CHAPTER 1

Integers
1. Sets and Equivalence Relations
A collection of objects is called a set. A member x of a set S is also called an
element of S and denoted as x S. If every element of a set T is also an element of
a set S, we say that T is a subset of S and write T S. If T S and T = S, we
say that T is a proper subset of S. A set with no element is called the empty set and
denoted by . Given a collection {S : A} of subsets of a set S, one can form
the intersection and union

S = {x S : x S , A},
S = {x S : x S , for some A}.
A

If {S : A} is a collection of subsets of S such that S S = whenever =

and if S = A S , we say that S is the disjoint union of the subsets {S : A}.
Here are some tandard notation:
Z: the set of all integers;
Z>0 : the set of positive integers;
N = {0} Z>0 : the set of al non-negative ingeters also called natural
numbers;
R: the set of all real numbers;
Q: the set of all rational numbers;
C: the set of all complex numbers;
M (n, R): the set of all n n matrices with entries in R, where R = Z, R, Q,
or C.
Let S be a set. By an equivalence relation in S we mean a relation, written as
x y, between certain pairs of elements of S, satisfying the conditions:
1) x x for all x S;
2) If x y and y z, then x z;
3) If x y, then y x.
Let be an equivalence relation on a set S. For x S, let Cx be the subset of S
consisting of all y S such that x y. Then the three conditions on imply that
for two x, y S, either Cx = Cy or Cx Cy = . The set S is then the disjoint union
of the subsets {Cx : x S}. Each Cx is called an equivalence class of the equivalence
relation , and every element in Cx is called a representative of the class.
2. The Well-Orderedness of the Integers
Consider now the ordering relations among integers that we have learned in
elementary school. A subset S of Z is said to be bounded from below if there exists
an integer M such that x M for all x S. Similarly, S is said to be bounded from
above if there exists an integer N such that x N for all x S.
7

1. INTEGERS

We take it as an axiom that the ordering on Z has the following well-ordering

property. A more detailed treatment can be found in Chapter X and in the Appendix
of the textbook.
Every subset S of Z that is bouded from below has a unique smallest element,
i.e., an element a S such that x s for all x S.
By changing a set S to the set S := {x : x S}, one sees that a subset S of
Z that is bounded from above has a unique maximal element.
3. Congruences and the Euclidean Algorithm
Notation 3.1. For two integers m, n with n = 0, we say that m is divisible by
n or n divides m, and we write n|m, if m = nq for some integer q. Otherwise we
write n/|m.
For an integer n > 1, and two integers m1 and m2 , we say that m1 and m2 are
congruent modulo n, and we write m1 m2 mod (n), if n|(m1 m2 ).
Theorem 3.2. (Euclidean Algorithm) Fix an integer n > 0. Every integer m is
congruent modulo n to a unique integer r such that 0 r < n.
Proof. Consider the set Q = {q Z : qn m}. Every q Q satisfies q m/n
because we are assuming that n > 0. Thus Q is bounded from above. By the wellordering of Z, Q has a maximal element q0 . Then q0 n m bu (q0 + 1)n > m, so
0 m q0 n < n. Let r = m q0 n. Then m r mod (n).
To show that such an r is unique, assume that 0leqr1 < n and 0 r2 < n are
such that m = q1 n + r1 and m = q2 n + r2 . Then (q1 q2 )n = r1 r2 . If r1 = r2 , we
may assume without loss of generality that r1 > r2 . Then q1 > q2 so (q1 q2 )n > n
while r1 r2 < n, which is a contradiction. Thus r1 = r2 .

The integer r in Theorem 3.2 is called the reminder of m when divided by n.
It is easy to check that mod (n) is an equivalence relation on the set Z.
Theorem 3.2 thus says that for a given integer n > 0, there are precisely n equivalence
classes of the congruence modulo n relation, and that each equivalence class has a
unique representative which is an integer 0 r < n.
Example 3.3. For n = 2, there are two equivalence classes for the congruence
modulo 2 relation: one formed by all even numbers and one formed by all the odd
numbers;
For n = 3, there are three equivalence classes C0 , C1 and C2 , consisting, respectively, of all integers which have reminders 0, 1, or 2 when divided by 3.
Lemma 3.4. Let n > 0 be an integer and let x, y, x , y Z. If x y mod (n)
and x y mod (n), then x + x y + y mod (n), and xx yy mod (n).
q, q

Proof. Assume that x y mod (n) and x y mod (n). Then there exist
Z such that x y = qn and x y = q n. Thus

x+x (y+y ) = (qq )n and xx yy = (y+qn)(y +q n)yy = (yq +y q+qq n)n.

Thus x + x y + y mod (n), and xx yy mod (n).
Example 3.5. One has 89 144 5 4 mod (7) = 6 mod (7).