Professional Documents
Culture Documents
University of Maribor
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
e-mail: dolinar@uni-mb.si
http://www.pe.feri.uni-mb.si/labie/dolinar/
Universite dArtois
Faculte des Sciences Appliquees (F.S.A.)
Bethune - France
April 2001
ii
Contents
1.2
1.3
1.3.1
10
1.4
1.4.1
1.5
2
11
14
DC machine
17
2.1
17
2.1.1
20
2.1.2
20
iv
CONTENTS
2.2
27
29
3.1
31
3.2
34
3.3
36
3.4
Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
39
4.1
39
4.2
46
4.3
56
4.3.1
58
4.3.2
Torque-speed curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
4.3.3
61
4.3.4
61
4.3.5
Variable-stator current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
63
4.4.1
65
4.4.2
66
4.4
22
69
5.1
73
CONTENTS
5.2
76
5.3
78
5.3.1
81
83
6.1
83
6.2
87
6.3
88
6.3.1
Analysis of the synchronous machine speed control using Matlab and Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
93
7.1
93
7.2
95
7.3
97
7.3.1
C HAPTER
The circuit approach is chosen to represent the rotating electrical machines in this
presentation.
Simplifications:
the saturation of the iron core and hysteresis are neglected, and
the actually distributed windings in the machine are presented by the lumped parameters.
Figure 1.1: Presentation of the rotor winding in the commutator machine model: a - original, space distributed
windings; b - lumped presentation of the rotor winding with one turn; c - circuit model of the rotor winding
1.1 Voltage and torque equations of the cylindrical electrical machine with two
windings
The basic two-winding electric machine is shown in Fig. 1.2. is the angle between
the axes fixed to the moving coil on the rotor and the stationary coil on the stator.
Voltage conditions of both coils in Fig. 1.2 are defined by equations (1.1).
u1
u2
R1 i1 +
R2 i2 +
d
d
L11 i1 +
L12 i2
dt
dt
d
d
L22 i2 +
L21 i1
dt
dt
(1.1)
L11 and L22 are the so-called self-inductances of the two windings, while L12 and L21
are the mutual inductances between them. In writing these mutuals it is conventional
to associate the first suffix with the voltage and the second suffix with the current.
Drago Dolinar: Electrical Machines Modelling and Control
1.1 Voltage and torque equations of the cylindrical electrical machine with two windings
winding 2 axis
i2
u2
1
winding 1 axis
i1
u1
It is necessary to note that in equations (1.1) all inductances and currents are time
dependent functions, therefore the chain rule of derivation has to be applied.
u1
u2
di1
dL11
di2
L12
+ i1
+ L12
+ i2
dt
dt
dt
dt
R1 i1 + L11
di
dL
di
L
R2 i2 + L22 2 + i2 22 + L21 1 + i1 21
dt
dt
dt
dt
(1.2)
u1i1 + u2i2
di1 2 dL11
di2 2 dL22
+ i1
+ L22 i2
+ i2
dt
dt
dt
dt
(1.3)
di2
L12
di1
L21
+ i1 i2
+ L21 i2
+ i1 i2
dt
dt
dt
dt
Under similar saturation conditions of the iron core, L12 = L21 = L, therefore, the
subscripts may be dropped. Equation (1.3) takes the simpler form
u1i1 + u2i2
di1 2 dL11
di2 2 dL22
+ i1
+ L22 i2
+ i2
dt
dt
dt
dt
(1.4)
di2
di1
L
+ 2i1 i2
+ Li2
dt
dt
dt
If the rotor is fixed in position so that the values of L11 , L and L22 are constant and
their derivatives are zero. Equation (1.4) takes the form
u1i1 + u2i2
d
dt
di1
di2
di2
di1
+ L22 i2
+ Li1
+ Li2
dt
dt
dt
dt
1
1
L11 i21 + L22 i22 + Li1 i2
2
2
(1.5)
The quantity in brackets is the total stored magnetic energy. When L11 , L and L22 are
variable, the value of its derivative is
d
dt
1
1
L11 i21 + L22 i22 + Li1 i2
2
2
=
L11 i1
di1 1 2 dL11
di2
+ i1
+ L22 i2
dt 2 dt
dt
(1.6)
di2
di1
1 2 dL22
dL
i2
+ Li1
+ i1 i2
+ Li2
2 dt
dt
dt
dt
1
1
L11 i21 + L22 i22 + Li1 i2
2
2
(1.7)
+
1 2 dL11 1 2 dL22
dL
i1
+ i2
+ i1 i2
2 dt
2 dt
dt
The total torque is obtained by replacing t by in the last group of equation (1.7).
The torque is thus
1 dL
1 dL
dL
te = i21 11 + i22 22 + i1 i2
2 d
2 d
d
(1.8)
Voltage equations (1.2) and the torque equations (1.8) represent the mathematical
model of the basic two-winding machine.
=
=
R1 i1 + e1
R2 i2 + e2
(1.9)
e1
L11
e2
L22
di2
| {zdt}
self ind. transformer voltage
di2
dt
di1
| {zdt}
L12
L21
i1
dL11
dt
dL22
dt }
| {z
i2
transformer voltage
i2
i1
dL12
dt
dL21
dt
{z
(1.10)
generator voltage eg
The first two terms are often called the transformer voltages.
The third and the fourth term appear whenever there is a relative movement between
the two coils. With the manipulation of the third and the fourth term we get
e1g
e2g
dL
dL
i1 11 + i2 12
dt
dt
i2
dL22
dL21
+ i1
dt
dt
dL
dL
i1 11 + i2 12
d
d
i2
dL22
dL21
+ i1
d
d
d
dt
(1.11)
d
dt
dL
22
where d
dt is the instantaneous angular velocity, or speed of rotation. The terms d
dL
and d21 are by definition coefficients of rotational inductance and they have the
dimension of inductance.
With the introduction of new symbols for all four coefficients of rotational inductance
M11 , M12 , M22 and M21 the generator voltages are
e1g
e2g
=
=
+i M
i1 M11
2 12
+i M
i2 M22
1 21
(1.12)
The coefficients M11 and M22 are different from zero only in the salient machine.
1.3 General circuit model of the electrical machine
The following specifications are very common for the general circuit model of the
electrical machine:
The coil x is the element of the circuit with its resistance Rx, self inductance Lxx,
coils are linked with the mutual inductances Lxy .
The idealized circuit model is magnetically linear (saturation and hysteresis are
neglected) and radially symmetrical.Therefore, the principle of superposition is
applicable.
The model coils are located in two axes (dq), which are chosen to be perpendicular.
The model coils are chosen to be stationary. The fact that coils on the physical machine may rotate is handled mathematically, where necessary by a transformation
of coordinates
Symbols:
q -axis
- transformer voltage
+
i2
2
ia
A
u2
uA
a
1
ia
ua
i1
u1
d -axis
+
ROTOR
STATOR
There can be no mutual flux between coils on the perpendicular axes, because the
axes are in quadrature.
The transformer-induced voltages exist between all coils on the same axis, but they
do not exist between the coils on the perpendicular axes. The standard dot notation
is used to mark the plus polarity of the induced voltages.
The stator coils, by definition, do not have any generated voltage due to the rotation
(speed voltage) of the rotor.
However, the rotor coils do have a speed voltage and are defined to have a speed mutual voltage with respect to each coil on the perpendicular axis, but not with respect
to any other coil on the same axis.
The polarity of this voltage is indicated by a triangle mark . The mark is put to
is oriented counterthat side of the rotor coil which has the positive polarity when
clockwise.
The model in Fig. 1.3 is described by the following set of voltage equations
u1
u2
ua
uA
La1 pi1
LA2 pi2
+
+
L1a pia
L2A piA
(Ra + Laa p)ia
(RA + LAA p)iA
Ma2 i2p
MA1 i1p
MaA iA p
MAa iA p
(1.13)
d
has been introduced here.
dt
Equations (1.13) are rewritten in matrix form as shown in equation (1.14).
The operator p :=
u1
R1 + L11 p
6u 7 6
0
6 2 7=6
4 ua 5 4 L p
a1
uA
MA1 p
0
R2 + L22 p
Ma2p
LA2 p
32
L1a p
0
i1
6 7
0
L2A p 7
76 i2 7
Ra + Laa p
MaAp 54 ia 5
MAa p RA + LAA p
iA
(1.14)
uS
uR
=
ZSS
ZRS
ZSR
ZRR
iS
iR
(1.15)
or
u = Zi
where uS , uR and iS , iR are vectors of stator and rotor voltages and currents.
(1.16)
uS
= [ u1
u2 ]T
uR
= [ ua
uA ]T
iS
= [ i1
i2 ]
iR
= [ ia
iA ]T
(1.17)
ZSS
ZSR
ZRS
ZRR
R1 + L11 p
0
0
R2 + L22 p
L1a p
0
0
L2A p
La1 p
Ma2 p
MA1 p LA2 p
Ra + Laa p
MAap
(1.18)
MaA p
RA + LAA p
u1
uA
=
R1 + L11 p
MA1 p
0
RA + LAA p
i1
iA
(1.19)
The electromagnetic torque tA is acting in the direction to align the axis of MMF
vA = iA NA in the shortest way with the axis of the MMF v1 = i1 N1 . The torque tA
acts opposite to the rotation of the rotor p, therefore, the machine operates as a
generator.
10
q -axis
q -axis
tA
vA
ia
vA
A
uA
v1
1
v1
i1
u1
d -axis
ROTOR
d -axis
+
ROTOR
1
STATOR
STATOR
dWsupply
dt
dWstored
dt
dWloss
dt
(1.20)
where
te electromagnetic torque
angular position of the shaft
p = = d
dt angular velocity of the shaft
Wsupply energy fed to coils
Wstored energy stored in the field of the self- and the mutual inductances of coils
Wloss energy loss in the stator and the rotor coils
Drago Dolinar: Electrical Machines Modelling and Control
11
Note that these quantities can be obtained using the matrix equations of the circuit
model, as it will be shown later. The electromagnetic torque from equation (1.20) is
te =
dWsupply
d
dWstored
d
dWloss
d
(1.21)
pm = te
(1.22)
p
te = m
(1.23)
SHAFT
te
te = J + f tL
(1.24)
where J is the inertia moment, f is the coefficient of viscous friction and tL is the
load torque.
According to equation (1.24), the sum of all torques on the shaft is zero.
1.4.1 Determination of the instantaneous power in the machine with four coils
12
u1
R1 + L11 p
0
L1a p
6u 7 6
0
0
R2 + L22 p
6 27=6
4 ua 5 4 L p
Ma2 p
Ra + Laa p
a1
uA
MA1 p
LA2 p
MAap
32
i1
6 7
L2A p 7
7 6 i2 7
MaA p 5 4 ia 5
RA + LAA p
iA
(1.25)
(1.26)
p = iT u = iT Zi
(1.27)
u1
6 u 7
27
p = i1 ; i2 ; ia ; iA 6
4 ua 5 = i1 u1 + i2 u2 + ia ua + iA uA =
uA
+i1 (R1 + L11 p)i1 + i1 L1a pia
+i2 (R2 + L22 p)i2 + i2 L2A piA
+ia (La1 pi1 + Ma2 pi2 + (Ra + Laa p)ia + MaA piA )
+iA (
(1.28)
13
(Nm)
(1.29)
(1.30)
ix iy Mxy
t = 0
f
L
(1.31)
Ix Iy Mxy
TL = 0
Ix Iy Mxy
f
(1.32)
TL
(1.33)
0 =
Ix Iy Mxy
f
no load speed
(1.34)
(1.35)
te =
1T
i
2
d
L i
d
(1.36)
The equation above can be used for all electrical machines, therefore, it is general.
14
Y (s)
U (s)
(1.37)
Transfer functions can be presented with a block diagram. This block diagram is
suitable for visualization and for the analysis of the signal flow.
Before proceeding with the discussion and presentation of examples it is suitable to
summarize the procedure of the transfer function and block diagram determination
in the following four steps:
1. The differential equations are transformed by Laplace transformation to algebraic
equations in the Laplace domain. The initial conditions have to be taken into account (it is the easiest when they are set to zero).
2. The input U (s) and the output Y (s) from the system are chosen (in the case of an
electrical machine the input is the voltage u or the current i, and the output is the
or the position ).
speed
3. The output from the system is expressed in the Laplace domain (The system of
algebraic equations is solved).
4. The transfer function G(s) is calculated as a quotient of the output and the input of
the system in the Laplace domain.
Some basic elements of the block diagram algebra are shown in Fig.1.7.
15
U (s)
Y (s)
G(s)
U (s)
Y (s)
G1 (s)
U (s)
Y (s)
G1 (s)G2 (s)G3 (s)
G3 (s)
G2 (s)
G1 (s)
U (s)
G2 (s)
Y (s)
U (s)
+
)
G1 (s) G2 (s)
Y (s)
U (s)
Y (s)
U (s)
G1 (s)
1G1 (s)G2 (s)
G1 (s)
Y (s)
(+)
G2 (s)
Equivalent diagram
Original diagram
= p =
constant.
U1 (s)
1.
UA (s)
=
R1 + L11 s
0
MA1 RA + LAA s
I1 (s)
IA (s)
16
q -axis
iA
A
1
uA
i1
u1
d -axis
+
ROTOR
STATOR
3. I1(s) =
U1 (s)
R1 + L11 s
UA (s) = MA1
|
U1 (s)
+(RA + LAA s)IA (s)
R1 + L11 s
{z
EA (s)
IA (s) = 0
4.
EA (s)
U1 (s)
EA(s) =
MA1
U1 (s)
R1 + L11 s
MA1
R1 + L11 s
U1 (s)
MA1
R1 +L11 s
EA (s)
C HAPTER
DC machine
2.1 Separately excited DC machine
The circuit diagram of the DC machine is shown in Fig. 2.1. The voltage equations
q -axis
ia
uA uL
1
i1
u1
d -axis
+
ROTOR
STATOR
are:
18
DC MACHINE
u1
uA
=
R1 + L11 p
MA1p
0
RA + LAA p
i1
iA
(2.1)
= [ i1
=
iA ]
R1 + L11 p
0
MA1p
RA + LAA p
i1
iA
(2.2)
MA1i1 iA p
The rate of electrical power, which is converted to mechanical power is the last term
MA1 i1 iA p. The electromagnetic torque is defined by
te =
MA1i1 iA p
p
(2.3)
(2.4)
(2.5)
Note that the steady-state values are from now on written by capital letters.
The mechanical equilibrium on the shaft is defined by
+ f
t
te = MA1 i1 iA = J
L
(2.6)
u1
R1 + L11 p
iA =
uA MA1 i
1
RA + LAA p
(2.7)
19
(+TL ; +Te )
Te =
TST
UA MA1 I1
MA1 I1
RA
= MA1 IA I1
2 I2
MA1
1
RA
IA =
UA MA1 I1
RA
UA IA RA
UA
MA1 I1 = MA1 I1
RA
MA1 I1 IA
UA = constant
MOTOR
IAST
TL ; Te )
IA
GENERATOR
U1
R1
(2.8)
UA MA1I1
RA
In equation (2.8), UA is the rotor voltage and MA1 I1 is the induced speed voltage.
Without the load torque TL on the shaft the equation of motion is
)
MA1 u1(uA MA1i1
J + f =
(R1 + L11 p)(RA + LAA p)
(2.9)
Equation (2.9) can not be solved analytically, because there exists one nonlinear term
In the steady-state it is
i1 .
2 U I
MA1U1UA MA2
1 1
TL f =
R1 RA
MA1U1
(U MA1 I1 )
R1 RA A
(2.10)
20
DC MACHINE
The efficiency of the machine is normally defined as the quotient of the output mechanical power and the input power
pout.
pinp.
(2.11)
pinp.
(2.12)
pout.
MA1i1 iA
(2.13)
{z
te
2
f
|{z}
friction
Pout.
Pinp.
Pout.
Ploss + Pout.
MA1I1 IA f 2
I12R1 + IA2 RA + MA1I1 IA
f 2
(2.14)
The instantaneous value of the efficiency does not have any meaning.
2.1.2 Determination of the block diagram of the separately excited DC machine
Transient states are obtained with the solution of equations (2.1) and (2.4).
u1 = (R1 + L11 p)i1
(2.15)
Equation (2.15) describes the conditions in the excitation winding. When the excitation U1 is constant, it is possible to define the new parameter KV = MA1I1 (in the
steady-state) and we do not need to solve the equation (2.15).
The block diagram of the DC machine will be determined manipulating the next two
equations
21
uA
(2.16)
| {z }
KV
KT iA
Note, KT
= KV
= (J p + f )p
tL
(2.17)
Equations (2.16) and (2.17) are transformed by the Laplace transformation; zero
initial conditions are used.
UA (s)
MA1I1 s((s))
| {z }
(2.18)
KV
Te (s)
s(s)
KT IA (s)
= (Te
(2.19)
TL) Js 1+ f
(2.20)
1
RA +LAA s
IA (s)
Te (s)
KT
KV s(s)
s(s)
1
Js+ f
s(s)
KV
Figure 2.3: Block diagram of the DC machine
The block diagram in Fig. 2.3 enables us to analyze the time behavior of the machine
with two inputs uA and tL . If it is necessary to take into account the variable excitation
voltage u1, then the diagram has to be extended to the one in Fig. 2.4.
22
DC MACHINE
TL (s)
UA (s)
1
RA +LAA s
IA (s)
Te (s)
KV s(s)
U1 (s)
1
R1 +L11 s
s(s)
1
Js+ f
s(s)
I1 (s)
MA1
Figure 2.4: Block diagram of DC machine with the variable excitation voltage u1
23
Of course, this multiloop structure can only operate under the assumption that the
bandwidth of the control increases towards the inner loops with the current loop
being the fastest and the position loop the slowest.
For the practical application it is normally of no consequence whether the current
controller admits a steady-state control error during acceleration or not, because the
current control represents an inner (auxiliary) function, being part of the superimposed speed loop. The main purpose of the current controller is to prevent the motor
overloading.
C
O
TL
N
r
E3
IAr
E2
UrA
E1
UA
Te
IA
Gci (s)
G (s)
c
Ge (s)
s
1
s
Gm (s)
KT
T
KV s
s
KV
N
r
IAr
E2
G (s)
c
UrA
E1
Gci (s)
UA
Te
I
A
Ge (s)
Gm (s)
KT
s
1
s
T
E
R
KV s
s
KV
24
DC MACHINE
C
IAr (s)
r (s) E2 (s)
1+T s
T s
E1 (s)
Ki
1+Ti s
Ti s
KV
KV s(s)
O
N
V
E
R
T
E
R
TL (s)
UA (s)
1
RA +LAA s
s(s)
IA (s)
1
Js+ f
KT
KV s(s)
s(s)
KV
Figure 2.7: Block diagram of the DC machine speed control with the compensation of the speed voltage
C
KV s(s)
IAr (s)
1+T s
Ki T si
i
O
N
V
E
UA (s)
1
RA +LAA s
R
T
E
R
IA (s)
KV s(s)
Due to compensation of EMF the design of the current controller is simple. Let us
suppose that the gain of the converter is one. The open-loop transfer function of the
current controller is
1 + Ti s
1
GI (s) = Ki
Ti s RA + LAA s
1 + Tis RA
= Ki
Ti s 1 + TAs
(2.21)
1 + TAs RA
GI (s) = Ki
TA s 1 + TAs
(2.22)
Note that the pole of the current control open loop transfer function can be canceled
by the controller zero. The result after cancellation is
25
GI (s) = Ki
1 1
TA s RA
(2.23)
TI (s) =
GI (s)
1 + GI (s)
Ki
TA sRA
=
=
K
1 + T sRi
A A
Ki
TA RAs + Ki
1
1+
TA RA
Ki s
(2.24)
It is obvious that we can speed up the behaviour of the current loop by the selection
of a higher gain Ki . A too high value of the gain can cause an unsuitable behaviour
of the system. When Ki = RA is selected, we get
TI (s) =
1
1 + TA s
(2.25)
(s)
1+T s
K T s
1
1+TA s
1
Js+ f
KT
According to Fig. 2.8, the speed open loop transfer function G (s) is
G (s) = K
1 + T s
T s
TI (s)KT
1
Js + f
= K
1 + T s
T s
TI (s)KT
1 1
1 + Tms f
(2.26)
26
DC MACHINE
G (s) = K
1 + Tms
1 1
TI (s)KT
Tm s
1 + Tms f
(2.27)
It is obvious that the speed open loop transfer function pole can be canceled by the
controller zero. After cancellation we obtain
G (s) = K
1
1 KT
Tm s 1 + TAs f
(2.28)
We have to select the speed controller gain. The good choice (for servo applications)
is K = 2KTm Tf . The chosen value of the gain is inserted into equation (2.28); this
T A
yields
G (s) =
Tm f 1
1 KT
2KT TA Tm s 1 + TA s f
(2.29)
1 1 1
2TA s 1 + TAs
1
2TA s(1 + TAs)
1
2TA2 s2 + 2TA s
(2.30)
Finally, the closed loop transfer function of the speed control T (s) is calculated
1
2TA2 s2 +2TA s
T (s) =
=
=
1 + G (s) 1 + 2 21
2TA s +2TA s
G (s)
1
2TA2s2 + 2TAs + 1
(2.31)
Note that the position control loop behaves as the second order system with a relatively short time delay.
The block diagram of the speed control is shown in Fig. 2.10.
It is possible to determine the gain of the position controller with the root locus
method.
27
r (s)
(s )
1
2TA2 s2 +2TA s+1
2.2.1 Analysis of the DC machine speed and position control using Matlab and Simulink
28
DC MACHINE
C HAPTER
(3.1)
the power of the transformed model has to be equal to the original one, and
30
=
=
Cu0
Ci0
(3.3)
(3.4)
(3.5)
(3.6)
ZCi0 = Z0 i0
(3.7)
ZC
(3.8)
31
Equation (3.8) will be used in the continuation for the calculation of the impedance
matrix of the transformed model Z0 .
Transformations are very convenient when the transformation matrices C and C
occurring in equations (3.8), are orthogonal or unitary.
Orthogonal matrix CT
T
Unitary matrix C
=C
=C
1,
(3.9)
(3.10)
The simplest way to derive the three-phase to a two-phase transformation is to consider the magneto motive-force distribution inside the machine.
The symmetrically distributed stator windings of the three-phase AC machine are
shown in Fig.3.1. The number of turns of each phase winding is N3 , and if the instantaneous currents are ia , ib and ic , then the phase ampere-turns, neglecting winding
factors, have the magnitudes va = N3ia , vb = N3 ib and vc = N3 ic .
Drago Dolinar: Electrical Machines Modelling and Control
32
-axis
-axis
winding b axis
winding a axis
ib ub
b
a
ia
ua
vb
va
-axis
i
u
-axis
vc
uc
c
ic
winding c axis
N3ia
N2i
N2i
N3 ib cos(1200)
N3 ib sin(1200 )
N3 ia
2 N3 ib
p
3
2 N3 ib
+
+
N3ic cos(2400 )
N3ic sin(2400 )
(3.11)
1
2 N3 ic
p
3
2 N3 ic
(3.12)
The three-phase to two-phase transformation has to be square, otherwise it is impossible to calculate the inverse value of the transformation matrix.
Drago Dolinar: Electrical Machines Modelling and Control
33
Transformations (3.11) and (3.12) are not square, therefore we have to extend them
with the additional row
N2i0 = kN3ia + kN3ib + kN3ic
where the current i0 ; i0 = ia + ib + ic is introduced. The current i0 is zero in the case
of star-connected windings.
Parameter k will be determined later on. The extended equation (3.12), written in the
matrix form is now
2
=B
1 32 3
ia
p2
3 54i 5
b
2
i
k
c
1
p2
3
2
1
i
N3
4i 5 =
40
N2
i0
k
Equation (3.13) in the short form is
(3.13)
B = (B
1 T
) = b4
p0
3
2p
1
1
2
1
2
k
k5
3
2
b=
N3
N2
(3.14)
3
2
=1
b23k2 = 1
in
=B
(3.16)
34
b=
q
k=
1
=
3b2
2
3
1
p1
2 = 2
(3.17)
2
q 6
B = 23 6
4
1
2
1
2
p
3
2
p
3
2
p1
2
7
1
p 7
25
1
p
2
Three-phase to two-phase transformation has the following form, when the angle
is different from zero
2 3 r 2
32 3
cos cos( + 1200) cos( + 2400 )
i
ia
2
0
0
4i 5 =
4 sin sin( + 120 ) sin( + 240 ) 5 4 i 5
(3.18)
b
3
1
1
1
p
p
p
i0
ic
2
2
2
2 3
ia
4i 5 =
b
ic
cos
26
0
4 cos( + 120 )
3
cos( + 2400)
sin
sin( + 1200 )
sin( + 2400 )
p1 3 2 i 3
2
7
1
p 54i 5
2
i0
p1
(3.19)
35
d -axis
-axis
-axis
+
i
u
i
u
d -axis
ROTOR
STATOR
= i N
in - axis and v
= i N
in - axis.
The new perpendicular dq- axes are, according to the original - one, rotated for
the angle . The MMF in the d- axis is
vd = v cos
v sin
vd
vq
=
cos
sin
sin
cos
v
v
(3.20)
36
v
v
cos sin
sin cos
vd
vq
(3.21)
As mentioned, the same transformation is valid for currents and voltages as well,
because the number of turns is equal N = N = Nd = Nq = N. The negative angle
can also be applied in the transformations (3.20) and (3.21).
The transformations are:
C2
CT2
cos
sin
sin
cos
cos sin
sin cos
(3.22)
(3.23)
What practical possibilities do we have to chose the new dq- reference frames?
According to Fig.3.3 there are at least three possibilities:
37
-axis
-axis
q -axis
i
u
-axis
i
u
ROTOR
i
u
-axis
S
STATOR
d -axis
Figure 3.3: Machine model with two-windings at the stator and at the rotor
38
ud
uq
cos sin
sin cos
= cos t
and u
cos t
sin t
=
= sin t
cos( t
sin( t
are transformed as
)
)
The transformed voltages ud , uq are AC voltages again, but their frequency is equal
to the difference of the rotation speed of dq- and - reference frame.
dq =
(3.24)
The most important reason to use transformations is the simplification of the machine
model. Note that the simplification is carried out only in the case, when the part of
the machine which is going to be transformed is axis symmetrical in construction.
3.4 Diagonalization
Let A be the matrix which we want to transform in the diagonal form. S is the
transformation matrix which in fact is composed of the eigen vectors of the matrix
A.
Diagonalization is quite often used in electrical engineering. The transformation
procedure is known as transformation on the symmetrical components.
Example:
2
A=4 5
1 6 4
2
S = p 4 ej 3 ej 3
2
4
3
ej 3 ej 3
Transformation of currents:
i+
0=S
iabc
1
7
15
1
ST
(3.25)
C HAPTER
-axis
i
u
-axis
i
u
-axis
ROTOR
STATOR
40
i R
i R
i R
i R
d
dt
d
dt
d
dt
d
dt
(4.1)
dt
(4.2)
=
=
=
=
i L
i L
i L
i L
+
+
+
i L cos
i L sin
i L cos
i L sin
+
+
+
i L sin
i L cos
i L sin
i L cos
(4.3)
L didt
di
L i sin d
dt
di
L i cos d
dt
L cos dt
L sin dt
di
dt
di
= L dt
di
L sin dt
L cos dt
L i sin d
dt
di
+ L cos dt
di
+ L sin dt
L i sin d
dt
di
dt
di
L i cos d
dt
L i cos d
dt
L sin didt
L i cos d
dt
di
L i sin d
dt
L cos dt
(4.4)
d
dt .
Equations
41
i R
pi L
i R
pi L
L cos pi
L sin pi
L sin pi
L cos pi
i R
pi L
L cos pi
L sin pi
+
+
i R
pi L
i L sin p
i L cos p
i L cos p
i L sin p
i L sin p
i L cos p
L sin pi
L cos pi
i L cos p
i L sin p
6 u 7 6
6 7 6
6 7=6
6 u 7 6
4 5 6
4
u
R + L p
R + L p
L cos p
L sin p
L sin p
L cos p
L sin p
+L cos p
L cos p
L sin p
L cos p
L sin p
L sin p
+L cos p
R + L p
0
(4.5)
2i
L sin p
L cos p
L cos p 7 6 i
7
L sin p 7 6
76
0
6 i
R + L p
7
7
7
74 7
5
5
(4.6)
The voltage equations are not very simple, because they contain trigonometric functions of the rotor position . The reason for this is the fact that both the stator and
the rotor voltage equations are written in their original reference frame.
The important simplification of the obtained model in the original reference frame
(equations (4.6)) is possible when we transform the model to the common reference
frame. Let us use first the stator original - reference frame as the new common
reference frame.
It is possible to use the already known transformation (3.20) from the previous chapter.
According to Fig.4.1 and trasformations (3.20), we get
iR
iR
=
=
i cos
i sin
i sin
i cos
(4.7)
42
iR
iR
i
i
cos
sin
sin
cos
cos sin
sin cos
i
i
iR
iR
(4.8)
u R
u R
u
u
cos
sin
sin
cos
cos sin
sin cos
u
u
u R
u R
(4.9)
There is no need to transform the stator voltages and currents, therefore, the transformation matrix is
2
i
6i 7 6
6 7=6
4i 5 4
R
iR
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0 cos
0 sin
32
0
i
7
6
0 7 6 i 7
7
sin 5 4 i 5
cos
i
(4.10)
i
6i 7 6
6 7=6
4 i 5 4
i
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
32
i
0
0
6
7
0
07
7 6 i 7
cos sin 5 4 iR 5
iR
sin cos
(4.11)
The transformation matrix which transforms the original rotor voltages and currents
from the - reference frame to the new stator reference frame - is
2
1
60
P 1=6
40
0
Drago Dolinar: Electrical Machines Modelling and Control
0
0
1
0
0 cos
0 sin
0
07
7
sin 5
cos
(4.12)
43
1
60
P 1 ZP = 6
40
0
2
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
4
R + L p
R + L p
L cos p
L sin p
L sin p
L cos p
1
60
6
40
0
0
1
0
0
Z P.
0
0
1
0
0 cos
0 sin
L sin p
+L cos p
L cos p
L sin p
0
0 7
7
sin 5
cos
L cos p
L sin p
L sin p
+L cos p
R + L p
L sin p
L cos p 7
7
L cos p 7
7
L sin p 7
7
7
0
7
R + L p
(4.13)
7
7
5
0
0
0
0 7
7
cos sin 5
sin cos
= L
in L
= L
The matrix multiplication from the left side is done first, then that from the right side
is done.
44
P
2
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
4
ZP =
R + L p
R + L p
L p
L p
L cos p
L sin p
L sin p
+L cos p
cos (R + L p)
sin (R + L p)
L p
1
60
6
40
0
L sin p
L cos p 7
7
7
L cos p
7
L sin p 7
7
sin (R + L p) 7
7
5
(4.14)
cos (R + L p)
3
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0 7
7
cos sin 5
sin cos
The result is
P
2
R + L p
6
0
6
4 L p
L p
ZP = Z0 =
0
R + L p
L p
L p
L p
0
R + L p
L p
L p 7
7
L p 5
R + L p
(4.15)
L p = a
it is possible to show how the calculation of a in equation (4.15) has been done.
45
= (L cos p
+(
L sin p) cos
L sin p L cos p)( sin )
(4.16)
L + L ) sin cos p
2
+( L + L ) sin cos p + L (cos2 + sin )p
= (
L p
It is obvious from the calculus that coefficient a is so simple only when the following is valid
R
= R
= L
= L
= L
(4.17)
= (R
L ) sin cos p
(4.18)
L p
46
u
R + L p
6u 7 6
0
6 7=6
4 u 5 4 L p
R
uR
M p
0
R + L p
M p
L p
L p
0
R + L p
M p
32
i
6
7
L p 7
7 6 i 7
M p 5 4 iR 5
R + L p
iR
(4.19)
The developed model in the - reference frame is most convenient for the analysis
of machine operation. The induction machine model in the form of equations (4.19)
cannot be used for the design of controlled drives.
= R
= L
RR = R
= R
LR = L
= L
= L = L = L = L = L = L = L
The circuit model in Fig.4.2 represents the two-phase model of the induction machine.
The voltage equations are
47
-axis
-axis
i
u
-axis
i
u
-axis
ROTOR
STATOR
u
u
RS i
RS i
d
( )
dt
d
dt
RR i
d
dt
RR i
d
dt
(4.20)
where RS and RR are ohmic resistances of the stator and the rotor winding, M is the
mutual inductance between the stator and the rotor windings, LS and LR are corresponding self inductances. is the angle between the stator and the rotor.
The equations for flux linkages are determined as sums of projections of the corresponding products of currents and inductivities on the selected axis.
48
LS i
LS i
LR i
LR i
=
=
=
+
+
M cos i
M sin i
M cos i
M sin i
M sin i
M cos i
M sin i
M cos i
+
+
+
(4.21)
Voltage equations and the torque equation in the matrix form are
u = Ri +
d
fLig
dt
(4.22)
1 dL
te = iT
i
2 d
2
u
6u 7
7
u=6
4 u 5
u
i
6i 7
7
i=6
4 i 5
i
2
7
7
5
RS
R=6
4
RR
(4.23)
RR
LS
L=6
4
RS
LS
M sin
M cos
M cos
M sin
M cos
M sin
LR
M sin
M cos 7
7
5
(4.24)
LR
Remark: the stator and the rotor equations are still written in their original reference
frames, therefore, functions of the time dependent angle appear in the inductance
matrix.
In this case we have to transform both the stator and the rotor. The transformations
are
u
u
u
u
=
=
cos S
sin S
sin S
cos S
cos R
sin R
sin R
cos R
S = + R
Drago Dolinar: Electrical Machines Modelling and Control
ud
uq
ud
uq
(4.25)
49
-axis
-axis
q -axis
d -axis
i
u
s
-axis
R
S
-axis
i
u
ROTOR
STATOR
R is the angle between the - axis of the rotor original reference frame and the daxis of the new common reference frame.
S is the angle between the - axis of the stator original reference frame and the daxis of the new common reference frame, is the rotor displacement.
Transformations for the voltage and the current vector are
0
u = Pu
i = Pi
cos S
6 sin
S
6
P=4
sin S
cos S
(4.26)
cos R
sin R
7
7
sin R 5
T
=P
(4.27)
cos R
By transforming the voltage equations and the torque equation (4.22) we get
0
=P
1 RPi0 + P 1 d
dt
te =
1 0 T dL
2
Pi
LPi
0
(4.28)
Pi
50
Separate terms will be calculated step by step. The first one in the voltage equation
is
2
cos S
6 sin
S
6
R=4
sin S
cos S
RS cos S
6 R sin
S
S
6
32
cos R
sin R
RS sin S
RS cos S
RS cos S
6 R sin
S
S
6
4
cos S
6 sin
S
6
4
sin S
cos S
2
RR
RR
3
7
7
RR sin R 5
RR cos R
RR sin R
RR cos R
cos R
sin R
3
7
7
RR sin R 5
RR cos R
3
7
7
sin R 5
cos R
3
RS
7
7
5
RS
RP = 6
4
7
7=
5
RS
cos R
P 1 RP =
RS sin S
RS cos S
RR cos R
RR sin R
76
76
sin R 5 4
RS
RR
RR
0o
d n
LPi , which occurs in the voltage equation (4.28), can be
dt
n
0o
1d
P
LPi = P
dt
1
0
d
d n 0o
fLPg i + LP dt i
dt
51
cos( + )
cos( )
sin( + )
sin( )
we obtain
2
6
M cos
M sin
LR
LS
LS
M cos M sin
M sin M cos
2
cos S
sin S
6 sin
cos S
S
6
4
cos R
sin R
LP = 6
4
LS cos S
6 L sin
S
S
6
4 M cos(
S )
M sin(S )
LS cos S
6 L sin
S
S
LP = 6
4 M cos
R
M sin R
sin
LS
S
S
6 L
cos
S
6 S S
4 M
sin
R
R
M R cos R
3R
7
7=
sin R 5
cos R
LS sin S
M cos(R + )
LS cos S
M sin(R + )
M sin(S )
LR cos R
M cos(S )
LR sin R
S = + R
M sin
M cos 7
7
and R = S
LS sin S
LS cos S
M sin R
M cos R
M cos S
M sin S
LR cos R
LR sin R
d
fLPg =
dt
cos
sin
LS
M
S
S
S
S
sin
cos
LS
M
S
S
S
S
sin
cos
M
L
R
R
R R
R
M R sin R LR R cos R
M sin(R + )
M cos(R + ) 7
7
LR sin R 5
LR cos R
M sin S
M cos S 7
7
LR sin R 5
LR cos R
cos
M
S
S
sin 7
M
S
S 7
cos 5
LR
R
R
LR R sin R
52
cos S
6 sin
S
6
LP = 4
LS cos S
6 L sin
S
6 S
4 M cos
R
M sin R
LS sin S
LS cos S
M sin R
M cos R
2
1
LP = 6
4
sin S
cos S
cos R
sin R
M cos S
M sin S
LR cos R
LR sin R
LS
LS
LR
M
cos S
6 sin
S
6
d
fLPg = 4
dt
sin
LS
S
S
cos
6 L
S
6 S S
4 M
sin
R
R
cos
M
R
R
cos
LS
S
S
sin
LS
S
S
cos
M
R
R
sin
M
R
R
2
6L
d
S
S
6
f
LPg = 4
dt
M
R
sin S
cos S
cos R
M sin S
M cos S 7
7
LR sin R 5
LR cos R
3
7
7
sin R 5
M7
7
5
LR
3
cos R
sin R
7
7
sin R 5
sin
M
S
S
cos
M
S
S
sin
LR
R
R
cos
LR
R
R
cos R
3
cos
M
S
S
sin 7
M
S
S 7
cos 5
LR
R
R
sin
LR
R
R
LS
S
M
S
M
R
7
7
5
LR
R
M
S
LR
R
=P
RPi
+P
0
d
f
LPg i + P
dt
LP
d 0
i
dt
Finally, voltage equations of the induction machine in the common dq- reference
frame are
53
uSd
6u 7
6 Sq 7
4u 5
Rd
uRq
2
6
4
M
R
LS
6
4M
LS
S
LS
LR
M
M
S
M
R
M
iSd
76 i 7
7 6 Sq 7
54i 5
Rd
RR
iRq
RR
LS S
+ 6
4
+ 6
32
RS
iSd
0 6 iSq 7
7
i =6
4i 5
R
iRq
RS
= 6
uSd
0 6 uSq 7
7
u =6
4u 5
R
uRq
LR
R
M
S
32
iSd
76 i 7
7 6 Sq 7
54i 5
LR
R
Rd
iRq
(4.29)
82
39
i
>
>
>
<6 Sd 7>
=
7
M 7 d 6 iSq 7
5 dt >4 i 5>
>
: Rd >
;
3
LR
iRq
Voltage equations (4.29) are the most general for all two-phase models. If we want
to write the model in a different reference frame we need to insert the right angles in
equations (4.29).
When, for instance, S = t, where is the angular frequency of the supply voltage,
we obtain the model in the common synchronously rotating reference frame.
When, for instance, S = 0, then, according to equation (4.25) = R , and the
model in the common fixed stator reference frame - is obtained (as in the chapter
before).
The model in the common rotor reference frame - is obtained with the next choice
of transformation angles: R = 0 and S = .
According to equation (4.28) the corresponding torque is
te =
1 0 T dL 0
Pi
Pi
2
d
54
= BT AT ,
we obtain
1 0 T T dL 0
Pi
i P
2
d
te =
L=6
4
M cos
M sin
LS
M sin
M cos
M sin
M cos
2
dL
d
6
4
= M6
M cos
M sin
sin
cos
PT
dL
d
cos S
6 sin
S
6
= M4
sin S
cos S
2
6
6
4
sin
cos
cos
sin
PT
dL
d
M6
4
sin(R + )
cos(R + )
cos(R + )
sin(R + )
M cos
M sin 7
7
5
sin
cos
cos
sin
M sin
M cos
=6
4
M sin
M cos 7
7
LR
dL
d
M cos
M sin
LR
LS
cos
sin 7
7
5
3
cos R
sin R
sin
cos
7
7
sin R 5
cos R
3
cos
sin 7
7
5
sin(S
cos(S
)
)
cos(S )
sin(S ) 7
7
5
55
PT
dL
d
= M6
4
sin(S )
cos(S )
sin(R )
cos(R )
cos(S )
sin(S )
cos(R )
sin(R ) 7
7
5
S = R +
2
PT
6
dL
P = M6
4
d
2
sin(S )
cos(S )
cos S
6 sin
S
6
cos(S )
sin(S )
sin S
cos S
7
7
sin R 5
cos R
sin R
cos R
1
6
dL
P = M6
4
d
cos(R)
sin(R) 7
7
3
PT
sin(R)
cos(R)
1
1
3
7
7
5
1
t=
1 0 T T dL 0
Pi
i P
2
d
2
1
te = M [ iSd
2
iSq
iRq ] 6
4
iRd
1
1
1
M [ iSd
2
iSq
iRd
iRq
32
iSd
76 i 7
7 6 Sq 7 =
54i 5
Rd
iRq
6 i
7
Rd 7
i 5
iRq ] 6
4
Sq
iSd
Finally, the electromagnetic torque is
56
te
1
iSd iRq + iSqiRd + iSqiRd
M
2
iSd iRq
(4.30)
M iSq iRd
iSd iRq
4.3 Stationary model of the induction machine in the form of the equivalent
circuit
The two-phase induction machine dynamic model in the - reference frame can
be used to determine the stationary model of the induction machine, well known as
the equivalent circuit. The equivalent circuit of the induction machine is shown in
Fig.4.4.
Remark: the machine is supplied with harmonic symmetric voltages, consequently,
the complex algebra can be applyed in the further analysis of the machine.
In this case the operator p is replaced by the complex number j as follows
Lp(I sin t ) = LI cos t = j LI sin t
j (LR
RS
US
M)
IS
j (LR
j M
d
t
dt
RR
s
M)
IR
UR
s
(4.31)
57
4.3 Stationary model of the induction machine in the form of the equivalent circuit
IS S L S
US
IS RS
E
IS
IR
Im
IR
R
IR
RR
s
E
IR S L R
where m and IR are the RMS values of the flux linkage in the air gap and the rotor
current (see phasor diagram in Fig.4.5).
It is possible to rewrite the torque equation in the following form
Te = K mIR sin
= K Im IR sin = K Im IS sin = K Im Ia
(4.32)
The torque equation (4.31) is very similar to the torque equation of the DC machine.
Note that both currents in equation (4.31) are independent and perpendicular.
The following power and torque values can be calculated with the help of the equivalent circuit shown in Fig.4.4
Input power Pinp = 3US IS cos
(4.33)
2
= 3IS RS
(4.34)
IR 2
Power across air gap P = 3RR
s
Rotor copper loss PCu = 3IR2 RR
(4.35)
(4.36)
Output power Pm = P
RR IR2
PCu = 3
2
s
RRIR2 = 3 RR IR2
|
{z s }
(4.37)
58
Pm
= s (1
s)
Te =
3
1 s
RR IR 2
s (1 s)
s
s=
s
s
=
3 RR IR 2
s
s
(4.38)
The equivalent circuit in Fig.4.4 can be simplified like the one shown in Fig.4.6 by
moving the magnetizing inductance M to the input. The exact transformation can be
done using the so-called Thevenines transformation.
j (LR
RS
US
j (LR
M)
M)
RR
s
UR
s
IR
j M
The approximate equivalent circuit is now very useful for calculating the rotor current.
US
IR = q
(4.39)
R 2
2
(RS + sR ) + (X S + X R)
Te =
3 4
s (R
US2
RR 2
2
+
S
s ) + (X S + X R )
R
5 R
s
(4.40)
59
4.3 Stationary model of the induction machine in the form of the equivalent circuit
If the supply voltage and the frequency are constant, the torque Te can be calculated
as a function of slip s from equation (4.40). The function is shown in Fig.4.7.
S
Motor
Generator
Brake
1:0
Tem
Te
Tem ( pu)
Synchronous speed
Starting torque
1
Slip s
-1
0:0
S ( pu)
-1
Tes =
3
s
US2
2
+ (X S + X R )
2
(RS + RR )
RR
(4.41)
If equation (4.40) is derivated with respect to the slip and equated to zero, we get
Te =
dT
ds
K
u
= Ku
d
Te = 0
ds
dT
ds
s m+
Ku
2 du
ds
in sm
(4.42)
60
RR
s m+ = q
RR
X S + X R
R2S + (X S + X R)2
sm
sm+; RS = 0
(4.43)
where sm+ and sm are the slip values corresponding to the breakdown torque Tem .
They are substituted in equation (4.40) so we get
:
Tem+ =
Tem
3US2
1
s 2(X S + X R)
3US2
1
s 2(X S + X R)
(4.44)
(4.45)
A further simplification of the equivalent circuit in Fig. 4.6 can be done by neglecting
the stator parameters RS and L S . This assumption is reasonable if the speed is
typically above 0.1 of the rated speed.
The torque equation (4.40) can be simplified as
R
US2
Te = 3 2 2 sl 2R 2
s RR + sl L R
(4.46)
sUS
IR = q
2
RR 2 + sl2 L R
(4.47)
The air gap flux m is given by equation (4.48) (in our case, where N=1 the flux is
equal to the flux linkage m in the air gap)
m =
US
s
s MIm
s
= N m
(4.48)
In the low-slip region, where RR 2 >> sl2 L2 R , equation (4.46) can be approximated
as
61
4.3 Stationary model of the induction machine in the form of the equivalent circuit
Te = 3
1 2
RR m sl
(4.49)
Te is proportional to m2 if sl is constant
Te is proportional to sl if m is constant
4.3.3 Variable voltage operation
A simple and economical method for the open loop speed control of a cage-type
induction motor is to vary the stator voltage at constant frequency.
Figure 4.8 shows the torque-speed curves with variable stator voltage, which have
been plotted from equation (4.40).
Speed control range
1:0
1:0US
Load torque
Te
Tem ( pu)
0:7US
0:5
0:5US
0:25US
0:0
0:2
0:4
0:6
0:8
1:0
S ( pu)
If the stator frequency s is increased beyond the rated value b , the torque-speed
curves, derived from equation (4.40) can be plotted as shown in Fig.4.9.
62
Tem S2 =constant
Te
Tem ( pu)
0:5
0:0
1:0
2:0
3:0
S
b ( pu)
According to equation (4.49) the air gap flux and the stator current decrease as the
frequency increases, and correspondingly the maximum developed torque also decreases.
The maximum torque as a function of the slip can be obtained from equation (4.46)
R
US2
Tem = 3 2 2 slm 2 R 2
s RR + slmL R
(4.50)
where slm = RR =L2 R is the slip frequency at maximum torque. The equation (4.50)
shows that the product Tem S2 is constant.
If an attempt is made to decrease the supply frequency below the rated voltage, the
air gap flux will saturate, causing excessive stator current.
Therefore, the region below the base frequency s = b should be accompanied by
the corresponding reduction of the stator voltage so as to maintain a constant air gap
flux.
Figure 4.10 shows the plot of torque-speed curves where the US =s ratio is maintained constant.
The maximum torque Tem , given by equation (4.50), remains approximately the
same, except in the low-frequency region, where the air gap flux is reduced by the
63
Maximum torque
1:0
Te
Tem ( pu)
0:5
0:0
0:5
1:0
S
b ( pu)
Instead of controlling the stator voltage, the stator current can be controlled directly
to control the developed torque.
64
Te
Tem =constant
=constant
Tem S2
=constant
1:0
Te
Tem ( pu)
0:0
2:0
1:0
S
b ( pu)
Figure 4.11: Regions of torque-speed curves with variable-voltage and variable-frequency power supply
Stator voltage US
Torque Te
1:0
Stator current IS
US
USm ( pu)
Slip s
0:0
1:0
2 :0
S
b ( pu)
65
and feedback signals are DC quantities which are proportional to the respective variables.
This is in contrast to the vector control, where both the magnitude and the phase of
a vector variable are controlled. This will be described in the next section.
4.4.1 Open-loop US =s speed control
PWM
The frequency S is the command variable. It is close to the motor speed when the
small slip frequency is neglected.
The scheme is defined as US =s control because the voltage command US is generated directly from the frequency signal through a US =s gain constant K.
In the steady-state operation the machine air gap flux m is approximately related to
the ratio US =s .
As the frequency approaches zero near the zero speed the voltage drop at the neglected stator resistance will be relatively higher and higher. An auxiliary compensation signal is added to compensate the mentioned voltage drop.
Closed-loop US =s speed control scheme is shown in Fig.4.14.
66
PWM
=
S
S
GR (s)
Limiter
Rotor speed
The main drawback of the scalar speed control is that it is based on the stationary
model of the induction machine. Scalar speed control approaches are suitable for
less demanding drives.
Vector control is used for high performance induction motor drives.
The block diagram of the direct field oriented control of the induction machine is
shown in Fig.4.15.
Mr
Rd
LR TR
ir
uar
u r
ur
ua
N
Sd
GRi (s)
Sd
V
dq
E
ubr
ub
L
ir
ur
G (s)
R
GRi (s)
iSd
iSq
Sq
Sq
u r
ucr
uc
r
M L Rd
R
Figure 4.15: Direct field oriented vector control of speed of induction machine
The block diagram of the indirect field-oriented control of the induction machine is
67
shown in Fig.4.16.
Mr
Rd
LR TR
ir Sd
I
u r
uar
ur Sd
GRi (s)
ua
V
dq
2
ubr
L
s
ub
G (s )
R
ur Sq
GRi (s)
iSd
iSq
ir Sq
ucr
u r
uc
M L Rd
R
R
S
1
s
Figure 4.16: Indirect field oriented vector control of speed of induction machine
68
C HAPTER
-axis
q -axis
d -axis
i
u
-axis
i
i
u
i
u
-axis
ROTOR
STATOR
Figure 5.1: Two-phase induction machine model in the original reference frame
70
q -axis
Sq
Rq
iSq
uSq
iRq
uRq
Rd
Sd
iSd
iRd
uRd
ROTOR
d -axis
uSd
STATOR
Let us write now the induction machine model in dq- reference frame in a slightly
different form as we did before (equations (4.29) and (4.30)):
uSd
iSd RS + dtd Sd
uSq
iSq RS + dtd Sq +
S Sd
iRd RR + dtd Rd
iRq RR + dtd Rq +
R Rd
te
M (iSq iRd
J ddt
te
S Sq
R Rq
iSd iRq ) =
tL
M
LR (iSq Rd
(5.1)
iSd Rq )
71
Sd
LS iSd + MiRd
Sq
LS iSq + MiRq
Rd
LR iRd + MiSd
Rq
LR iRq + MiSq
(5.2)
Rotor currents are determined from the last two equations of 5.2:
iRd
iRq
Rd iSd M
LR
Rq iSq M
LR
(5.3)
Equations (5.3) are inserted into first two equations of system (5.2):
Sd
Sq
M
LR (Rd
iSd M ) + LS iSd = Rd LM
+ iSd (LS
M2
LR )
M
LR (Rq
M2
LR )
(5.4)
M2
LR
= LS
6= L S and L 6= L R, but:
L
= LS
M2
LR
= L S + M
M2
L R + M
(5.5)
= L S +
L R M
L R + M
(5.6)
Sd
Rd LM
+ iSd L
Sq
Rq LM
+ iSq L
(5.7)
Equations (5.7) define both stator flux linkages. They are inserted in the first two
voltage equations of the system (5.1).
Drago Dolinar: Electrical Machines Modelling and Control
72
uSd
+ iSd L )
uSq
( M + i L )
+ iSq L ) +
S Rd LR
Sd
( M
S Rq L
+ iSq L )
(5.8)
Equations (5.3) are inserted in the third and the fourth equation of (5.1). Taking into
L
account TR = RR we get:
R
d
dt Rd TR + Rd
d
dt Rq TR + Rq =
T
iSd M +
R R Rq
(5.9)
R R Rd
iSq M
Time derivative of both flux linkages are calculated from equations (5.9).
d
dt Rd
iSd M T1
+
R Rq
Rd T1
d
dt Rq =
iSq M T1
R Rd
Rq T1
(5.10)
M
LR .
M 2 RR
M
+
R Rq LR
R LR
M d
LR ( dt Rd ) =
iSd L
M d
LR ( dt Rq ) =
M2R
iSq L L R
R R
R Rd L
MRR
R LR
Rd L
(5.11)
MR
Rq L LR
R R
Equations (5.11) are inserted in stator voltage equations (5.8) and the new parameter
R is introduced:
R
= RS +
M2
R
L2R R
(5.12)
uSd
Rd TML
M
+
R Rq L
uSq
Rq TML
R Rd L
R R
R R
( M
S Rq L
+ iSq L )
( M + i L )
+
S Rd LR
Sd
(5.13)
Let us assume in equation (5.13) the following relation between the rotation speeds:
73
=
+
R
S
(5.14)
and we get:
uSd
Rd TM LR
Rq L
i L
S Sq
uSq
M
Rq TM LR +
Rd L
i L
+
S Sd
(5.15)
uSd + Rd TML
uSq + Rq TML
R R
M +
i L
+
Rq L
S Sq
R
Rd L
R R
i L
S Sd
(5.16)
Using the Laplace transformation, voltage equations (5.16) are transformed in the
Laplace domain. Zero initial conditions are taken into account.
=
ISq (s)(1 + sT )R
Rd (s)(1 + sTR )
(s)T (s)
ISd (s)M +
R
R Rq
Rq (s)(1 + sTR )
ISq (s)M
ISd (s)(1 + sT )R
R R
(s) (s) M +
(s)i (s)L
+
Rq
S
Sq
L
R
(s) (s) M
Rd
L
(s)i (s)L
S
Sd
(5.17)
(s )T (s )
R
R Rd
Rq
d
dt Rq =
(5.18)
74
M
LR
Rd
iSd
USd
M
1+TR s
R (1+T s)
TR
M
S
TR
M
USq
1
TR
1
TR
M
1+TR s
1
R (1+T s)
Rq
iSq
M
LR
Rq
Rd
tL
iSd
te
1
Js+ f
M
LR
iSq
ISq (s)(1 + sT )R
USq (s)
Rd (s)(1 + sTR)
ISd (s)M
(s)
ISq M
TR Rd (s)
R R
(s )I (s )L
S
Sd
(s) M
Rd
L
(5.19)
75
M
LR
Rd
iSd
1
R (1+sT )
USd
M
1+sTR
TR
M
TR
M
1
TR
M
1+sTR
1
R (1+sT )
USq
1
TR
Rq
iSq
M
LR
is
Figure 5.4: Electrical part of field oriented induction machine model; Note, that in the field orientation
R
With the modification of the block diagram in Fig.5.4 and taking into account the
mechanical part of the model we get:
M
LR TR
tL
1
R (1+sT
USd
Rd
iSd
M
(1+sTR )
te
M
LR
1
Js f
USq
1
R (1+sT
iSq
M
LR
76
Conclusion: the d- and the q- part of the IM model in Fig.5.5 are coupled.
uSq
M
Rd
T L
i L
S Sq
R R
M
Rd L
i L
S Sd
(5.20)
The voltage feed-forward signals are added to both outputs from the current controller. The reference values of voltages in the d- and the q- direction are
urSd
urSq
uSd + udr
uSq + uqr
(5.21)
The decoupled IM model in Fig. 5.6 is obtained with the corresponding voltage
feed-forwards (5.21).
77
Mr Rd
LR TR
M
LR TR
ur Sd
ir Sd
PI
Rd
uSd
1
R (1+sT )
con:
I
N
ir Sq
PI
ur Sq
T
E
con:
iSd
V
E
1
(1+sT )
uSd
iSq
1
R (1+sT )
r
Rd
LR
M
LR
Regulator
Motor
Figure 5.6: Electrical part of the decoupled field oriented IM with PI current controllers
Mr
Rd
LR TR
ur
ir
PI
Sd
s
L
ir Sq
PI
con:
PI
Sd
Sd
con:
con:
ur Sq
r
M L Rd
R
tL
M
LR TR
I
N
V
E
R
T
E
R
1
R (1+sT )
Rd
(1+sT )
M
LR
te
1
f +Js
Sd
Sd
1
R (1+sT )
iSq
M
LR
78
Mr
Rd
LR TR
ur
ir
PI
Sd
u r
uar
ua
ubr
ub
Sd
con:
dq
L
IM
L
ir
PI
con:
Sq
ur Sq
PI
u r
con:
TG
3
uc
ucr
r
M L Rd
R
iSd
ia
3
ib
iSq
dq
ic
R
1
s
79
Ge (s)
irsd
Gci (s)
urSd
uSd
iSd
1
LS s+RS
KT
Gc (s)
ter
1
KT
irSq
Gci (s)
Gm (s)
TI (s)
= LM
urSq uSq
iSq
1
LS s+RS
1
Js+ f
KT
tL
Figure 5.9: The d- axis and the q- axis block diagram of speed control of the field oriented induction machine
Current controllers in the d- and the q- axis are the same and has to be determined
first. According to Fig.5.9 the open current loop transfer function is
GI (s) = Ki
1 + Ti s
1
Ti s R (1 + T s)
(5.22)
1 + T s R
GI (s) = Ki
T s 1 + T s
(5.23)
Note, that the pole of the open current loop transfer function in equation (5.23) can
be compensated by the controller zero. The result after cancellation is
GI (s) = Ki
1 1
T s R
(5.24)
TI (s) =
GI (s)
1 + GI (s)
Ki
R T s
=
=
K
1 + T sRi
Ki
T sR + Ki
1
1 + TK Rs
(5.25)
It is obvious, that we can speed up the behaviour of the current loop by the selection
80
of the higher gain Ki . To high value of the gain can cause nonsuitable behaviour of
the system. When Ki = R is selected, we get
TI (s) =
1
T s + 1
(5.26)
Gc (s)
ter
te
1
Js+ f
TI (s)
Figure 5.10: The q- axis block diagram of speed control of the field oriented induction machine
1 + T s
T s
TI (s)
1
Js + f
= K
>
1 + T s
T s
TI (s)
1 1
Tm s + 1 f
(5.27)
1 + Tms
1 1
TI (s)
Tm s
1 + Tm s f
(5.28)
It is obvious that the pole of the open loop transfer function (5.28) can be canceled
by the controller zero. After cancellation we obtain
81
G (s) = K
1
1 1
Tm s 1 + T s f
(5.29)
Tm f 1
1 1
2T Tm s 1 + T s f
Tm f
2T .
The
(5.30)
1 1 1
2T s 1 + T s
1
2T s(1 + T s)
1
2T2s2 + 2T s
(5.31)
Finally, the closed-loop transfer function of the speed control T (s) is calculated
1
2T2 s2 +2T s
=
=
T (s) =
1 + G (s) 1 + 2 21
2T s +2T s
G (s)
1
2T2 s2 + 2T s + 1
(5.32)
Note, that the speed controlled close loop system behaves as the second order system
with relatively short time delay, what we have expected at the beginning.
5.3.1 Analysis of the induction machine speed control using Matlab and Simulink
82
C HAPTER
84
q -axis
iSq
Sq
uSq
Sd
iSd
d -axis
uSd
ROTOR
STATOR
Figure 6.1: Circuit model of the synchronous machine with permanent magnet excitation
r
1
i
2
4i 5 =
4 0
3 p1
i0
1
p2
3
2
p1
2
1 32 3
ia
p2
3 54i 5
b
2
p1
ic
2
(6.1)
1
p2
3
2
p1
2
1 32 3
ua
p2
3 54u 5
b
2
p1
uc
2
(6.2)
r
1
u
2
4u 5 =
4 0
3 p1
u0
where is the rotor angle and is measurable. The transformation for currents from
the - reference frame to the dq- reference frame is
id
iq
=
cos sin
sin cos
i
i
(6.3)
85
ud
uq
=
cos sin
sin cos
u
u
(6.4)
The transformation of currents from the dq- reference frame to the - reference
frame is
i
i
=
cos
sin
sin
cos
cos
sin
sin
cos
id
iq
(6.5)
u
u
=
ud
uq
(6.6)
The transformation of currents from the - reference frame back to the three-phase
quantities is
2 3
r
ia
26
6
4i 5 =
b
34
ic
1
1
2
1
2
p
3
2
p
3
2
p1 2 3
2
7 i
1
p 7 4 i 5
25
i0
1
p
(6.7)
r
ua
26
6
4u 5 =
b
34
uc
1
1
2
1
2
p
3
2
p
3
2
p1 2 3
2
7 u
1
p 7 4 u 5
25
u0
1
p
(6.8)
Note that the current i0 = 0 and the voltage u0 = 0, because the stator windings are
star-connected.
Flux linkages d and q are
d
q
=
=
id LS + m
iq LS
(6.9)
86
RS iSd + LS
diSd
dt
uSq
RS iSq + LS
diSq
dt + Sd
J ddt
te
te
miSq
Sq
(6.10)
tL
1
LS [uSd
i ]
RS iSd + L
S Sq
diSq
dt
1
LS [uSq
RS iSq
d
dt
1
Js+ f [m iSq
(L i + m )]
S Sd
(6.11)
tL]
The block diagram of the synchronous machine in Fig. 6.2 can be drawn on the base
of equations (6.11).
RS
uSd
iSd
1
LS s
LS
LS
m
uSd
1
LS s
iSq
RS
te
1
Js+ f
1
s
tL
Figure 6.2: Block diagram of the synchronous machine with permanent magnet excitation
87
LS iSq
=
=
LS iSd
(6.12)
the decoupling of the block diagram in Fig. 6.2 is possible. The voltage feed-forward
signals are added to both outputs from the current controllers. The reference values
of voltages in the d- and the q- direction are
udr
uqr
=
=
ucd + ud
ucq + uq
(6.13)
KT
udr
idr
u r
uar
ua
ubr
ub
= m
Gci (s)
dq
LS
SM
LS
m
r
G (s)
c
1
KT
uc
ucr
u r
Gci (s)
TG
uqr
id
ia
3
ib
iq
dq
ic
1
s
Figure 6.3: Field oriented speed control of the synchronous machine including the feed-forward signals for
decoupling of the model
The decoupling of the synchronous machine model in Fig. 6.3 is obtained with the
corresponding voltage feed-forward signals (6.13).
88
RS ISd
RS ISq
I
L
S Sq
m
E =
RS ISq
US
US
m
E =
IS
ISq = IS
ISd = 0
ISq
= 2
ISd
> 2
=0
and b) Id
6= 0
Direct field weakening is not feasible with a permanently excited machine but a
similar effect can be achieved by advancing the current vector beyond = 2 , i.e., by
introducing a current component in the negative d- axis. This is indicated in Fig.6.4
in dotted lines. As a consequence, ISq my have to be reduced in order not to exceed
the limit for the total current
q
IS =
2 + I2 < I
ISd
Smax
Sq
(6.14)
This leads to a corresponding reduction of torque, which is a characteristic for operDrago Dolinar: Electrical Machines Modelling and Control
89
Gci (s)
uSdr uSd
1
LS s+RS
iSd
KT
TI (s)
Gc (s)
ter
1
KT
iSqr
Gci (s)
= m
Gm (s)
uSqr uSq
1
LS s+RS
iSq
1
Js+ f
KT
tL
Figure 6.5: The d- axis and the q- axis block diagram of the synchronous machine
Current controllers in the d- and the q- axis are the same and have to be determined
first. According to Fig.6.5 the open current loop transfer function is
GI (s) = Ki
where TS =
1 + Ti s
1
Ti s RS (1 + TS s)
(6.15)
LS
RS .
There are several methods to chose the parameters Ki and Ti . Let us apply the so
called compensation methods.
Taking into account Ti = TS the open-loop transfer function is
90
1 + TSs RS
GI (s) = Ki
TS s 1 + TSs
(6.16)
Note that the pole of the current open-loop transfer function in equation (6.16) can
be compensated by the controller zero. The result after cancellation is
GI (s) = Ki
1 1
TS s RS
(6.17)
TI (s) =
GI (s)
1 + GI (s)
Ki
RS TS s
=
=
K
1 + T Ri s
S S
Ki
TS RS s + Ki
1
1+
TS RS
Ki s
(6.18)
It is obvious that we can speed up the behaviour of the current loop by the selection
of a higher gain Ki . A too high value of the gain can cause an unsuitable behaviour
of the system. When Ki = RS is selected, we get
TI (s) =
1
1 + TS s
(6.19)
1 + T s
T s
TI (s)
1
Js + f
= K
1 + T s
T s
T1 (s)
1 1
Tm s + 1 f
(6.20)
91
Gm (s)
r
Gc
ter
TI (s)
te
1
Js+ f
where Tm = Jf . It is supposed that Tm > TS , therefore, the appropriate choice for the
controller time constant is T = Tm then equation (6.20) is
G (s) = K
1 + Tms
1 1
TI (s)
Tm s
1 + Tm s f
(6.21)
It is obvious that the pole of the open-loop transfer function (6.21) can be canceled
by the controller zero. After cancellation we obtain
G (s) = K
1 1
1
Tm s 1 + TS s f
(6.22)
Now we have to select the speed controller gain. The possible choice is K =
The chosen value of the gain is inserted into equation (6.22) and we get
G (s) =
Tm f 1
1 1
2TS Tm s 1 + TS s f
Tm f
2TS .
(6.23)
1 1 1
2TS s 1 + TS s
1
2TS s(1 + TS s)
1
2TS2s2 + 2TS s
(6.24)
Finally, the closed-loop transfer function of the speed control T (s) is calculated
1
2TS2 s2 +2TS s
=
=
T (s) =
1 + G (s) 1 + 2 21
2TS s +2TS s
G (s)
1
2TS2 s2 + 2TS s + 1
(6.25)
92
Remark: the speed control loop behaves as a second order system with a relatively
short time delay, which has been expected from the beginning.
6.3.1 Analysis of the synchronous machine speed control using Matlab and Simulink
C HAPTER
94
q -axis
iSq
uSq
d
iSd
d -axis
uSd
ROTOR
STATOR
ud
Rid +
d d
dt
uq
Riq +
d q
dt + d
(7.1)
d
q
=
=
id Ld
iq Lq
(7.2)
q iq
L
ud
Rid + Ld
uq
di
i
Riq + Lq dtq + L
d d
(7.3)
95
did
dt
1
L d [u d
q iq ]
Rid + L
diq
dt
1
Lq [uq
Riq
(7.4)
i ]
L
d d
ud
uq
=
q
L
R + Ld p
L
R + Lq p
d
id
iq
(7.5)
i u = id iq
Ri2d + id Ld pid
q iq
Rid + Ld pid L
=
i Riq + Lq piq
L
d d
q iq + iqL
i + Ri2q + iqLq piq
i L
d
d d
(7.6)
te =
i
iq L
d d
q iq
id L
= id iq (Ld
Lq)
(7.7)
d
dt
= te
tL
(7.8)
The block diagram of the reluctance synchronous machine in Fig. 7.2 can be drawn
on the base of equations (7.4) and (7.8)
96
R
ud
+
1
Ld s
id
Lq
Ld
Ld
uq
1
Lq s
Lq
iq
1
Js+ f
1
s
tL
ud
uq
Lq iq
Ld id
=
=
(7.9)
=
=
ucd + ud
ucq + uq
(7.10)
97
idr
udr
Gcid (s)
u r
ucd
N
dq
Lq
ua
uar
V
ubr
ub
RM
R
Ld
r
ucq
G (s)
c
Gciq (s)
ucr
u r
TG
uc
udr
ia
iSd
ib
i
iSq
dq
ic
2
1
s
Figure 7.3: Speed control of the reluctance synchronous machine including the feed-forward signals for decoupling of the model
The decoupling of the synchronous machine model in Fig. 7.3 is obtained with the
corresponding voltage feed-forward signals (7.10).
98
diagram are decoupled. Both parts of the block diagram are drawn separately in
Fig.7.4.
TId (s)
Ge (s)
idr
Gcid (s)
udr ud
KT
id
1
Ld s+R
Gc (s)
ter
1
KT
iqr
Gciq (s)
Lq )id
Gm (s)
TIq (s)
= (Ld
uqr uq
1
Lq s+R
iq
1
Js+ f
KT
tL
Figure 7.4: d- axis and q- axis block diagram of the reluctance synchronous machine
Current controllers in the d- and the q- axis are not the same when Ld and Lq are
different. Therefore, both controllers will be calculated separately.
According to Fig.7.4 the open current loop transfer function in the d- direction is
GId (s) = Kid
where Td
1 + Tid s
1
Tid s R(1 + Td s)
(7.11)
L
= Rd .
= Td
1 + Td s R1
GId (s) = Kid
Td s 1 + Td s
(7.12)
Note that the pole of the open-loop transfer function in equation (7.12) can be compensated by the controller zero. The result after cancellation is
GId (s) = Kid
1 1
Td s R
(7.13)
99
TId (s) =
GId (s)
1 + GId (s)
Kid
RTd s
=
=
Kid
1 + T sR
d
Kid
Td sR + Kid
1
1+
Td R
Kid s
(7.14)
It is obvious that we can speed up the behaviour of the current loop by the selection
of a higher gain Kid . A too high value of the gain can cause an unsuitable behaviour
of the system. When Kid = R is selected, we get
TId (s) =
1
1 + Td s
(7.15)
and the inner current loop in the d- axis behaves as an first order system.
In the continuation the current controller in the q- axis will be calculated in a similar
way as that one in the d- axis.
According to Fig.7.4 the open current loop transfer function in the q- direction is
1 + TIqs
(7.16)
Lq
R.
Taking into account TIq = Tq the current open-loop transfer function in the q- axis is
1 + Tqs R1
GIq (s) = KIq
Tq s 1 + Tqs
(7.17)
Note that the pole of the open-loop transfer function in equation (7.17) can be compensated by the controller zero. The result after cancellation is
GIq (s) = KIq
1 1
Tq s R
(7.18)
100
KIq
RTq s
TIq (s) =
=
=
1 + GIq(s) 1 + KIq
Tq sR
GIq(s)
KIq
Tq sR + KIq
1
TR
1 + Kq s
(7.19)
Iq
1
1 + Tqs
(7.20)
and the inner loop in the q- axis behaves as a first order system.
In the next step it is necessary to choose the speed controller shown in Fig.7.4. The
parameters K and T may be chosen by different methods. In servo applications
the use of the so-called method of optimal output response can be the appropriate
choice.
If we take into account that the current closed-loop transfer function in the q- axis is
GIq (s), then we can redraw the block diagram for the q- axis from Fig.7.4. Figure
7.5 shows the block diagram of the q- axis when Id is constant.
Gm (s)
r
Gc (s)
ter
TIq (s)
te
1
Js+ f
1 + T s
T s
TIq (s)
1
Js + f
= K
>
1 + T s
T s
TIq (s)
(7.21)
1 + Tm s
1 1
TIq (s)
Tm s
1 + Tm s f
1 1
Tm s + 1 f
(7.22)
101
It is obvious that the pole of the open-loop transfer function (7.22) can be canceled
by the controller zero. After cancellation we obtain
G (s) = K
1
1 1
Tm s 1 + Tqs f
(7.23)
mf
Finally, we have to select the speed controller gain. The possible choice is K = T2T
q
(servo application). The chosen value of the gain is inserted into equation (7.23)
G (s) =
Tm f 1
1 1
2Tq Tm s 1 + Tqs f
(7.24)
1 1 1
2Tq s 1 + Tqs
1
2Tq s(1 + Tqs)
1
2Tq2s2 + 2Tqs
(7.25)
Finally, the closed-loop transfer function of the speed control T (s) is calculated
1
2Tq2 s2 +2Tq s
T (s) =
=
=
1 + G (s) 1 + 2 21
2Tq s +2Tq s
G (s)
1
2Tq2 s2 + 2Tq s + 1
(7.26)
Remark: the speed control loop behaves as a second order system with a relatively
short time delay, which has been expected from the beginning.
7.3.1 Analysis of the reluctance synchronous machine speed control using Matlab and Simulink