FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE REACTIONS OF STRESS:

More is involved in our reactions to stress itself. Much remains to be learned about
these factors, but enough is currently known to outline some of the reasons for
individual differences in reactions to stress.
PRIOR EXPERIENCE WITH THE STRESS
Stress reactions are generally less severe when the individual has has
some proir experience with the stress event. For example, a soldier who is
going into combat for the fourth time will usually be less stressed by it
than a soldier facing combat for the first time. In a sense, prior exposure
to a kind of stress often inoculates us to that stressor.
PREDICTABILITY AND CONTROL
In general,stress events are less stressful when they are not, and they are
less stressful when the individual percieves the he or she can excert some
degree or control over the stress.
SOCIAL SUPPORT
The magnitude of reactions to stress is considerably less for individuals
with good social support from close friends and family members that for
individuals with inadequate social support. Its not yet completely clear
how social support functions to buffer us against stress, but having
someone to talk to, receive advice from, and be cheered and reassured by
is an important factor determining our reactions to stress

STRESS RELATED ILLNESSES:

Not long ago a common myth of popular pschology was that beliefs and mental
states were the root causes of many physical ailments. Certain illness or
disorders were once called psychosomatic, because pychologists believed that
deep-seated conflicts and emotional reactions were the culprits.
Coronary Heart Disease
Scientist have learned that psychological factors,including stress and
personality traits, are key risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD).
CHD is the complete or partial blockage of the arteries that provide
oxygen to the heart, and is the number one cause of death and disability
in the United States. It accounts for an astonishing one in every two and
half deaths, and almost a million deaths every year. CHD developes when
deposits of cholesterol (a waxy, fatty substance that travels in the
bloodstream) collect in the walls of arteries, narrowing and blocking the
coronary arteries, creating a condition called atherosclerosis.

Atherosclerosis is associated with an inflammatory response in the artery

walls, and if the condition worsens, it can lead to chest pain and the
deterioration and death of heart tissue. Otherwise, known as heart attack.
THE ROLE OF STRESS IN CHD A host of factors are associated with CHD.
Researchers examined 18,863 men in 1967-70 and followed them for 38
years. From age 50 onward, the men with a history of smoking, high
cholesterol, and high blood pressure lived an average of 10 years less,
and died at twice the rate from heart attaks, as men with none of these
risk factors. Stress deserves a prominent place on the list CHD risk factors.
Stressful life events predict recurrences of heart attacks, high blood
pressure, and enlargement of the heart. Although only correlational, these
data suggest that stressors may sometimes produce negative
physiological effects. Moreover, high levels of stress hormones triggered
by extreme stress can lead to disruptions in normal heart rhythm and
even sudden death, as well as to atherosclerosis in people who are highly
reactive to everyday stressors. People with CHD also show signs of a
hyped-up autonomic nervous system, with elevated heart rates and
exaggerated responses ttto physical stressors. Eventhough stress may
exert a direct effect on CHD, stress is also associated with behavioral risk
factors for CHD, including poor diet and inadequate exercise. So at least
some of the stress on CHD may actually be due to the overlap between
stress and these risk factors.
CHD, EVERYDAY EXPERIENCES, AND SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS:
Hostility and other negative emotions dont always arise from enduring
personality traits. Negative emotions can stem from the many pressures
and demands we confront in our fast-paced, competitive society.
ILLNESS CAN CREATE STRESS
Weve seen that stress can contribute to physical disorders, such as CHD.
But of course, physical disorders can also create stress. Not surprisingly,
being diagnosed with a potentially fatal illness that has an uncertain
outcome, like cancer or AIDS, can be unimaginably stressful and pose
innumerable challenges. Conversely, when the treatment for severe
illnesses is successful, the transition from poor to dramatically improved
health can introduce new and difficult decisions, like whether to return to
work or to begin or end relationships.

COPING WITH STRESS:

SOCIAL SUPPORT
Social support encompasses interpersonal relations with people, and the
larger community. Social support can provide us with emotional comfort,
financial assistance, and information to make decisions, solve problems,
and contend with stressful situations.

 GAINING CONTROL
We can also relieve stress by acquiring control of situations.
BEHAVIORAL CONTROL Behavioral control is the ability to step up and do
something to reduce the impact of stressful situation or prevent its
recurrence. This type of active coping is called problem-focused and is
generally more effective in relieving stress than avoidance-oriented
coping (avoiding action to solve our problems or giving up hope).
COGNITIVE CONTROL Cognitive control is the ability to cognitively
restructure on think differently about negative emotions that arise in
response to stress-provoking events. This type of control includes
emotion-focused coping, a strategy that comes in handy when adjusting
to uncertain situations or aversive events we cant control or change.
DECISIONAL CONTROL Decisional control is the ability to choose among
alternative courses of action. We can consult with trusted friends about
which classes to take and which professors to avoid, and make decisions
about which surgeon to consult to perform a high-stakes operation.
INFORMATIONAL CONTROL Informational control is the ability to acquire
information about a stressful event. We engage in proactive coping when
we anticipate stressful situations and take steps to prevent or minimize
difficulties before they arise. People who engage in proactive coping tend
to perceive stressful circumstances as opportunities for growth.
EMOTIONAL CONTROL Emotional control is the ability to suppress and
express emotions. Writing in a diary, for example, can facilitate emotional
control and has a host of long-lasting benefits.
FLEXIBLE COPING
The ability to adjust coping strategies as the situation demands is critical
to contending with many stressful situations.
SOURCES OF STRESS:
Positive as well as negative experiences can be sources of stress. Happy
or joyous events, such as having a baby , getting married , or graduating
from college, are stressors because they impose demands on us to adjust
or adapt. Positive changes in our lives, like negative ones, can tax our
ability to cope, as any new parent will attest. How well we are be able to
cope with the stress we experience in our daily lives plays a key part in
determing our mental and physical well-being.
HASSLES Hassles are annoyances we commonly experiences in
our daily lives. Examples include traffic jams, house hold chores,
coping with inclement weather, and balancing job demands and
social relationships. We may experience some hassles on a daily
basis, such as hunting for a parking spot in overcrowded parking
lots. Others occur irregularly or unexpectedly, such as getting
caught in downoour without an umbrella. A single hassle may not
amount to much in itself. But the accumulation of daily hassles can

contribute to the general level of chronic stress in our lives. Chronic

stress is state of persistent tension or pressure that can lead us to
feel exhausted, irritable, and depressed.
LIFE EVENTS Stress can also result from major changes in life
circumstances, which psychologist call life events. These may be
negative events, such as the loss of loved ones or a job termination,
or positive events, such as getting married, receiving promotion, or
having a baby. In other words, changes for better or for worse can
impose stressful burdens that require adjustment. Unlike daily
hassles, life events occur irregularly and sometimes unexpectedly.
Although everyone experiences hassles and life changes, some
people are less vulnerable to these types of stressors than are
others. They may have higher thresholds for coping with daily
annoyances and are not as rattled by them. Others may lack skills
needed to make adjustments brought about by changes in life
circumstances, such as skills needed to make adjustments brought
about by changes in a new community.
FRUSTRATION Another major source of stress is frustration, the
negative emotional state that occurs when our efforts to pursue our
goals are blocked or thwarted. Adolescents may feel frustrated
when they want to drive, date, or drink alcoholic beverages but are
told they are too young. People desiring higher education may be
frustrated when they lack the financial resources to attend the
college of their choice. We may frustrate ourselves when we set
unrealistically high goals that we are unable to achieve.
CONFLICT- Conflict is a state of tension resulting from the presence
of two or more competing goals that demand resolution. People in
conflict often vacillate, or shift back and forth, between competing
goals. The longer they remain in conflict, the more stressed and
frustrated they feel. Psychologists identify four major types of
conflicts.
APPROACH-APPROACH CONFLICT In an approachapproach conflict, you feel drawn toward two positive but
mutually exclusive goals at the same time. Though you
may initially vacillate between the two goals, an
approach-approach conflict is generally resolved by
deciding on one course of action or another. The
approach-approach conflict is generally considered the
least stressful type of conflict.
AVOIDANCE-AVOIDANCE CONFLICT In avoidanceavoidance conflicts, you face two opposing goals, both
which are unpleasant. Moreover, avoiding one of these
undesirable goals requires approaching the other. If there
is no obvious resolution, you may put off dealing with the

conflict, at least for a period of time. In cases where the

conflict is highly stressful, you could become virtually
immobilized and unable to attend to your usual
responsibilities.
APPROACH-AVOIDANCE CONFLICT In approachavoidance conflict, you face a goal that has both positive
and negative qualities. Resolution of the conflict seems
possible if you compare the relative pluses and minuses
and then decide to commit yourself to either pursuing the
goal or abandoning it.
MULTIPLE APPROACH-AVOIDANCE CONFLICT The most
complex type of conflict, these one involves two or more
goals, each with compelling positive and negative
characteristics. Conflicts are most easily resolved and
least stressful when the positive qualities of a goal
outweigh the negative. But when two goals pull you in
opposite directions, or when the same goal both strongly
attracts and repels you, you may experience high levels
of stress and confusion about which course of action to
pursue.
STRESS AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:
The endocrine system is a system of ductless glands throughout the body that
release secretions, called hormones, directly to the bloodstream. The
hypothalamus, a small endocrine gland located in the midbrain, coordinates the
endocrine systems response to stress. Like a series of falling dominoes, the
chain reaction it sets off leads the other gland to release their hormones. Under
stress, the hypothalamus secretes corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH),
which turn stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotrophic
hormone (ACTH). ACTH travels through the bloodstream to the adrenal glands,
the pair of endocrine glands located just above the kidneys. ACTH stimulates the
adrenal cortex, the outer layer of the adrenal glands, to release hormones called
corticosteroids (or cortical steroids). These hormones help the body resist stress
by making stored nutrients more available to meet the demands for energy that
may be required to cope with stressful events.
STRESS AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM:
The immune system is the bodys primary system of defense against infectious
diseases and worn-out or diseased cells. The immune system fights disease in
several ways. It dispatches billions of specialized white blood cells called
lymphocytes. Lymphocytes constantly circulate throughout the body and remain
alert to the presence of foreign agents or antigens (literary antibody generators).
Occasional stress may not be harmful, but chronic stress can weaken the

immune system, making us more vulnerable to disease. One way it may damage
the immune system is by increasing levels of chemical called interleukin-6. This
chemical is associated with several diseases, including potential killers such as
heart disease, diabetes and cancer. Perhaps youve noticed that you become
more vulnerable to catching a cold during times of stress, such as around final
exams. The reason may be that exposure to stress is linked to lower production
of immunoglobulin A, (an antibody that helps protect us against cold viruses).
Stress and physical illness are also linked through the actions of corticosteroids.
These adrenal hormones are released as part of the bodys reaction to stress.
While they initially help the body cope with stress, their continued secretion
dampens the ability of immune-system cell to respond to invading microbes.