider in darkness than in daylight?$$ ___________ ae To see a nearby object clearly, the eye lens has to be thicker than if the object is far away. Figures 2a and b show this. ‘Near poirt of he normal eve Pointobjent atthe near point ‘mage formed on te retina ‘b Fax point ofthe normal eye ‘To distant point object Figure 2 The normal eye Lens power ‘The power of a lens is defined as A ‘Yocal length in metres ‘The unit of power is the dioptre (D). The type of lens is indicated by: © @ positive value for the power of a converging lens (e.g. + 5.0D for a converging lens of focal length 0.20m) © a negative value for a diverging lens (@.9. - 4.0 for a diverging lens of focal length 0.25m) 1 Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below: lens iris comea retina The front of the eye is protected by the. b The pupil of the eye is at the centre of the © The.........Of the eye focuses light onto the What is the power in dioptres of: converging lens of focal lencth 0.50m? b a diverging lens of focal length 0.40m? ‘A person with normal eyesight who is reading a book looks up to ‘observe a distant object. a Describe what happens to the shape of each eye lens in this change. b What change takes place in the power of each eye lens? Fe! Maths skits We can wite this word ‘equation in symbols as follows: lens power P = + Where: P = lens power in dioptres, D focal length in metres, m. Light Is focused on to the Sheu had OR rd Col De OLY he aeMedical applications of physics lel vel mu kis ee | Sight defects ‘Short sight occurs when an eye cannot focus on distant objects. The BCS GEIGGR uncorrected image Is tormedin tonto he retina, as shown in Figure 1. do we corect I? ‘Tiss because the eyeball i oo leng or the eyo Ions foo power The eer eye muscles cannot make the eye lens thin enough to focus the image of a eed faraway object on the retina of the eye. The eye can focus nearby objects so the dotoet is refered to shor sight © Why le the rofractive index Pet AGennyn parry) Short sight is corrected by placing a diverging lens of a suitable focal length in epectacte lenses? HE) frontot the eye as shown in Figure 1. The diverging lans counteracts some of the ‘excess’ focusing power of the eye lens. Uncorrected rage Lighe ftom a dstart point objact Comected image Figure 1. Short signtand its correction Long sight occurs when an eye cannot focus on nearby objects. The uncorrected image is formed behind the retina, as shown in Figure 3. The eye lens cannot be mace thick enough to focus an image on the retina. The eye can focus distant objects so the detect is referred to as ‘long sight’. Long sightis corracted by placing a converging lans of a suitable focal length in trontot the eye, as shown in Figure 3. The correcting lens makes the rays from Figure 2 A contactors the objact diverge less. The eye lene can then focus the rays onto the retina. The correcting lens adds to the focusing power of the eye lens. Uncorrected image Nearby object Converging camacting tons Corrected image Figure 8 Long sgit ardits correction a Astudent is unable to see clearly the number plate on a car 15m away with his left eye, which has a normal near point. 's the siudent’s left eye short sighted or long-sightod?Comparison of the eye and the camera How do the eye and the camera compare as optical Instruments? They are similar in that they both contain a converging lane which forms a roal image. Look at Table 1 to see how they compare in other ways, ‘Table-1 Camparigon ofthe optics ofthe eye anc a camera The eye The camera Typeofiens | Variable locus converging lens | Fixed focus converging lens Focusing Clliary muscle alters the lens | Adustmert oflens positon adjustment thickness Image Real, inverted, magnification less than t Image detection | Light sensitive cells onthe | Photographic tlm (or CCD. reting sensors in adigkal camera) Brightness lis controls the wieth ofthe | Adjustment of aperture ‘stor? control eye pupil Lens makors at work The eye lens is a remarkable optical device, as it has a variable focal length ‘that depends on its thickness. Lans makers working for opticians need to make contact lenses and spectacle lenses exactly the right shape to obtain tho oxact focal langth for each lens. ‘The focal length of a lens depends on the refractive index of the lens material and the curvature of the two lens surfaces. ‘The larger the refractive index or the greater the curvature of the lens surfaces, ‘the greater the power of tha lens (anc the shorter its focal length). Fora lens of a given focal length, the greater the refractive index of the lens ‘material, the flatter and thinner the lans can be manufactured. This is because tho lens surfaces would be less curved. Figure 4 An eye test b After photographing a distant object, a photographer moves the camera ens away trom the GCD in the camera to take a close-up photograph. What difforonce would it make to the image if she did not move the lone? Ie eres Ca eye that can only see near objects clearly. We use a Ce eked Using his left eye, a student can only see the writing on a board at tha ‘ron’ of the class if he sits near the board. ‘2 What sight detect is he suffering from in this aye? b What type of lens should be used to correct this detect? prescribes a lens of power +2.0 ciopires to correct a sight et al bletele bell be Ces a What type of lens is it and whet is its focal length? ebjects clearly. We use a bb State what the sight defects and give one possible cause of the Ce be kien defect. een ‘Allens of a given focal length can be made using two materials that index of the glass used to each have a different reiractive indox. a How would the lens differ ifit was mace of the higher refractive index pea as material instead of the lower relracive index material? tH] cre toMedical applications of physics: P3 1.1-P3 1.8 Summary questions @ 4) Figure 1 shows an X-ray source which is used to direct X-rays at a broken leg. A photographic film in a ligh- proof wrapper is placed undar the log. Whan the film is evelopad, an image of the broken bone is observed. Figure 1 @ i Explain why an image of the bone 's seen on the film. Why is it possible to see the fracture on the image? b Whon an X ray photograph of the stomach is taken, the patient is given food containing barium before the photograph is taken. i Whyis it necessary for the patient to be given this ‘food betore the photograph is take? The exposure time for a stomach X-ray must be shorter than the exposure time for a limb X-ray. why? An ultrasonic scanner is used to observe an unborn baby. Why is ultrasound instead of X-rays used to observe an unborn baby’? 2) Ultrasonic waves used for medical scanners have a frequency of 2000 kHz. a Use the equation ‘spead = fraquency x wavelength’ tocalculate the wavelength of these ultrasonic waves in human tissue. (The speed of ultrasound in human tissue is 1600 m/s, Ultrasonic waves of this frequency in human tissue are ot absorbed much. Why is It important in a medical scanner that they ara not absorbed? @)a Figuro 2 shows a light ray entoring a glass block of retractive index 1.50 at an angle of incidence of 40° at Figure 2 ‘Shaw by calculation that tha angle cf refraction at P 525" bi Show by calculation that the critical angle of the glass is 42°, TH] Copy the diagram and continua the path ofthe ray inthe Glass until it reaches a point Q at the bottom ofthe block. Explain why the angle of incidence at is 65* i Explain why the light ray does not enter the air at Q, @ An endoscope is used to see inside the body. ——— Figure 3 ‘@ Copy and complete Figure 8 to show the path of the light ray along the optical fre. b Explain why an endoscope needs to have two bundles of optical flres. ¢ Give one reason why itis better to observe an endoscope image using a CCD camera anda TV monttor rathar than observing the image directly. ® Figure 4 shows an incomplete ray diagram of image formation by alens. Lers = Obea Figure + a What type of ens is shown in this diagram? Hl Copy the diagram and mark the focal point of the lene on the diagram. Complete the ray diagram and label the image. Describe the image and state an application of the lens used in this way. @ a State two optical differences betwean the eye lens and afl camera lens. b Stale two advantages of a digital camera compared, with a film camera, An object of height 60mm is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a converging lens at a distance of 400rnm from the pole of the lens, The focal length of the lens is 160mm, ‘@ Drew a soale ray diagram to show where the image of the object is formad. b State whether the image is 1 realor virtual upright or inverted. ¢ Determine the magnification produced by the lens.End of chapter questions AQ*4/Examination-style questions @ Link each type of wave with its uses and properties. (8) 1 Remove kidney ¥ affstsa stores rotographo tim Kil eancar cols wi Nononising| (OF scanning vii Elcromagneio WW Presraal sang wlVery short wavelength 2 The diagram shows the oscilloscope trace for an ultrasound A-scan for part of a person’s thigh. The trace is used to measure the thickness of the person's fat and muscle. [atti piercing | | ‘rom tha shin {__ Reflections from muscle] Ration For fai) _,-~ layer interfaces muse itertave \ efetion y 7 / from 070] Each square on the screan represents a time of 10 milionths of a second (0.000010). ‘@ How much time does it take for the ultrasound pulse {0 travel to tha patiant’s bone and back? The speed of ultrasound through tissue is 1540mys. a b Calculate the thickness of the layer of fat. The speed of ultrasound in the fat = 1640m/s. Give your answer in milimetres. a © Why do the reflections from the different layers of muscie get weaker with depth? a | Tho diagram shows a converging lone. i ‘@ Copy and complete the ray diagram to show the position of the image. @ b Descrioe the image that is formed. @) © Calculate the magnification produced by this lens. (2) d_ Where would a lens be used in thie way? reason for your answer. Q ‘The following diagram shows a diverging lens. Copy the diagram on to graph paper. by € Calculate the power of the lens. Show your working clearly and give the unit. ® 1 Gompiet the ray diagram to show the position ofthe image. ® 4g Describe the image that is formed. ® @ The ciegram shows a ray of light travelling through @ somiciroularglase block at various angles of inciconco, A, BandC. FigueA FigueB Fouec Se ‘a Which of the angles A, B, C or D represents the critical angle? a). bb What is happening in Figure ©? ) © angle Ais 20° and angle D is 54°, caloulato the refractive index of the glass. Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer. @ 4 Calculate the critical angle. ‘Show clearly how you work out your answer. [1] @)Using physics to make things work Colca 7 ae “To undo a very fight wheal-nut on a bieycle, you naed a spanner. The force ec le ba ‘you @poly to the spanner has a tuming effect on the nut. You couldn't undo a GEESE SCO hich would you choose? The longer the spanner handle th lss fore you eck ir eps In this example, the turning effact of the force, called the momant of the force, can be Increased by: © Increasing the size of the force © using a spanner with a longer handle. a What happens if nut won't undo and you apply too much force to it? Levers ‘A crowbar is a lever that can be used to raise one edge ofa heavy object. Look at Figure 2 ‘The weight of the object is called the load. The force the person applias to ‘the crowoar is called the effort. Using the crowbar, the effort needed to if the same objects only a small fraction of its weight. The point about which the Learn tho definition of moment crowbar turns is called the pivot or the fulerum. caretuly. In calculations, meoke sure that your units are 'b Would you choose a long crowbar or a short crowbar to shift a heavy consistent. weight? yure 2 Using crowbar Investigating the turning effect of a force ‘The diagrem in Figure 8 shows one way to investigate the tuming effect of @ force. The weight Wis moved along the matre ruler. ‘@ How co you think the teading on the newtonmeter compares with the weight? ‘You should find that the newtonmeter reading (i2. the force needed to ‘support the rule?) increases if the weight is increased. ‘© How cosas this reading change as the weight is moved away trom the pivor? You should find that the newtonmeter reading increases as the weight is moved away from the pivot. Figure 3 Investigating turring forcesThe line along which a force acts is called its line of a ‘We work out the moment of a force using this equation: moment = force _x perpendicular distance from the (newton-metres, Nm) (newions, N) line of action of the force to the pivot (metres, m) © How does the moment of the weicht W in Figure 3 change as itis moved away from the pivot? Look at Figure 4. The claw hammer Is being used to remove a nail froma wooden bearn. © The applied force F on the claw hammer tries to tum it clockwise about the pivot. © Tho moment of force F about the pivot ie F x d, where dis the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force, © The effect of the moment is to cause a much larger force to be exerted on the nal Worked example force of 50N is exorted on a claw hammer of length 0.0m, as shown in Figure 4. Calculata the moment of the force. Solution Force = 60N x 0.30m = 16Nm Calculate the moment ifthe force on the claw hammer had been 70N. 1 Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below: larger smalier unchanged A force acts on an object and makes il tum about a fixed point. a Ifthe force is increased without changing its line of action, tha moment of the force is ........ b Ifthe force is doubled and the perpendicular distance from its line of action to the pivot is halved, the moment is... ¢ Ifthe force is reduced and the perpendicular distance from its line of action to the pivat is reducad, the momant is. 2 In Figura 1, a force is applied to 2 spanner to undo a nut. Stata whether the moment of the force is: clockwise or anticlockwise, »b increased or decreased by: i increasing the force exerting the force nearer the nut. 8 Explain each of the following statements: a Itis easier to remove a nail with a claw hammer if the hammer has a long handle. b Adoor with rusty hinges is more difficult 1o open than a door of the same siza with lubricated hinges. 4 A spanner of length 0.25 m is used to tum a nut as in Figure 1, Calculate ‘the force that needs to be applied ‘o the end of the spanner ifthe moment it exerts is to be 18Nmn. [H] ‘The word equation can be written using symbols, as follows: moment M =F x6 Where: M = moment in newton-metres, Nm force in newtons, N d= perpendiculer distance from the line of action of the force to the pivot, in metres, m. MomentotF = Fx a A patient fitted with a replacement hip Joint has to be very careful at first. A sight movement can cause a turning effect that pulls the hip joint apart. try measure of the turning effect Of the force on an object. a unteccacd ees TLL ad eae Cee ue ral Pun i) Cadel Oe ead of a force F, increase F or increase d.Using physics to make things work P3 2.2 Tho design of racing oars has changed a lot since the first models. But ono Learning objectives thing that has not changed is the need to keep the car near the ground, The weight of the car must be as low as possible. Otherwise the car would ‘vertu when cornering at high speeds. Tightrope walkers carry a org pole to keep balanced. ‘Thay use the pole to keep contre of mass (and pole} iractly above the rope. A slight body movement one way is counterbalanced by st pole slightly the other way. Suspended equilibrium Ifyou suspend an object and then release it, it will s00ner or later come to rest with its centre of mass directly below the point of suspension, as shown. in Figure 2a, The object is then in equilibrium. Its weight doos not axort a tuming affect on the object because its centre of mass is directly below the point of suspension. Ifthe object is turned from this position and then released, it wil swing back to its equi position. This is bacause its waight has a turning effect that returns the object to equilibrium, as shown in Figure 2b. We say tho object is frocly ‘suspended it it returns to its equiliorium position. Figure 1 Racing care: a 19200 racing car deaign b modem racing car decign ‘Wo can think of the woight of an object as ifit acts at a single point. This point is called the centre of mass (or the cantre of gravity) of the object. ‘The centro of mase of an objectis that point at which ite mass may be ‘thought to be concentrated. ing the ‘@ Balance a ruler on the tip of your finger. The point of balance is at the centre of mass of the ruler. How far is the cantre of mass from the middle of the ruler? Wb of basket Figure 2 Sugpersion a In equiltyium b Nor-equilbsiumThe centre of mass of a symmetrical object For a symmetrical object, its cantra of mass is along the axis of symmetry. You can sea thisin Figure 3. Ifthe object has more than one axis of symmetry, its centre of mass is where the axes of symmetry meet. © A rectangle has two axes of symmetry, as shown Figure 8a, The centre of mass is whore tho axes moot. ‘© Tho oquilateral trianglo in Figura 3b has threo axes of ymmatry, each bisecting one of the angles of the triangle. The thres axes meet at the same point. This is where the centre of mass of the triangle i Gerue Acentre of mass test Figure 4 shows how to find the centre of mass of an irregular-shaped flat card. The cardis at resi, freely suspended from a ‘od. Its centre of mass is directly below the rod. A ‘plumbline’ can be used {0 raw a vertical ine on the card from the rod downwards. ‘The procedure is repeated with the card suspended from a second point to give another similar ine. The centre of mass of the card is Where the two lines meat. Try drawing a third line to see if all three cross at the same p< ‘© What can you say about the accuracy of your experiment? Test your results to see if you can balance the card at this point on the end of a pencil ‘© Now find tho contro of mass of a samicircular card of radius 100mm. b_Evory diameter of a flat circular card is an axis of eymmotry. Whore is its centre of mass? 1 Skeich each of the objects shown and mark its centre of mass. * CAAT ‘ a 2 Explain why a child on 2 swing comes to rest directly below the tap of the swing. 3 Desoribe how you would find the centre of mass of a flat semicircular ‘conte ot = L- 2 » Figure 2 Syimmatical objects Plume (astra with a small wight on fe ond) Figu card re 4 Finding the cantre af mass of a ed ‘Make cure you can doseribe all ‘the steps in the practeal to tnd the contre of mass. Pk Ct cad Deda) Cees Oey Peru etd Dud [kek eae Cory luli ka cock cal} the axis of symmetry,Using physics to make things work Moments in balance « ‘Aseceaw ie an example in which clockwise and anticlockwise moments might Learning objectives balance each other out. The git in Figure 1 sits near the pivot to balance her a Whal caine uay aban younger brother atthe far end of the seesaw. Her brother is not as heavy ee ee as his big sister. She sits nearer the pivot than he doas. That means her piradlaeribeepebeneas| —aniciockwise moment about the pivot balences his clockwise moment. id Slow Gains ine ou A model seesaw knowledge of forces and Look at the model seesaw in Figure 2. The ruler is balanced horizontally by moments to explain why adjusting the position ofthe two weights. When it's balanced: opie Leek Son AEH) the anticiockwise moment due to W, about the pivot = W.,, and rr te © the clockwise moment due to W, about the pivot = W,d, OTe es A a ieee herae tie) Tho aniclockwise moment dus to W, = the clockwise moment dus to W pivot) acting on an object therefore, pede ic ft} Wd, = W,d, a. Use the equation to explain why the girl in Figure 1 needs to sit nearer the pivot than her younger brother. Figure 2 The principle of moments Figure 1 The seesaw ‘The seesaw is an example of the principle of moments. This states that, for fan object in equiliorium: the sum of all the clockwise = the sum of all the anticlockwise ‘moments about any point moments about that point JOE b Calculate W,, if W, = 5.0N, o, 145m, 0.30mandd, Worked example Calculate W, in Figure 2, it W, 25m and d, = 0.20m. ‘You can use the arrangement In Figure 1 to find an unknown Solution weight, W, ifwe know the other Rearranging W,d, = W,0, gives weight, WV, and we measure Vid, son x 0.20 the distances d, and d, Then w, = tite _ AON X020 _ gay you can caloulate the unknown ‘weight using the equation Wad, = Wed, [H]PWomenisintalanos G $3 Gere Measuring the weight of a beam Figura 3 shows how we can measure the weight of a beam by balancing itoff-cenire using a known weight. The weight of the beam acts at ts centre of mass, which is at distance d, from the pivet. ‘© The moment ofthe beam about the pivot = W,d, clockwise, where W, is the weight of the beam. © The moment of W, about the pivot = W,0, anticlockwise, where d, Is the perpencicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of W,. Applying the principle of moments gives W,d, = W,d,. ‘So we can calculate W, if we know W/, and distances d, and a, Conte of mass of bean (Figure 3 Finding the weight of a beam © Calculate the weight of the beam above it W, d, = 0.25m. 15m and [H] 2.0N.d, Etre ties ns 41 Copy and complete a to ¢ using the words below: equalto greater than less than Jack and Ahmed are sitting on a seesaw which is pivoted at ils centre, a They aro at tho samo distance from the pivot on opposite sides. Tho side Jack is on is lower than the othar side, This is because Jack's weightis.........than Ahmed's weight. 'b Jack moves towards tha pivot unti the seasaw is horizontal. This Js because Jack's moment about the pivot is now Ahmed’ moment about the pivot. 2 Dawnsits ona seesaw 2.50m from the pivot. Jasmin balances the ‘seacaw by sitting 2.00m on the cther side of the pivat. ‘a Who is lighter, Dawn or Jasmin? b Jasmin weighs 425N. What is Davin's weight? ¢ Dawn gets off the seesaw so John can sit on it to balance Jasmin. His weight is 450N. How far from the pivot should he sit? (H] 3 For the balanced beam in the figure, work out its weight, W. 030m Pivot osm, W (weit of bear) \ tay) tor free F, ‘a Fed = Wey Come of mass Sand Figure 4 Using moments Htyouhave to move a heavy Ined, think ‘beforehand about now te make the jab F Figure 4 shows a wheelbarrow ‘and atrolay boing used to move a load, ‘The load (weight W,) sited and moved using a much emailer effort (lorce F,) In Figure 4 explain why the effort is smaller than the load. ‘© For an object in equilibrium, Card Dane u aus a end moments about that point. erotica) Sas Da Oe ener) Duke a a had Pere eur al need to know all the forces Potts ac Pe Deu Cea id actionto the pivot. [H]Using physics to make things work eT a pe Rely) bata ero Tilting and toppling tests stability of an object? How far can you titt something betore it topples over? Fiqure 2 shows, © What wil make a body topple hhovr you can test your ideas using a tall box or a brick on its end. Parenter © Ifyou tlt the brick slightly, as in Figure 2a, anc release it, the turning effact of its weight returns it to its upright position, Pun ta) ‘moments on a body when It @ Ifyou fltthe brick more, you can just about balance it on cne adge, as in Figure 20. Its centre of mass is then directly above the edge on pa (H] which it balances. Its weight has no tuming eHfectin this position. me “The next time you go bowling, k about the shave of the pins. A bowing pin has a arrow base and a high centre of mass so it falls aver ifitis pudged slightly. Figure 1 Atthe bowling alley © Ifyou tilt the brick evan more, as in Figure 2c, it will topple over if tis released. This is because the line of action of its weight is ‘outside’ its base, So its weight has a turing effect that makes it topple over. EL Weight Weight Figure 2 iting and toppling @ Tited b Atbalance e Toppled over Investigate the factors that affect the stability of an object. a Why does the weight of the brick have no turning effect in Figure 2b? Stability and safety Lock around you and see how many objects could topple over. Bottles, table lamps and floar-standing bookcases are just a few objects that can easily topple over. Lots of objects are designed for stability so they can't topple over easily. b Why do tall cabinets sometimes topple aver when a top drawer is opened? cnt of me 4 Tractor safety Lock atthe tractor ona hillside in Figure 8. It doesnt topple over because the line of ation of ts weight acts within ts viheelbese Itits tiked mere, t wil topple over when th line of action of ts welght aors outside te wheelbase. Ths is because the moment about the lower wheel of the weightis clockwise. The moment ofthe support fore from the ground on the upper wheel is clockwise. So the resullant moment about the lower wheel makes ittopple over. Figure 3 Forces on ailing tractor © Why is the engine of a tractor as low es possible?2 Bus tests Look at the double-decker bus in Figure 4. Itis being tested on a platform to see how much it can tilt without tepoling. Such tasts are important to make sure buses are safe to travel on, especially when they go round bends and on hilly roads, The explanation of why # topples aver when the platform is tilted ‘00 much is the same as for the tractor. Would a double-decker bus be more stable or less stable if everyone on it sat upstairs? Figure 4 A toppling test 3 High chairs Abigh chair fora young infant needs to have a wide base. When the child is sitting init, the contro of mass is above the saat. Ifthe base wore narrow and the child was strapped in, the chair would topple over when the child leant sideways too much. That's why a highchair should have a wide base (see Figure 5). ‘The chair topples over ifthe child’s weight acts outside the chair base cn one side. The high chair will turn about the position where the chair lags on that side are in contact with the floor. Toppling happens if the moment of the child's weight about this position is greater than the moment of the chair’s weight. © Why are stabiliser wheels fitted to bicycles designed for young children? How to stop an object toppling over To prevent toppling, the centre of mass of the object should be as low as. possible and: ¢@ either the base should be wide enough to prevent toppling when the object, is tilted or knocked sideways © or the base should be bolted or clampad down, Figure 6 A high chair needs a wide base ‘Suppose an abject is nat clamped or bolted down. If tha line of action of its ‘weight lies outside its base, the object will topple over. This is because thare is a resultant moment on the object. In other words, the object topples over bacause the sum of the clockwise moments about any pointis not equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about that point, Summary questions St er ts ihe : “1 a Make alist of objec that are designed to be ciicut to knock over. pesirrapihedbirr Neral b Think of an object thet needs to be redesigned because it is knocked ene over 100 easily. Sketch the object and explain how it could be pe redesigned to make It more stable. pn cbjectwalterd , A rad 2 Awell-designed baby chair has a wide base and a low seat. Cote pica ene 4 Ifthe base of ¢ baby chair was too narrovr, why would the chair be Palin samara unsafe? b Why isa baby chair with a low seet sefer than one with a high seat? © An object toppies over if the 3 Explain way a tall plastic bottie is less stable when itis empty than when Leela eh) itis halFfull of water using the idea of moments tH] CCEUsing physics to make things work Panel el er ts Caterpillar tracks fitted to vehicles are essential on sandy, muddy or snow- covered ground. The reason is that the contact area of the tracks on the Learning objectives ey ground is much greater than it woukd be i ihe veticle had wheels instead. Wnt dove mewn by ‘The tracks therefore reduce the pressure of he vehicle on the ground. That's because its weights soreac over a much greeter contact area. TE) pened OIE About pressure bhistseeiDiiliaatheilll Pressure is defined as force per unit area. The unto pressures the pascal (Pa), which is equal io one newton per square metre (N/m*). eto a) For a force F acting everly cn a surface of area A at right angles to the surface, Cu re LD the pressure p on the surface Is given by the equation: force pressure = Ste Camels have much wider feet than horses. Why are they better at walking in the desert than horses? Pressure in a liquid A ‘The pressure in a liquid acts equally in all directions. Figure 2 shows how wo can demonstrate this. Thera are several holes around “st the bottle at he same depth below ihe water evel in the bottlo. Tho jo's from thos holes hit the bench at the same distance from ihe botile. So they are at the same pressure. ea Hydraulic machines onan Figure2 Pressur in aIquid t Mechanical diggers ere used toremove large rast, quantities of earth. An example is when soil has to ba removed from abava an underground pipa to reach the pipe. The ‘grab’ of ‘the digger Is operated by 2 hydraulic pressure system. The hydraullc system of a machine is ite ‘muscle power’ Look at the hydraulic system shown In Figure 3b. Oil is pumped into the upper or lower part of the oylinder to make the piston move in or out of the cylinder. Alliquid is virtually incompressible. This means that its volume does not change when itis under pressure. This ia why a force exerted on one part of a liquid is transmitted to other parts. In other words, the pressure in a hydraulic system is transmitted through the oil. Piston b_ In Figure 36, which direction, up or down, does the piston move when oil yinder is forced inta the lower end of tha cylinder? A hydraulic ear jack can be used to lft a car. When the handle is pressed down, ol is forcad out of a narrow cylinder and into a wicer oyiinder. The Figura 3 8A mechanical digger pressure of the oil forces the platen in the wider cylinder outwards. As a result, ‘A hyeeaulis systern ‘the piston forces the pivoted lever to raise the car.The force of a hydraulic system is much greater than the force applied to it. In Figure 4, the force F, applied to the system is called the effort. The force F, exerted by the system is called the lead. As explained delow, tha load is moved by a much smaller effort. Piston inwide Oiled Siler orice Fenn > cylinder Pivot —Ek: "Area Ay Figure 4 A hydraulic car jack © Tho force F, acts on tho piston in the narrow oylinder. This creates a pressure P= Finthoco, whore Ate piston aa @ This pressure in the oil acts on the wide cylinder. © The force Fon the wider piston = PA, where A.J Fr. ThoreforoF= fA, the piston area, ‘The force F,,s therefore much greater than F, because area A,is much greater than area A, In other words, the hydraulic system is a force multi Aine eoee 1 Explain each of the following: ‘a Whon you do a handstand, the pressure on your hands is greater than the pressure on your feet when you stand upright. b Accherp knife cute more easily than a blunt knite. ‘Write down as many machines as you can think of that are operated hydraulically. b Figura 3a shows the arm of a mechanical digger. Itis controlled by three hyéraulic pistors called ‘rem; labelled X, ¥ and Z. 1 Explain why tha arm is raised when compressed airs released Into ram X so It extends. Stato and explain what hapoons to the ‘bucket’ on tho ond of tho arm when rams Y and Z are both extended. Tho hydraulic lift shown in Figure 5 is usad 10 raise a vehicle so Its underside ‘can be inspected. The lift has 4 pistons, each of area ea) 0.01, to iftthe platform, The iid proceurs in the system must not be oreater than 6.0 x 10°kPa. The platiorm weight is 2000N. Calculate ‘the maximum load that can baled on Figures the platiorm, ‘We can wilte the equation for pressure using symbols, as folows: “A Where: P = pressurein pascals, P F = force in newtons, N A = araa of cross-section in square metres, m®, Note: Rearranging this equation gives F = PA or FE Ass [4] Worked example A caterpillar vehicle of weight 12000N is fittod with tracks. ‘that have an area of 3.0m= in contact with the ground. Calculate the pressure of the vehicle on the ground. Solution Pressure = £0008 _ 12000N area 3.0m? = 4000Pa Cio Pai ae tad Cue ad Pe Na hd ct oer equally in all directions. ud Peony ce een Detect a ecto kal Deny Seis) Schad Chiao canesLearning objectives Testing circular motion ‘An object whirled round on the end of a string moves ina dircle, as shown in Figure 2. ‘Tho pull force on the objoct from the string changes the object's direction of motion. What factora affootthe centripetal force? Jy 1 Figure 2 Whiting an object round Using physics to make things work Fairground rides whirl you round in circles and make your head epin. But you don’t need to go to a fairground to see objects moving in circles, © A vehicle on a roundabout or moving round a comer travels on a circular path, @ A satellite moving across the sky moves on a circular orbit round the Earth, @ An athlete throwing the hammer spins round in a circle before releasing it. For an abject moving in a circle at constant spaed, at any instant: © the object's valocity is dlracted along a tangentto the circle € its velocity changes direction as it moves round @ the change of velocity is towards the cantre of the circle, ‘The object therefore accelerates continuously towards the centre of the circle. The acceleration changes the direction of motion of the abject, not its speed, Because the acceleration always acts towards the cantie of the circle, we call ita centripetal acesleration. So the resultant force on the object acts towards the centre of the circle, In Figure 2, which direction would the object move if the string suddenly snapped at the position shown? Centripetal force ‘Any object moving in a cirole must be acted on by a resultant force that aots towards the centro ofthe cirle, We call the rocuitant force a centripetal force because it always acts towards the centre of the circle. «© The centripetal force on a vehicle moving round a roundabout is due to {riction between tho tyres and the road. @ Aperson in a capsule on the London Eye moves round at a constant speed. “The centripatal force on the person acts towards the centre ofthe ‘whee! “This force is the resultant force ofthe person’s weight and the support force from the ficor. «@ A fairground ‘gravity whee! starts off spinring horizontally. When iis spinning fact onough, tho whl ie turned untilitie spinning vortcaly. Tho riders are strappedito the inside cf the wheel. When a rider is at or near the top of the wheel, te rider experiances a downward pusi from the wheel to boop him or her moving round the circle. Tho contvipstal force is duo tothe weight ofthe rider andthe downward push trom the wheel on the rider Figure 8 a The London Eye A faitground gravity whee!b Why dees each rider on the ‘gravity wheel’ need to be strapped in? Centripetal force factors How is contripetal force affected by the speed of the object and the radius of the circle? ‘You could find cut using a radio-controlled medal car. @ IFit goos too fast, the car will skid offin a straight lino. The cantripotal forse neaded increases if the speed is increased. @ Ifthe circle is too small, the car will skid off. So the centripetal force needed increases ifthe radius of the circle is decreased. © Why is the speed for no skidding much less on an icy roundabout? How is the centripetal force affected by the mase of the object? you whirl 2 rubber bung round on the end ofa thread, you can feel the force on it. you tie another rubber burg on, you wil find the force (for the seme ‘speed and radius) has increased. This shows that the greater the mass of the ‘object, the greater the centripetal force is. Se As 41 Figure & shows an object moving clockwise in a citce at constant a speed. ' Copy and complete a and b below using directions A,B, Gor ~~, —>8 Dyas chown nPguos. t ‘a When the object is at the 6 Figure 5 force on it isin direction... b When the object has moved round by 90° from the position shown the diagram, its velocity is in direction. and tha force on itis direction. In each of the following situations, a single force acts as the centripetal force. Match each situation with the force, ato d, that causes the circular motion. electrostatic force friction gravity pull (tension) ‘a Acar travelling round a bend b Asione being whirled round on the end of a strina. ¢ Aplanet moving round the Sun. d An lactron orbiting the nucleus of an atom. ‘a Astudent testing a model car maasured its speed and found it could go round a bend at that spsed without skidding off, provided its speed was no more than 2.2m/s. What would happen to the model car fthe test were repeated at the same speed on a bend that was, more curved? Give a reason for your answer. b Explain why a high speod railway track is sloped or banked where there is @ curva, ee Figure 4 Centripetal force factors (QA Examiner's tip Centripetal force is not a force in its own right. Itis the name we give to the reaultant force acting on an object maving round a circle. a Pe oad ‘Aspin drier contains a drum that rotates very fast. When the crum spins, the cylindrical sides of tha drum keep the wet Clothing inside the drum, © The force of the drum on tho clothing provides tho necessary centripetal force to keep the wet clothir moving in a circle, ‘© Water from the wet clothing leaves the spinning drum through tiny holes in the sides of the drum, eka moving in a circle at constant speed Is continually Skate en irection is continually eas © Centripetal acceleration is Cea Pee rd Ce eae) ee eee caekub object depends on its mass, eee eoUsing physics to make things work mew ola cs ‘When you sit on a playground swing moving backwards and forwarde, you move fastest when the swing’s seat is nearest the ground. This position is also {the equilibrium position of the swing, This is its position when it eventually stops moving altogother. The motion of a swing isan example of oscillating motion. This is the motion of any object that moves to and fro along the sama Learning objectives ere trues) Cero ri Tree CR) Coed ee playground swing compare Ree ors Po The motion of a pendulum Figure 2 shows a snapshot of a pendulum in motion. This type of pandulum is called a simple pendulum. Itmoves like a playground swing along the line between the bob's highest positions at Aand B on each side. There is very little air resistance on it or friction at the point of suspansicn so it takes a long time to stop swinging. ‘The amplitude of an oscillating objects the cistance it moves from e~ its equilibrium position O to its highest 0 Drection of sition Nor Bon ellherséle. (The squib mation ofthe P pestion of pendulum bob 1m pendulum) Figure 2 The pendulum complete cycle of its motion. In other bi Investigating the time period of a pendulum Task 1 To measure the time period, use a stopwatch to time 20 complete cycles of the pendulum’s motion. Repeat this twice more and find the average of the three timings. Divide this timing by 20 to obtain the time period. Each cycle takes the pendulum from when it passes through ‘equilibrium’ fo the next time it passes through ‘equilibrium’ moving In the samne direction, You could use a ‘marker’ to 609 oxactly when it passes through equilibrium. Task 2 Find outif the timo poriod depands on tho amplitude of the oscillations by measuring the time period for different amplitudes. © Use a millimetre ruler to measure the amplitude. © Record your measurements and plota suitable graph. Task 3 Find outif the time period depends on the length of the pendulum by measuring the time period for ditferent lengths. © The length of a simple pendulum is the cistance ‘rom the miele of the bob to the point of suspension on the string, Use a metre ruler marked in milimettes to measure the length of the pondulum. ‘© Record your measurements and plot a suitable raph.a You could measure the time period by timing the pendulum from its jest position to when it next retums. Try this and explein why the im’ method used in Task 1 is better than this method. ‘equi b What conclusion can you draw from the measurements obtained in Task 27 Your results from the last investigation should show that the time period of a pandulum depends on its length. Further investigations show that the timo: ariod of 2 pendulum depends only on its ength and increases as its length increases. The frequency of the oscillations is the number of complete cycles of oscillation per second. The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz) where 1 hertz is 1 oycla per second Note that the greater the frequency of the oscillations, the shorter the time patiod Is, This Is because: the time period (in seconds, s) 4 ‘requency of the osei jone (in hertz, Ha) irri ing a model swing Pinhole for ieee 1 Make a model swing with a plosticine porson fixed to tho seat. Measure the time period of small cscillations, ant 2 Repeat the test with a person’ en with a higher centre of mass on Piast the seat. Use the same lump of a plasticine so the mass of the person Is unchanged. 3 Record your results. ‘© What conclusions can you draw from your results? Figure 2 Tasting a madel awing SC Ue A ceed 4 Copy and complote a to ¢ using the words below: decrease increase stay tho same The time pariod of a simple pondulum wil longer. b Ifa playground swing in motion is not pushed repeatedly, the amplitude of its motion will gradually ¢ Ifthe bob ofa simple pendulum is replaced by a bob of smaller mass and the pendulum length is unchanged, its time period will 2 Three timings were taken for 20 oscillations of a follows: 97.955, 3773s, 38.125 a Calculate the mean value of thase timings. b Calculate frequency and the time period of the oscillations. 3 State one similarity and one difference between the motion of a playground swing carrying a child and the motion of a simple pandulum of the same length as the swing. van its length is mado ple pendulum, as We can wite the word ‘equation for the time paried of pendulum using symbols, as Where: time period in seconds, s frequency in hertz, He. i Note: Rearranging T= 410 1 make ithe subjact gives f = + Worked example ‘A pendulum undergoes 20 complate cycles of oscillation in 4.0 seconds. Calculate a the frequency of the oscillations, b the ime poried. Solution a Fer 20 complete cycles in 4 seconds, there must be 5 cycles each second (20 + 4 = §), Tho froquency is therefore 5Hz, b T= aa thotine paid .2 seconds. aoe o Poca ea! os otra) Cu measure the average time for Pe ee an) ea eee ry playground swing and etary Set edUsing physics to make things work: P3 2.1-P3 2.7 Summary questions @ (The bottle opener in Figure 1 is being used to force the cap off a cap bottle. otto ‘@ Copy the diagram and add to it cpenes toshow: i where the force is applied 1p tho bottle oponer by the person opening the bottle, ‘Show the direction of this Botte force. Nl where the force of the boule ‘opener acts on the bottle ‘top. Show the direction of. this force, where the pivot (iulerury) is. b Explain why the force of the bottle opener on the cap is much larger than the force applied to the botile opener by the porson opening tho bottla, ¢ Ifa shorter bottle opener were used, would the force needed to open the battle be smaller, larger or the same? Give a reason for your answer. Figure 1 @ Fioure 2 shows a toy ‘suspended from a ceiling. @ How would the stability of the toy be affected if the Sun were removed from it? b The star on the toy has a weight of .04N and is adistance of 0.0m ‘rom the point P where the thread is attached to the toy. Galculate the moment of the star Str about P. [H] Figure 2 |B The crescant moon attached to the toy in question 2 is at a distance of 0.20m trom P, Calculate the weight of the crescent. [ul @ a A satelite is moving at constant apoed in a circular orbit above the Earth. Copy and complete i and ii using the words below. Each word can be used more than ance. acceleration force velocity [The centripetal _.___.on the satellite Is equal to the of gravity on it ii The i the satelite is in a direction at right angles to the direction of the. of the satelite andto the... onit. b Explain why a high aided lorry on a roundabout might topple over i its speed is too great. 1B A hammer thrower whirls a ‘hammer’ around anticlockwise and releases it when he is facing due south. 1 Which direction does the hammer go in when itis released? Il Which direction is the acceleration of the hammer just boforo itis released? b Discuss whether or not the hammer thrower would be able to throw a hammer with a longer handle further. Assume the mass of the hammer is the same. © When the foot brake of a vehicle Is applied, a force Is applied to the piston in the master cylinder ofthe brake systam, as shown in Figure 3 in master cyindor Co urake coins a Figure 9 eich wheel The cylinder has an area of cross-section of 0.0006rr*, Calculate the prassura in the brake system when a force of 20N Is applied to the piston in the cylinder. b The master eylinder is connected by pipes to a brake cylinder at each wheel. Each brake oylinder is much wider than the master cylinder. Explain why the force of the brake cylinder on each wheel is much greater than 20N. @ a Whatis meant by the time period of a pendulum? b The data below shows the time taken for 10 cycles of a pondulum that coneiste ofa motal bob on a thread 30.55, 29.88, 30.68, 1 Use this information to calculate the time period of tho pendulum ii ifthe length of the pendulum is shortened, stats how is time period and its frequency would change.AQA/Examination-style questions @ 4 A boy is making a mobile of birds in flight. ‘The diagram shows a thin sheet of card that, he has cut in the shape of a bird. There 4 are holes in the card at A and B. He decides to find the centre of ‘mass of the shape. ‘a What is meant by tho contro of mass of an object? 0 b inthis question you will be assessed 0n using good English, organising 3 iniormation clearly and using specialist terms where appropriate. Describe how you would find the centre of mass of the mobile shape. © ‘The wrestler is shown in a ‘ready’ stance. Which two features of this stance make the wrestler vary stable? [HI 2 Awaiter tips while carrying a tray of mugs andthe tray siarts to tilt. The white dots indicate the position of the centre of mass of each mug. a Vertical no 1 Which mug will have started to topple over already? o Which mug will pple over noxt if tho tray is tited even more? a lit Which mug would be the last to topple? [1] (1) ‘The diagram shows a brake lever on a bicycle. Brake cable onm sou ‘The lever is pulled with a force of SON and then stops turning ‘a Caleulate the moment ef the force about the pivet. ‘Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer and give the urit. 3 End of chapter questions b Exolain why the brakes are more effective if the lever is pulled at the end as shown. @ ‘There is a clockwise and an anticlockwise moment ‘about the pivot. What can be acid about these ‘moments if the lever is nat moving? Caloulate X, the force the cable exerts an the lever. c a) ‘Show clearly how you work out your answor and give the unit. [H]@) The ‘pirate shio' is a very common amusement park ride. ‘The ride is simply a giant pendulum. Supports Pivot Xertre ‘otmass ‘The designers of the ride wanted there to be three seconds between the highest points on each side of the ride. ‘a What would the time period of this ride be? b Calculate the frequency of the ride. ‘Write down the equation you use. Show clearly now: you work out your anwer and give the unit. a e) ‘When the ride was sold to another amusement park, the dimensions of the ride were recused. As a result of this, the distance between the pivot and the centre of mass of the ship was reduced. How would this affect the time pariod? « ‘The ship swings through an angle of 65° to the vartical on each side. While it does so. it is moving in a circular path. Describe the direction of the centripetal force acting con the ship when itis moving, « a) 1 The new operators of the ride use the drive motors to increase the maximum speed of the ship to its criginal value as it travels past its lowest point. Explain why they should have the ride carefully checked before they do so. © What provides the centripetal force in this case? @) 241Using magnetic fields to keep things moving PTD About magnets Amagnetic compass is a tiny magnetic needle pivoted at its centre. Because ofthe Earth’s magnetic field, ona end of the compass always poin's north end the othor south. The ond that points north iscallad the north pole and the other end the south pole. Using two magnets, it is easy to show that: like poles uni poles attract ‘a How could you compare the strength of two magnets? b What happens if you hold the south pole of a bar magnet near the south pole ofa different bar magnet? Investigating magnetic fields A plotting compass placed in the magnetic field Hold a magnet near any iron or stael object and you will alvaays point along a fold lino. Tho direction the should find thatthe magnet atracts the object. Iron COMDass points intels us the direction of the field and steal are examples of magnetic materials. A line. Use a plotting compass to see the direction of the magnet is a piece of steel that has been magnetised. _ lines of force in the magnetic feld. See for yourself the effect of a magnet on different © What do you find? objects including paper clios and iron flings on paper. You should see Figure 1 shows the effect of a magnet on iron flings that the lines sprinkled on a piece of paper. always loop © The paper clips (and the ion flings) stick tothe ‘Found from the tends of the magnet. We refer to the ends as north pole of the magnetic poles. magneto ts © The iron flings near the magnet form a pattern of |S“ Pole. lines. The lines loop from one pole to the other. We say that thera is a magnetic fiald around the magnet. We refer to ihe lines as lines of force or Figure 1 The megqetic fl naar aber magnetic field magnet Electromagnets ton Insulp wire sings An electromagnelic is made of insulated wire wrapped round an iron bar (the core). When a current is passed along the wire, a magnetic field is created around the wire. As a result, the magnetic fiald of the wire magnetises the iron bar strongly. ‘Whon tho current is switchod off, tho iron bar loses most of its magnetism. Iron easily loses its magnetism when the current is switched off. On the other Figure 9 A simple alecremagnet hand, steel is unsuitable as the core of an electromagnet. That's because steel keeps we 2 Using an electromagnet its magnetism whan the current is switchad oftWe use electromagnets in many dey balow. 41 The serapyard rane Scrap vehicles are lifted in a scrap yard using powerful electromagnets allached to cranes. The steel irame of a vehicle sticks to the electiomagnet when currrt passes through the coil. When the current is switched off, tho steal frame drops off the eleotromagnet. 2 The circuit breaker ‘This 's a switch in series with an electromagnet. The switch is normally held in place by an iron catch. When too much current passes through the electromagnet, tha switch is pulled open by tha electromagnet, and the switch opens. It stays open unti itis reset manually, © Why isa spring needed in a circuit breaker? 3 The electric bell ‘Whon tho bell is connoctod to the battery, the iron armature is pulled on to tho electromagnet. This opens the make-and-break switch and the electromagnet is switched off. As a result, the armature springs back and the make-and- break ewiteh closes again so the whole cycle repeais itself. 4 The relay Arelay is used to switch an electrical machina, such as a motor, on or off. Figure 6 shows what a relay consists of. When current passes through the electromagnet, tho armature is pulled on tothe electromagnet. Aa a result the armature tums about the pivot and closes the switch gap. In this way, a small current (inrough the electromagnet) is used to switch on a much larger current. Bim et oecan ron or steal, is used to make a permanant magnet? Hl Whieh material, ron or steel, Is used 2s the core of an electromagnet? b Stato whother thore is a force of attraction or repulsion when. ‘a magnet is held near an unmagnetised iron bar the north pole of a bar magnets placed near the north pole of a second bar magnat the north pole of a bar magnet is placed near the south pole of second bar magnet. List the statements A-E below in the correct order to explain how the clrouit breaker in Figure 4 works. Statement E is third in the correct order. A The current is cut off. B The iron core of the electromagnet is magnetised strongly. © Too much current passas through the coll D The circuit breaker switch is opened. E The ewitch is attracted onto the core of the electromagnet. Explain why the armature of the buzzer vibrates when the buzzer is connactedto a battery. b Inabell and a buzzer, the armature vibrates continuously. The buzzer armature Coes not have a sttker attached to itthough. Explain why the| buzzer vibrates at a higher frequency than the electric bell. Switch closed Switch oper Flestomagnet Figure 4 A circuit brecker Figure § An electic bel Suites gap Phyo! Iron amature ron core ‘ectromagnet Cai of ectromagnet Switch terminals Currrt in Current out Figure 6 The construction of a relay oa) Ce ao Peed eo er Por hance) Coie reeked of a coll of insulated wire Recta acento © Electromagnets are used Ree aus’ Cee) eeUsing magnetic fields to keep things moving The motor effect (« We use electric motors lots of times every day. Using a hairdryer, an Learning objectives eleotiic shaver, a refrigerator pumo and 2 comouter hard drive are just a Een (ew examples. Allthese electrical appliances contain an electric motor. The Chee electric motor works because a force can ac: on a wire in a magnetic field PehestaloetneealbeibTN) when we pass 2 current through the wire, Ths is called the motor effect. ad eras rete Cue seul) Beene eed buna) magnetic field? ‘© How do we use the motor Ces aL Investigating the motor effect Figure 1 shows how you can investigate the motor affect. You should find that a force acis on the wire unless the wire Is parallel to the magnetic fiold Inas. Figure 1 Investigating the motor effect Force factors ‘Your investigations should show that: © Tha size of the force can be increased by: ~ increasing the current ~ using a stronger magnet. © The size of the force depends on the angle between the wire and the magnetic fiald lines; the force is: Figure 2 Fleming's lef-hand rule. Hold the ingore ot ightangloe to each othar. ‘You can use this rule to work out the — greatest when the wire is perpendicular to the magnetic field rection of he force (ie. movement) on fenton — zero when tho wire is paralll to the magnaticfiold lines. © Tha direction of the foros is always at right anglas to the wire and the field lines. Also, the direction of the force is reversed if he cirection of the current cr the magnetic field is reversed. Figure 2 shows Fleming's left-hand rule which tells us how these diractions are ralated, a What happens if the current and the magnetic field are both reversed?ee The electric motor An oleettic meter is designed to use the motor effect. Wa can control the speed of an electric motor by changing the current. Also, we can reverae the direction the motor turns in by reversing the current. ‘The simple motor shown in Figure 3 consists of a rectangular coil of ineulated wire (the armature col) that ia forced to rotate. The coll connected via two metal ar graphite ‘brushes’ to the battery. The brushes press onto a metal ‘split-ring’ commutator fixed to the coll, Sole ring ‘When a currents passed through the coil, the coi spins because: © a force acts on each side of the coil due to the motor effect © the force on one side is in the opposite direction to the force on the other side. ‘The spiitring commutator reverses the current round the coll every half turn of the coil, Because the sides ewap over each hal turn, the coil is pushed in the same direction every halt-tum. b Why are the brushes made of metal or graphite? The loudspeaker ‘A loudspeaker is designed to make a diaphragm attached to a coi when alternating current passes through the coi. © When a current passes through the coil, a force due to the motor effect makes the coil move. @ Each time the current changes ite direction, the force reverses ite direction. So the coll is repeatedly forced backwards and forwards, This motion makes the diaphragm vibrate so sound waves are created, © Why does a loudspeaker not produce sound when direct current is passed through it? 1 Copy and complete a and b using the words below. Each word can be used more than once. coil current force magnet ‘a When a........ passes through the. acts on each side of the . The.........long each side Is in opposite directions so the. opposite directions and the......... tums. 2 a Explain why a simple electric motor connected to a battery reverses if the battery connections are reversed. b Discuss whether or not an electric motor would run faster if the col was wound or: i aplastic block I anion block instead of a wooden block. 3 A force is exerted on a straight wire when a current is passed through it and itis at right angles to the lines of a magnetic field. Describe how the force changes ifthe wire is turned through 90° urtilit is parallel to the field lines. of an electric motor, a isin commuéalor Foros Mei or rahite brush contacts Figure 3 The electric motor fata Make and test a simple electric ‘motor like the one in Figure 3. eT ‘Graphite ie a form of carbon that conducts electricity and is very slippery. It causes very littl fiction wnen in contact with the rotating commutator. Magt | Coil Varying atenating current fiom son anilier waves Figure 4 A loudspeaker © In the motor effect, the force: See era und Dee cd er er Cee enna Cente Se erat Dengue es te Neu he et PoetsUsing magnetic fields to keep things moving a ateduer ar cmireltt Cd) Aospital has its own electricity generator always ‘on standby’ in case of a Learning objectives power-cut. Patients’ lives would be out at risk ithe mains electricity supply sa fled adhere mes no steeby generat ci hllics “dnaulbernemeabll A generator contains coils of wire that spin in a magnetic field. A potential difference (pd), or voltage, is created or induced across the ends of the SEEN wire whon tuts ares tho magnatc ftltnc, Wo cal te process eT stecromagnete auction, ie wie sparta comple cre, he conductor? induced pd makes an electric current pass round the circuit. oe Potential difference if we use Coen oa firtare Investigating a simple generator Connect some insulated wire to ‘an ammeter as shown in Figure 2. ‘Move the wire between the poles ofa U-shaped magnet and observe the ammeter. You should discover the ammeter pointer dofloots as a current is gonorated when the wire cuts across the magnetic field. ‘© What difference is made if: a the wire is held stationary between the poles of the magnot? bb the direction of motion of reversed? moved parallel to the lines of the magnetic field? Figura 1A standby generator Figure 2 Elecromagnatic nduction 10 @ coll and you should find the current is bigger. Inthe previous experiment, what can you say about the current when: 1 the wire was stationary ii the direction of mation of the wire was reversed? A generator test — Look at Figure 2. It shows a coil of insulated wire connacted to a cantro- Hollow cartoar tbe reading ammeter. When one end of a bar magnet is pushed into the coll, the ammeter pointer deflects. ‘This is because: © the movement of the bar magnet causes an induced pd in the coll © the Induced pd causes a current, because the coll is part ofa complete circuit Mtr painter dolots ‘when the magnets a 7 Maatoieel b What do you think happens if: 1 the macnetis left at rest in the coll Figure 3 Testing electromacnetic fi. there were more turns of wire around the carcboard tube? lucien =|[ Eectromagneticinduction A magnetic puzzle Tube Coix cul Batery —Swiich Ammeter Figure 4 A magnetic puzzle Use two separate lengths of Insulatad wite to make two colls on a cardboard tue as shown in Figure 4, Connect eno of the coils (X) toa battery in saries with a switch and connect the other coil (Y) to an ammeter. 1 Glose the switch and you should discover that the ammeter pointer eilects briefly. Switching the current on creates a magnetic field that passes through coil Y as well as coil X. The effect on Y is the same as pushing a magnet into it. So a pd Is induced in coll Y. 2 Keep the switch closed and observe the ammeter. You should see that the ammeter pointer does not deflect. This is because the current in X is now constant so the magnetic fleld doas not change. The effect on Yio the same as when a magnet ie hold stationary in it. The magnetic field of the electromagnet has to be changing to induce a pd. 3 Repeat the first test with an iron bar in the tube. You should find that the deflection ie much bigger. Inthe previous experiment, exolain why the deflection was much bigger with the icon bar in the tube. Eine eTocs 1 Copy and complete sentences a and b using the words below. Each word may be used more than ence. magnetic field conductor current potential difference 8 Aceon iS induced in a. when it cuts across the es, b Ha... connected to an ammeter moves parallal to the linas of a TO sae» PASSES through the ammeter. 2 Accil of wire is connected to a centre-reading ammeter. A bar magnet is inserted into the coil, making the ammeter pointer flick briefly. ‘What would you observe if : a the magnet was then held at rest In the coll bb the coil had more turns of wire wrapped rourd the tube? 3 a In Figure 4, explain why the ammeter pointer deflects when the switch is closed. b Explain why the pointer doas not deflect when there is a constant current in coil K. Electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday. This discovery led 10 ‘the invention of ganoraters, transformers and many more electrical machines. Faraday was born in 1791, and on leaving school he started an appranticeshin binding books. He was so fascinated by Sir Humphry Davy's books on science that he wrate to him at ‘the Royal Institution in London to ask for a job. Davy must have been very impressed by Faraday's enthusiasm, because he took him on and trained hin in science, Many years later, Faraday followed in Davy's foctstops and became the Diractor of the Royal Institution. Figure 5 Michael Feraday ee ener Is the process of creating a eet Ga ‘© When a conductor cuts the lines of a magnetic field, Pr co) induced across the ends of aad arity Pee cc) ee rteLearning objectives OM uy Pet Toe Co one Deg ordinary transformer? CO links For more information on tho National Grid, look back at P1 4.5 The National Qrid, a tron core Primary ceil ‘Secondary cil a Lamp supply bub ‘ so =|5 oslo, Fgura 1 Tarstomeraciona ne cut Berea snbol Make a model transformer Iron core, the bulb should light up. affoot the transformer. Wrap @ coil of insulated wire round the iron core of a model transformer as the primary coil. Connect the coil to a 1V ac supply. ‘Then connect a sacond length of insulated wire to a 1.5V torch bulb. When you wrap enough tums of the sacand wire round the @ Testif cores made from different materials Using magnetic fields to keep things moving Transformers (« Atypical powor station gonerator produces an alternating potential difforence (pd) of about 25000 valts. Mains electricity to homes is at 230 volts. When you plug an appliance into the mains, the electricity to run it comes from a power station. The electricity arrives via @ network of cables called the National Grid, The alternating pd of the cables (the grid voltage) is typically 132000 volts. A transformer is used to change the size cf the alternating pd. How a transformer works A transformer has two coils of insulated wire, both wound round the same icon core, as shown in Figure 1. The primary coll is connacted to an alternating currant supply. Whon alternating currant passes through the primary ccil, an aiternating pd is induced in the secondary coil ‘This happens because: © altemating current passing through the primary coil produces an alternating magnetic field © the lines of the alternating magnetic field pass through the secondary coil © the magnetic field is changing. This creates an alternating potential difference between the terminals of the secondary coil. We say an atternating potential difference is ‘induced! in the ‘secondary coll. Ifa bulb is connected across the secondary coll, the Induced pd causes an alternating current in the secondary cirouit. So the bulb lights up. Electrical ‘energy is therefore transterred trom the primary to the secondary coil. This happens even though they are not electrically connected in the seme circuit. @ A step-up transformer makes the pd across the secondary coll greeter ‘than the pd across the primary coll. ts sacondary coil has more tums than lis primary coll. @ A step-down transformer makes the pd across the secondary coil less ‘than the pd across the primary coll, Its sacondary coll has fewer turns than its primary coil. For example, we uss a step-down transformer in 2 lovi-voltage supply to step the mains pd down from 230V. Gree Figure 2 A mod ranefermera Why would the lamp net light up as brightly ifthe iron core was replaced with a wooden core? b What happens if you wrap more turns on the secondary coll? © What happons if you uso a coll or a battory instead of the ac supply? Transformers in action Transformers only work with alternating current. With a direct currert, ther no changing magnetic field so the secondary pd Is zero. In the type of transformer described above, the core of the transformer ‘guides’ the field lines in a loop though the colls. But the field must be changing to induce a pd in the secondary cell Figure 3 shows a practical transformer. ‘The primary and secondary coils are both wound round the same part of the core. The core is layered (Jaminated) to cut out induced currents in the iron levers. Ifit wore not laminated, the efficiency of the transformer would ba greatly reduced. Switch mode transformers Asswitch mode transformer works in a different way to the traditional transformer described above. It operates at frequencies between 50000Hz (6OkHz) and 200 000Hz (200kH2). Its main features listed below make it very sullable for use in mobile phone chargers. @ Itis lighter and smaller than a traditional transformer which works at S0Hz. le power when there is no device connected across its output @ Ituses very ‘terminals. Amobile phone charger has three main circuits. Figure 4 shows you what ‘each circuit does. The switch mode transformer has a ferrite core. This is much lighter than an iron core and, unlike an iron cora, can work at high frequency. The circuits convert the mains pd (at 230V and 50 Hz in Europa) to a much lower direct pd. ee) 1. Copy and complete the paragraph using the words below. Each word can be used more than once. current magnetic field pd primary secondary In attrans‘ormer, an alternating... i$ passed through the... coil. This coil creates an alternating... that passes through the coil. As a result, an alternating is induced in the coil, ‘@ Why does a transiormer not work with diract current? b Why ‘sit important that the coil wires of a transformer are insulated? © Why isthe core of a transformer made of iron? @ Aleptop computer can operate with a 14V battery or with a mains: transformer. Whats the benefit of having a dual power supply? Does the transformer step up or step down the pd applied to it? b Why is switch mode transformer lighter than an ordinary transiormer? $$ __________ee ee oe plates ged together FS ee HET soeandary col coments Primary coil eommecirs Figure 2 A practical transformer Main input (230, 502) Frequerey converter Nv Sten mods tanstormer ww Low votage ac to de convertor “dest votane <5 output at lew b+ voliage Figure 4 Slock diagram ofa motile phone charger Pe ec) Cir) magnetic field is necessary Pa] cy Td tural Co eed DN us Pr cee ee hare en ordinary transformer. It Cee estaUsing magnetic fields to keep things moving Transformers in action (« When we use maine appliances, the electricity is euppliad to us through the Learning objectives National Grid ‘rom distant power stations. Figure 2 shows how the orid system SE eee Ty (used to supply industry as well as hones Pau ksi ‘The higher the grid pd, the greater the efficiency of transferring electrical power through the grid. ire eect Ciietisbot sng) This is why transformers are used to step up the pd from a power station to ESOS eimai) the grid pd end to step the grid pd down to the mains volage. The grid pd is Pues at least 132000V. So what difference would it make ifthe grid pd were much Ty rT ee lower? Much more current would be needed to deliver the same amount of SD power. The grid cables would therefore heat up more and waste more energy. eee PRT rT The transformer equation ‘transformer which is 100% ‘The secondary pd of a transformer depends on the primary pd and the ‘number of turns on each coi. ‘We can use the following equation to calculate any one of these factors if we know the other ones. pd across primary, V,___ number of turns on primary, n, [Pd across secondary. V, ~ numbar offums on secondary, n, For a step-up transformer, the number of secondary turns, n,,is greater than the number of primary turns, n,, Therelore V, is greater than V,. © For a step-down transformer, the number of secondary tuins, 7, is less than the number of primary turns, n,. Therefore V, is less than V,, Worked example A transformer is used to step a pd of 230V down to 10V. The secondary coli has 60 turns. Calculate the number of tus of the primary coil. Solution V, = 280V, V, = 10V, ng = 60 turns 280 _ Mp gives S30 = Fe Therefore n, 280 x 60 10 Figure 1A power transformer under 1980 turns: inspection Lightindustry ure 2 The grid system =|a Atransiormer with 1200 tums in the primary coil is used to step a pd of 120V down to 6V. Calculate the number of turns on the secondary coil. Transformer efficiency “Transtormers are almost 100% efficient. When a device is ‘Make sure you can describe how transformers are used in the National Grid. connected to the secondary col (see Figure 3), almost all the electrical powar supplied to the transformer is delivered tothe = _ a device. Ii we know how much electrical power a device requires ‘to work normally, this tells us how much electrical power must be supplied to the transformer. © Power supplied to the transformer = pilmary current, Z, x ptimery pd, Vp + Power delivered by the trensformer = secondary current, I, x secondary pd, V, Therefore, for 100% efficiency: Power supplied to the transtormar = power delivered by the transformer secondary pd x secondary current V,xI, b_ A230V, 60W bull lights normally when its connected to the secondary coil of a transformor and a 10V ac supply is connected to tho Primary coil. Assume the transformer is 100% efficient. Calculate: i the primary current the bulb currert. primary pd x primary current vex, Aire tenn 1 Copy and complete a anc b using the words below: down primary secondary up a Ina step-up transformer, the pd across the the pd across the. b The pd from a power station is stepped so the same amount of pover can be delivered through the cables as a result of stepping the current... 2 A transformer with a secondary coil of 100 turns is to be used to step a pd Gown trom 240V'to 12V. Galoulate the number of tums on the primary coil of this transformer. b A 12V 36W bulb is connected to the secondary coll, Calculate tho Current in the following. Assume the transformer is 100% efficient. i the bulb the primary coll. 3 Two separate cables A and B deliver the same amount of electrical power to two faciories. A is at a higher pd than B. @ What can we say about the current in cable A compared with that in B? b Why is less power wasted in A than B? Collis greater than Primary ool Seocnéary col Figure 9 Tranaformer affcioncy Creucno ke Cee eee) eras eal Primary pd, V, A ce 1, = number of primary turns er ecoreucug cia Or ud as ee ud ek Ot transformer, Vit es aed e A 4, = primary current TuycL Learning objectives er feed eT Cl sll bias sacl Brea) ed CO links For more information on the endescope, look back to PS 1.4 The endoscope. ‘An electronic blood pressure gauge contains a sansor that produces a pd when prossuro is applied to it. When the gauge is started, the cuff round the upper arm inflates with air and culs oif the blood flow to the lower arm, The cuff pressure is then released and the sensor detects when the flow starts 2aain {the systolic pressure) ‘and at a lower presaure when the flow becomes normal again (ihe diastolic pressure). CO links For more information on the CT snmer, lock back at P3 1.1 X-rays. Using magnetic fields to keep things moving Pee Ny We use many devices in hospitals to find out why pationts are unwell and to hhalp them recover. in this case study, we look at the physics of some of these devices. ‘Apatient has a swollen neck and the doctors are doing tests to find out what hhas caused it, The swelling is affecting his breathing so they need to monitor his condition closaly as well. 4 11 An endoscope irserted through amos is used to check thatthe arway inthe roa is clear 3 ANECG or lecrocarsiog 10 is recorded, Thais chart showing how ‘he pd generated by the heart varies wid, ‘ime 2 Blood pressure measured slectonicaly Figure + Int tests @ When the cutfis inflated and the blood supply to the lower arm is cut off, what can we say about blood pressure and the pressure of the cuff? ‘Tne doctor in charge of the patient tells the patient his airway is clear and his blood prassura is normal. The ECG test shows there are no problems with hit heart and his blood circulation. Asample of fluid is taken from the affacted area using a fine neadia, The ‘sample Is tested in the pathology lab. I indicates that there may be a cyst ‘fluid in the affected area. So the patient needs to have some scans of the affected areatod Different types of scans include ultrasonic scans, X-ray CT scans, and magnetic resonanca (MR) scans. The patient needs: 1 an X-ray CT scan to see if there are other affected areas in the neck or the chest. The operators or radiographers must wear film badges to monitor and record their exposure to ionising radiation. 2 an MR scan io see exactly where the swelling is located an MR scan uses radio waves. These waves, unlike X-rays, are nor-ionising. ‘The CT scan shows that no other areas are affected. With the exact position of the cyst knowa from the MA scan, the eystis then removed surgically. Why de fic using a CT acanner need t film badge? bb Why does a radiographer using a CT scanner need towear afimbedge? FS or ‘Tne magnetic resonance (MR) scanners used in hospitals to scan the hydrogen content in the body. Itcan distinguish different types of tissue. Hydrogon atoms aro prosent in the body, mostly in water molecules out also in many other molacules in the body. ‘Tne nucleus of a hydrogen atom (and cartzin ether atoms) is like a tiny bar ‘magnet. In a strong magnetic eld, such nucel can be made to emit radio. ‘waves, The process is called magnetic resonanes. Tho radio wavos can be detected and used to pinpoint the location of the hydrogen atoms, ‘The strong magnetic field in an MR scanner is produced by a ‘superconducting coil of wire, Tha patient lies on a bed which moves through the coil. A superconductor has zero electical resistance. A very large current can therefore: pass along the wire and generate a very stiong magnetic leld. To be in ‘a supeccondusting state, the wire needs to be very cold. Figure 3. An MR scanner CO links For mere information on magnatic fields produced by electric currents, look back at P3.3.1 Flectromagnets. Com © What would hapoen to an ordinary non-superconducting wire if a very large current was passed along it? Oe Recad kd Pee ure) Beecher Tuy Buel ts) ed 11 Match each device below to the correct function. ACT scanner An endoscope An ECG machine 2 iS used to record votage. b is used to observe cavities in the body. Coons c is used to give a picture of organs in the body. ECG potential differences isafil us Sea) 2 a Whatic a fim badge usod ‘or? ; Gibacpe an b Why is itimportant tora radiographer but not a patient to wear a film badge? oreo 3 Which of the folowing forms of radiation are ionising radiation? Cam ee ean oe peUsing magnetic fields to keep things moving: P3 3.1-P3 3.6 Summary questions @ 4 Copy and complete a and b using the words below. Each word can be used more than once. field force lines current a Avertical wire is placed in a horizontal magnetic fleld. Whon a. is passed through the wire, a acts on the wire. b A force acts on a wire in a magnetic field when a passes along the wire and the wre Is not parallel to the ofthe 2)a Figure 1 shows the Pint construction of a relay. Explain why tho switch closes when a current passes through the coil of the electromagnet. Switch] Becrorragnet Curent Curent in ott Figure 1 b Figure 2 shows the relay ccilin a circuit thatie used to awitch on the starter motor : ofacar. Explain why ' the motor starts when i | the ignition switch is closed. . Figure 2 Figure 3 shows a rectanguler coil of wire in a magnetic field viewed from above. When a direct current passes ise round the coil, an upward force acts on side X ‘a Whatis the direction of the force on side ¥ of the coil? b What can you say about the force on sach side of the coll parallel to the magnetic flelc lines? ¢ Whatis the effect of the forces on the coil? ‘a Copy and complete i and ii using the words below. step-down step-up iA transformer that changes an alternating pd from 12V to 120Visa, transformer. wa transformer has more turns cn the primary coll than on the secondary coll b Explain why a transformer does not work on direct current. a Cables al a potential difference of 100000 are used to transfor 1 million watts of electrical power in part of arid system, ‘Show that the current in the cables is 10A. if the potential differance had bean 10000, how much current would be needed to transfer the same amount of power? b Explain why power is transmitted through the National Grid ata high pd rather than a low pd. A transformer has 50 tums in its primary coll and 500 tums in its secondary coil. Its to be used to light a 120, GOW bulb connected fo the secondary coil. Assume the transformer is 100% efficient. ‘a Caloulate the primary pd. b Calculate the current in the bulb, ¢ Calculate the current in the primary coil, Atransformer has 3000 turns on its primary col. An altamating pd of 240 is to ba connected to the primary coll and a 12V bulb is to be connected to the secondary coil, a Calculate the number of tuins the secondary coll should havo. b What would be the current through the primary coil f the current through the lamp is to be 3.04. Assuma the transformer is 100% efficient,1) A magnetiis held suspended near a wire that has a magnetic field around it. Magnatis >}—Wire partot field aoonpete ting cu) 4 ES yn pat a What causes the magnetic field to be produced around a wire? a b When released, the magnet rotates slowly in the direction shawn. What is tha name for this effact? (1) © Give two ways in which the foroe on the magnet could be reversed. a Give two ways of increasing the force on tha magnet @ ‘The wire and the magnet are now arranged as shown below. A current passes through the wire and the wire ‘experiancas a force. Only part of the magnetic field from the magnet is shown. Magnatio Carer ‘comple circuit) Use Fleming's left-hand rule to find the direction of the forea on the wire. Explain fully how you used the rule. @ 2 The diagram shows a wire being moved upwards through the magnetic field between two poles of a magnet. A voltmeter is connected across the wire, Magnetic fos Magnat a Explain why the voltmeter gives a reading when tho wire is being moved upwards but not when stationary. End of chapter questions AQ*/Examination-style questions @ b How does the potential difference change if the wire is moved downwards « sideways? ) 3a Copy and complete the diagram to show the basic structure of a transformer. Label each part. ® coe _{ bb Explain the difference between a step-up transformer and a step-down transformer. @ {© What must be happening n the ron core of the transformer when itis producing a potential ctference onthe output? “) The following equation can be used when designing transformers. Vp Urn, 1 Give the meaning of each of the symbols in tho ‘equation. 4) ii Calculate ¥, ifV, = S5V, ny = 320 andn, = 40 Write down the equation you uso. Show clearly how you work out your answer. @ Calculate n,ifV, = 11000, V, = 260V and n, = 55000 Write down the equation you use. Show clearly how you work out your answer. @ Calculate the output current from this transformer when the input current is 2.5. Show’ clearly how you work out your answer and Give the unit. @ e Give a typical frequency at which a switch mode transformer works. Oy {Give two advantages of a switch mode transformer compared with an iron-core traneformer. @Examination-style questions 1 The diagram shows two images of a normal eye. ” ya ns at maximum power Image ares ane retina Tocistant pint cbt 4 Give the name of the point labelled X. a bb Ina normal eye, approximately how fas is this point from the eye? a) ¢ Name the muscle that changes the shape of the lens. a 4. Tow docs this muscle change the shape of the ens between Figure Aand Figure B? o I? the rays of light focused at point Vin diagram A, what sight defect would this show? 0 Ifthe rays of light focused at point Zin diagram B, what sight defect would this show? a 2 Aconverging lens is placed between an object and a sereen which are I6em apart. The position of the Jens is adjusted until the magnification produced by the lens is x3. Copy and complete the scale ray diagram of this arrangement below to find the focal length ofthe lens. Principal as of te lens Object H v 3) om a 1 Calculate the weight of mass 4. Write down the equation you use, Show clearly how you work out your answer and give the unit. Q ii Calculate the anticlockwise moment about the pivot caused by the weight of ‘mass A. Weite down the equation you use. Skow clearly how you work out your answer and give the unit. 8 KOU To remember the

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