Water Resources Engineering

Water Resources Engineering
FCE 525
Prof. Patts M.A. Odira
Key Textbooks:
1. Water Resources Engineering by David A. Chin 2nd
Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall; 2006.
2. Water Resources Engineering by Ray K. Linsley; Joseph B.
Franzini; David L. Freyberg; George Tchobanoglous, 4th
Edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc, 1992.
Other Reading Books:
1. Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering by S.K.
Carg; 11th Edition, Khana Publishers; 2000.
2. Elements of Water Resources Engineering by K.N. Duggal
and J.P. Soni; New Age International Publishers; 2007.
3. Hydrology for Engineers by Ray K. Linsley JR.; Max A.
Kohler; Joseph L.H. Paulhus; 3rd Edition; McGraw-Hill
International Book Co; 1984.
Course Content
Water Law:- Introduction to common law; Water Codes;
Ground Water and National Law and Water policy. Planning
for Water Resources development:- National, regional,
catchment planning; objective of planning; planning process;
introduction to multiple purpose projects; introduction to
systems analysis. Economics in Water Resources planning:Importance; costing and cost allocation; interest rates; taxed;
economy studies e.g. cost-benefit, annual cost comparison.
Water resources for arid and semi arid areas:- Surface and
subsurface Dams; Rainwater Harvesting.
Course Content
Dams; spillways; gates and outlet works:- Focus on types of
spillways, gates and outlets; scour protection and energy
dissipation. Reservoir: physical characteristics; capacity and
yield of reservoirs determination methods. Sedimentation in
reservoirs. Hydroelectric power:- types of plants and layouts;
systems and loads in power plants, arrangement and
operation of elements. Power duration curves.
CHAPTER ONE- INTRODUCTION TO

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING
1.1. What is WRE?

WRE may be defined as the conception, planning, design,
construction and operation of facilities to control and utilize water.
Water resources problems are not only the concern of engineers
but may also involve other professionals e.g. Economists, political
scientists, geologists, chemists, biologists etc.
Each water development project is unique in its physical
conditions hence standard designs which lead to simple handbook
solutions do not always apply.
The special conditions of each water resources project should be
met through an integrated application of the fundamental
knowledge of many disciplines.
1.2. Fields of WRE

Water is controlled and regulated to serve a wide variety of
purposes.
Flood mitigation
Land drainage
Sewerage
Highway culvert design.
These are applications of water resources engineering to the
control of water so that it will not cause excessive damage to
property, inconvenience to the public, or loss of life.
Water supply
Irrigation
Hydroelectric power development
Navigation improvements
1.2. Fields of WRE (cont..)

These constitute utilization alternatives for beneficial
purposes.
Water Quality Management is another field of WRE
concerned with pollution control to preserve the water
sources for beneficial use
1.3. Quantity of Water

The job of a water resources engineer may be reduced to a
number of basic questions.
Since a water resources project is mainly concerned with the
control or use of water the pertinent questions the engineer
is faced with are:
1. How much water is needed (use socio-economic aspects)?
2. How much water is available or expected (application of
hydrology)?
3. Who may use the available water (application of water
law)?
1.3. Quantity of Water (Cont...)

In answer to question No. 1:
Social and economic aspects of use must be considered
besides the engineering.
On the basis of an economic analysis a decision must be made
on the life span for which the proposed engineering works
must be adequate.
In considering water use it is important to distinguish
between several aspects.
Diversion or withdrawal of water from a system.

Introduction of water into a system.
Consumption water that is evaporated or combined
in a product and is no longer available for use.
1.3. Quantity of Water (cont..)

In answer to Question No. 3:
It is important to note that water flowing in a stream is not
necessarily available for use by any person or group desiring it
at anytime.
Where water is scarce the right to use water has
considerable value.
Like all other things of value, water rights are protected by
law.
The water law also controls;
o Diversion of stream flow which may cause damage
to property.
o Alterations in natural flow conditions
Hence the legal implications should be taken into account in
the planning of the project.
1.4. Water Quality
Available water must meet the standards of quality for the

intended utilization.
Regulatory government agencies must always maintain
surveillance on the water sources to
Guard against pollution by careless discharge of
wastes.
Where quality does not meet the utility requirements the
engineer has to provide the necessary facilities to remove
impurities from the water by physical, chemical, or biological
methods.
1.5. Hydraulic Structures

Control, withdrawal and utilization of water resources involve
the design and construction of major and minor hydraulic
structures which must be carefully planned.
Why?
They cost a lot of money.
They may have adverse environmental impacts.
They may be a source of major disaster.
PLANNING FOR WATER RESOURCES

DEVELOPMENT
2.1. What is planning?
The orderly consideration of project from the original
statement of purpose (or objective) through the evaluation of
the alternatives to the final decision on a course of action.
Includes all the work associated with the design of a project
except the detailed engineering of individual structures.
Forms the basis for the decision to proceed with (or abandon)
a proposed project.
Each individual step toward the final decision should be
supported by quantitative analysis rather than estimates.
Includes the evaluation of alternatives by the principles of
engineering economy.
2.2. Levels of Planning

National - Gives broad guidelines including all aspects
of economic development but may specify targets for
water management.
Agencies - e.g. River Valley Dev. Authorities, Ministry of
Water Development deal with specific projects
Provincial level
District level
Private Developers Missions, other institutions
Community level
2.3. Phases of Planning

Reconnaissance study usually a coarse screen to identify
those projects that need further study and eliminate those
that are obviously infeasible (usually based on evaluation of
existing information).
Feasibility Study - may be one or more. There may be a prefeasibility study to study various aspects of proposal.
Here a thorough evaluation of the proposed activity is
undertaken in order to formulate a description of the most
desirable actions to be taken. E.g. for the Kerio ValleyLake
Victoria inter-basin water transfer: the desirable features
were navigation, hydropower, irrigation, etc.
Design of specific project production of specifications and
construction drawings
2.4. Why so many phases of planning?

Sequential studies reduce planning costs by testing the
weakest aspects of the project first; e.g. if the project is
eliminated because of some aspect, the expense of
studying all the other aspects will have been avoided.
BUT: The series of studies should not be allowed to
become a series of increasingly more thorough reviews
of all aspects of the project otherwise the cost will be
increased because many aspects will have been repeated
several times.
2.5. Objectives of Planning

Feasibility of a project e.g. water supply project, implies that it
will effectively serve its intended purpose without any serious
negative impacts.
To measure feasibility the project objectives or purposes need
to be specified prior to planning. The rules for measuring
achievement or success must also be specified.
At National level objectives are normally broad e.g.
1. Enhancement of national economic development
2. Enhancement of quality of environment
3. Increase national food production
4. Encourage regional development
5. Improve transportation etc.
2.5. Objectives of Planning (cont..)

At project level (e.g. river basin authority level)
objectives may be translated into more specific goals, for
example:Increase of food production by adopting irrigation
farming; land drainage, flood protection and other nonwater related actions e.g. fertilizer application, education
of farmers, improved seeds, etc.
Planning process will test all these alternatives or their
appropriate combinations.
2.6. Data Requirements

The problem at hand should be assessed as carefully as possible and the
factors most likely to be critical in shaping the plan should be identified.
Example:
In an arid area the availability of water will be a critical factor in the
feasibility of an irrigation project.
Most data required will depend on the problem at hand but generally in
water resources planning these data are current data describing existing
conditions of:
1. Land use
must be available when needed or
collected at any time prior to need
2. Population
3. Topography
4. Available water resources, hydropower potential, etc.
2.6. Data Requirements (cont..)

Also historical data including;
5. Hydrological and climatological data collected over a period of
time. If this historical data is inadequate, installation of new
stations must be undertaken at inception of plan so that some
data will be available. This data includes:
- stream flows, water levels in lakes, etc.
- rainfall, humidity, rainfall days
- evaporation, sunshine days, solar radiation
- wind speeds and directions
6. Geological data to determine foundation conditions e.g. for
dams, groundwater potentials, artificial recharge of
groundwater, etc.
2.7 Project Formulation

Begins when the necessary basic data and projections for
future conditions are assembled.
Starts with a listing of all the alternatives;
First step is definition of boundary conditions which restrict
the project e.g.
o Physical limitations e.g. no possibility of navigation on
torrential mountain streams
o Locational limitations flood control for an existing city
whose boundary and location cannot be changed.
o Maximum useable areas e.g. land area available
o Available water may be limited to only minor changes.
o Policy restricting certain land for specific purposes e.g.
game reserve or park, or recreational areas.
2.7. Project Formulation (cont..)

o Legal constraints
o Certain points of water use that exist, and which must be
continued.
Constraints may eliminate some alternatives from
consideration
The alternatives that might exist also include:
Engineering alternatives locations, heights,
capacities
Management alternatives flood plain regulation
Alternative objectives what needs to be
maximized?
Institutional alternatives who should manage?
Timing alternatives delay or speed up?
2.7. Project Formulation (cont..)

Systems analysis: Involves the optimization methods to enable
the planner to select the best of all alternatives.
There are 3 levels of optimization:
1. Optimization of individual features of a project e.g. by using
the cost-diameter or headloss diameter functions for a
pipeline to determine the least cost ( optimum) solution;
2. Optimization of a single project; - e.g. by sub optimization of
the various project units (or components) an optimum of
the total project is obtained.
3. Optimization of a system of projects e.g. multiple reservoirs,
levees, canals, etc. This is achieved successfully by
simulation (or operational study) through a computer
programme into which many alternative combinations can
be quickly worked out.
2.8. Multiple Purpose Projects

Why consider multiple uses of water resources or project
facilities?
Because multiple uses of project facilities may increase
benefits accruing to the project without a proportional
increase in costs hence economic justification for the project.
The multiple uses of a hydraulic multi-purpose project may
include:o Water supply
o Irrigation
o Hydropower
o Navigation
o Recreation
o Flood mitigation
o Sanitation and Conservation of wildlife
2.8. Multiple Purpose Projects (cont..)

What is a multi-purpose project?
Only those projects which are planned, designed and operated
to serve two or more purposes should be described as multiplepurpose.
The basic factor in multipurpose design is compromise, i.e. there
should be a reasonable efficiency of operation of each purpose.
Maximum efficiency is not necessarily attained for any single
purpose.
The physical elements of a multiple-purpose dam project, for
example, may not differ from that of a single purpose project
e.g. (dam, spillway, spillways, gates, power plant).
BUT: the unique feature is the selection of the physical works
and an operational plan which forms an effective compromise
among the various uses.
2.8. Multiple Purpose Projects (cont..)

For example:
In allocating reservoir storage in a multipurpose dam, it can be
assumed that:
1. No storage is jointly used
2. All storage is jointly used
o In case (1) storage requirements for all functions must be
compounded to create a large storage requirement. This can be
economically attained only when unit cost of storage is constant or
decreases as total storage increases.
o In case (2) maximum economy is achieved since the required
storage is not greater than that necessary for any one of the
several purposes.
HOWEVER:
Situation in case (2) is rare and the multipurpose dam project is
designed to fall somewhere between these extremes
2.9. Functional Requirements of a Multipurpose Project

Success obtained in achieving joint use of say storage space in
a multipurpose dam project depends on the extent to which
the various purposes are compatible.
A review of the requirements of the various uses is therefore
needed and also consideration be taken of ways in which uses
can be coordinated.
Examples:
Irrigation:
Water requirements are seasonal with a maximum during
the dry season and a minimum during the wet season.
Annual variations are minimal except during low-rainfall
years, and also when project are is increased.
2.9. Functional Requirements of a Multipurpose Project (cont..)

Irrigation storage is an insurance against drought;
therefore it is desirable to maintain as much storage as
possible according to current demand.
Water Supply:
Domestic requirements are constant throughout the year.
Domestic demand increases slowly over the years, hence
need to plan for this increase.
Adequate reserve is needed to avoid water shortage
especially during drought.
Drinking water quality preservation may preclude the
reservoir from some recreational uses

Hydropower:
Demand has seasonal fluctuation depending on area
served and also connection to the grid system. Hence
there is flexibility in coordinating power needs with other
uses.
Hydropower production is a non-consumptive use of water
hence it is quite compatible with other uses.
Navigation:
Reservoirs required to sustain downstream flows in
navigation channels have marked seasonal water
requirements.
Peak water requirements occur towards the end of the dry
season when natural river flow tends to be minimum.

Reservoirs required to replenish slack-water flow in
streams for navigation must have limited height because of
provision of locks to govern water depth in navigation
channel.
Therefore: such reservoirs have limited storage for other
water uses.
Flood Mitigation:
Basic requirement is a sufficient empty space for storage
to permit the withholding of flood water during the rainy
season; the reservoir must therefore be empty to receive
the flood waters when they occur.

Recreation:
Recreational reservoirs should remain nearly full all the
time during the recreational season to permit boating,
water games, etc.
A reservoir subjected to large drawdown will be unsightly
and present problems of dock or landing maintenance,
beach maintenance, etc.
Fish and wildlife conservation:
Main problems involve protection, change in habitat
created by reservoir construction which may eliminate
some species of wildlife and increase presence of others.
Provision of fish ladders may be necessary for migratory
fish to go and breed upstream.

Rapid and large fluctuations in reservoir level are harmful
to fish, especially during the spawning time because eggs
are laid around the edges of the reservoir.
Complete stoppage of flow downstream of the dam is also
destructive to fish and wildlife.
Dams should not flood spawning areas otherwise
hatcheries should be provided, to maintain economical fish
runs.
Pollution Control:
Reservoirs built mainly for low-flow augmentation i.e. the
release of water during the low flow season to provide
dilution water to a stream receiving waste water
discharges to help it to better assimilate the wastewater.

Release from reservoir may increase pollution if there are
water quality changes in the reservoir especially due to
salt accumulation as a result of evaporation.
Algae growth or decay of vegetative matter in the reservoir
may depress dissolved oxygen in the deeper levels of the
reservoir.
2.10. Compatibility of Multi-purpose Use

Examples:
Irrigation, water supply and navigation all require a volume
of water which cannot be jointly used; therefore a project
combining these functions must provide a separate
allocation of storage space.
Since hydropower production is a non-consumptive use,
any water release for other uses can be used for power
generation.
BUT, a certain amount of storage should be provided in case
the fluctuations in power release do not appropriately
coincide with the requirements of other uses. Also a
regulating dam should be provided downstream to smooth
out the fluctuations.
2.10 Compatibility of Multi-purpose Use

(cont..)
A reservoir creating a pool for slack water navigations may
be used for power generation. Also if the dams are made a
little higher this might provide space for additional storage
for flood mitigation.
Flood mitigation is least compatible of all uses because it
requires empty space for storage. But some space is always
made above spillway level for flood mitigation; when there is
no flood this space may be used for something else so long
as there is enough inflow to fill it.
Recreation benefits are enjoyed as opportunity permits i.e.
during the times when it is possible to maintain full reservoir
levels especially during the high tourist season. Alternatively,
sub-impoundments may be provided for swimming, etc.
The same conditions apply to fish and wildlife production.
2.11 Environmental Considerations

Necessity to recognize the interrelationships among water
pollution, air pollution, and solid waste disposal:
The role of water supply in population dispersion;
The consequences of water project construction on local
ecologic relationships;
The effect of water projects on water pollution;
Necessity to ask or critically evaluate the NEED (real) for a
project.
Examples of environmental consequences of water resources
projects may include the following.
Degradation of downstream channel or coastal beaches by
loss of sediment trapped in a reservoir.
Loss of unique geological, historical, archaeological or
scenic sites flooded by a reservoir.
2.11 Environmental Considerations (cont..)

Flooding of spawning beds for migratory fish preventing
their reproduction, or destruction of spawning gravel by
channel dredging or lining.
Change in stream water temperature as a result of a
reservoir leading to changes in aquatic species (or
biodiversity) in the streams.
Release of reservoir bottom water which may be high in
dissolved salts or low in oxygen resulting in change of
biodiversity.
Drainage of swamps decreasing the opportunities for
survival of aquatic species.
2.11. Environmental Considerations

Cont........
Change in water quality as a result of drainage from an
irrigation project which may encourage growth of algae in
the receiving stream or lead to change in biodiversity due
to increase in salinity of the receiving stream.
Creation of a barrier to normal migration routes of land
animals by a reservoir.
CHAPTER THREE - RESERVOIRS

Reservoirs are of 2 types:
1. Storage or conservation reservoirs
2. Distribution reservoirs e.g. Elevated tanks in
distribution networks
The storage or conservation reservoirs e.g. dams built across
rivers can also be used for flood control, irrigation purposes,
power generation, fish farming, etc.
Reservoir can be multipurpose i.e. used for the above
purposes simultaneously or single purpose designed to serve
only one purpose
3.1. Physical Characteristics of a Reservoir
(w.r.t. storage reservoirs only)
3.1.1. Storage Capacity

o For a regular shaped reservoir any formula for volume of solids
will give the storage capacity of the reservoir.
o For natural reservoirs several methods are used for estimating
the storage capacity (or volume).
Contour maps of the reservoir site
Surveyed cross-sections of the reservoirs
o From the surveyed cross-sections of the reservoir one can plot

the area elevation curve which when integrated produces the
elevation storage (or capacity) curve.
3.1.1. Storage Capacity Continue.......
Elevation
Elevation
area- elevation
curve(capacity curve)
Elevation
w.r.t
(m.s.e)
area elevation
curve
900
area
storage volume
3.1.1. Storage Capacity Continue.......

o The capacity curve of a reservoir defines the volume
available for storage below a certain elevation; the
curve is the integral of the area-elevation curve.
o The increment of storage between 2 elevations is
usually computed by multiplying the mean of the
areas at the 2 elevations by the elevation difference.
The summation of these increments below any level is
the storage volume below that level.
3.1.2. Normal Pool Level

It is the maximum elevation to which the reservoir surface will rise during ordinary
operating conditions. For most reservoirs the normal pool level (or elevation) is
determined by the elevation of the spillway crest or top of spillway gates
SURCHARGE
STORAGE
POOL LEVEL AT DESIGN FLOOD
NORMAL POOL LEVEL
NATURAL STREAM SURFACE BEFORE DAM CONSTRUCTION
DAM
USEFUL STORAGE
STREAM
BED
MINIMUM POOL
LEVEL
Sluice
way
3.1.3. Minimum Pool Level

o It is the minimum level to which the pool is to
be drawn under normal operating conditions.
This level may be fixed by the elevation of the
lowest outlet in the body of the dam.
Alternatively, in the case of hydropower
reservoirs, by the conditions of operating
efficiency of the turbines e.g. the minimum
head required.
3.1.4. Useful Storage

o It is the storage volume between the minimum and the
normal pool levels. In multipurpose reservoirs the useful
storage is divided into:
1. Conservation Storage
2. Flood control storage
o According to the plan of operation, during the floods,
discharge over the spillway may cause the water level to rise
above the normal pool level. This is known as the surcharge
storage and it is normally uncontrolled. The water level will
rise to the maximum pool level determined by the design
flood.
3.1.5. Dead Storage

It is the volume below the minimum pool
level. It is storage not available for any useful
purpose
3.1.6. Bank Storage

o Reservoir banks are usually permeable and water
enters the soil when the reservoir fills and drains
out as the water level is lowered.
o This bank storage effectively increases the
capacity of the reservoir above that indicated by
the storage-elevation curve.
o The amount of bank storage depends upon the
local geological conditions and may amount to
several percentages of reservoir volume.
3.1.7. Valley Storage

o When the flow in the stream increases, the depth of flow must also
increase. As the depth increases a quantity of water is stored
temporarily until the run off weight decreases. This is known as
valley storage.
o Thus considering a reach of channel in a time t:
o Inflow volume into the reach = outflow volume from the + valley
storage.
o Therefore over a period of time, the water in a natural stream
channel occupies a variable volume of valley storage.
o The net increase in the storage capacity resulting from the
construction of the reservoir = total capacity natural valley storage.
o In flood control reservoirs, the effective storage = useful storage +
surcharge storage valley storage corresponding to the rate of
inflow into the reservoir.
3.2. Reservoir Yield

The yield is the amount of water which can be
supplied from the reservoir in a specified
interval of time e.g. 1 day for small
distribution reservoirs, or a year or more for
large storage reservoirs.
The yield of the reservoir depends on the
inflow and hence varies from year to year.
3.2.1. Safe or Firm yield (Draft)
Is the maximum quantity of water which can

be guaranteed during a critical dry period
3.2.2. Secondary Yield

Is the water available in excess of safe yield during periods
of high flow
Power commitments to domestic or other essential uses

must be made on the basis of firm yield only unless a
standby or supplementary unit e.g. a diesel or steam power
plant is available.
Power generated from the secondary yield may be used for
irrigation and any other purposes.
The average yield = Firm + Secondary over a long period of time
Yield
Yield
3.3. Selection of Capacity of a Reservoir

The process of selecting the capacity for a reservoir is also known as
Operational Study. This can be demonstrated by the following
example.
Given below are the monthly inflows during the critical low water
period in a dry year at the site of a proposed dam; the
corresponding monthly pan evaporation and precipitation at a
nearby station; and the estimated demand for water. On
consideration of water priorities it is essential to release the full
natural flow or 100,000m3/month, whichever is less. Assuming
that 80% of the rainfall on the land area is to be flooded by the
reservoir is immediately available and using an average net
increased pool area of 4km2 in your computations:
What would be the required useful storage (capacity) of the
reservoir for the period of 6 months from October to March both
inclusive? The pan coefficient is 0.7.

Cont.............
Month
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
March
Inflow vol. m3
2*106
30,000
10,000
5,000
1,000
3,000
Pane evaporation
(cm)
15
17
14
6.5
Precipitation (cm)
12
14
Water demand m3
40,000
80,000
130,000
140,000
130,000
30,000

Cont.............
1
Month
Flow
(m3)
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
March
20x105
30x103
10x103
5x103
1x103
3x103
TOTAL
vol Pan evap Precip.

cm
cm
9
15
17
14
8
6.5
12
3
5
2
0
14
Demand
(m3)
D/s
priority
Req. (m3)
40x103
80x103
130x103
140x103
130x103
30x103
100x103
30x103
10x103
5x103
1x103
3x103
10
Evap.
Precip.
3
Vol. (m ) Vol. (m3)
Adjusted
flow vol.
(m3)
Req.
Capacity
(m3)
252x103
420x103
466x103
392x103
224x103
182x103
2032x103
-324x103
-306x103
-328x103
-224x103
266x103
0
404x103
436x103
468x103
354x103
0
384x103
96x103
160x103
64x103
0
448x103
1662X103
3.3. Selection of Capacity of a Reservoir Cont.............

Solution tips:
Col (6): fill in the lesser of natural flow and 100 x 103m3 the
downstream priority requirement.
Col (7): given that the increased pool area is 4 km2 (meaning that
when the reservoir is full the flooded area is 4 km2), therefore
evaporation volume is calculated as:
Col(3) m x 0.7 x (4x 106) = evaporation vol. in m3
100
Given that the proportion of precipitation available = 80%,
Col. (8) = Col(4) m x 0.8 x (4x 106) = precipitation vol. in m3
100

Adjusted flow volume is given by:
Col. (9) = Col. (2) + Col. (8) - Col. (7) - Col. (6)
The required storage capacity (useful storage) is calculated from:
Col. (10) = Col. (5) - Col. (9) when result is +ve; or
= 0 if result is ve.
The determination of the required capacity of a reservoir is called an

operation study and is a simulation of the reservoir operation for a
period of time following a set of rules.
The operation study may analyze only a selected critical period of
low flow; in this case the study will define the capacity required
during the selected drought.
Alternatively the study may use a long period of synthetic data record
to estimate the reliability of reservoir of various capacities.

Operation study can be performed with annual, monthly, or daily
time intervals. For small reservoirs, daily or weekly data are used
because the sequence of flow within a month may be critical.
Monthly data are commonly used but for large reservoirs which
carry-over storage for many years, annual intervals are used.
When lengthy synthetic data are analyzed, computers are employed
using the sequent peak algorithm. Here the cumulative sum of
inflows less withdrawals (including evaporation and seepage) are
calculated.
The first peak (local max. of cumulative net inflow) and the sequent
peak (next following peak > the first) are identified.
Net storage for the interval is the difference between the initial peak
and the lowest trough in the interval.

Cont.............
Sequent Peak
Sequent Peak
(+ve)
(Flow-Demand)
Peak 1
Storage
Sequent Peak Algorithm
(-ve)
Maximu
m
Storage
Time
3.4. Mass Curve Technique (or RIPL Diagram)

A cumulative plotting of net reservoir inflow (i.e. inflow
adjusted for evaporation and required releases for
downstream users).
The slope of the mass curve at any time is the measure of the
inflow at that time.
Demand curves representing a uniform rate of demands are
straight lines.
If demand curves are drawn tangent to the high points of the
mass curve they represent rates of withdrawals from the
reservoir.
3.4.Mass Curve Technique (or RIPL DIAGRAM)

Cont..................
500
Cumulative
rates flow
400
300
200
Capacity to
satisfy
demand
B
Demand
/Year
A
Capacity
Spill over
1 Year
100
1
Capacity to
satisfy
demand
2
Year
3.4. Mass Curve Technique (or RIPL DIAGRAM)

Cont..................
Assuming that the reservoir is full whenever a demand line
intersects the mass curve, the maximum departure between
the demand line and the mass curve represents the reservoir
capacity required to satisfy that demand.
The vertical distance between successive tangents represents
water spilled over the spillway.
If demand is not uniform the demand line becomes a curve
known as a mass curve of demand but the analysis in the
same.
BUT
The demand line for non-uniform flow must coincide
chronologically with the mass curve i.e. June demand must
coincide with June inflow.
3.5. Reservoir Site Selection

It is virtually impossible to locate a reservoir site having
completely ideal characteristics
General rules for choice of reservoir site are as follows:1. A suitable dam site must exist; the cost of dam
construction is a controlling factor in site selection;
2. The cost of relocation of infrastructure (e.g. roads,
railway, cemetery, housing, schools, market centres,
cultural sites, etc) for the reservoir must also not be
excessive;
3. Site must have adequate capacity for intended operation
of the reservoir;
4. A deep reservoir is preferable to a shallow one because
of lower land cost/unit of capacity; it has less evaporation
losses, and less weed growth.
3.6.Reservoir Sedimentation
The ultimate destiny of all reservoirs is to be filled with sediment.
If sediment inflow is large compared to the total capacity of a
reservoir, the useful life of the reservoir will be very short.
Reservoir planning must include consideration of the probable rate of
sedimentation in order to determine the useful life of a reservoir
before it is constructed.
Sedimentation occurs as a result of 2 processes;
1. Erosion of soil
2. Transport of the eroded soil (sediment) by water.
1. Erosion of soil may be due to several causes but the major ones are
o Rain
o Flowing water
3.6.Reservoir Sedimentation Cont...................

For water flowing through a channel at depth D, the shear
stress exerted on the channel bed due to the motion of
water is given by:
= Ds
Where is the unit weight of water

S is the longitudinal slope of the channel bed
D is the depth of channel
J
S

The shear stress is a function of the soil
properties, cover on the channel bed and the
slope of the channel.
2. Transport of sediment by water;

V
E
ConcentrationDistribution Curve
Finite depth
y
Ca

The concentration of soil sediment in moving water in a natural
channel may be expressed at any depth y as:
=
Where C = concentration of sediment of sediment in the water at
a depth y
Ca = concentration at any finite depth a
D = depth of channel

Where w = fall velocity of the sediment particles in the
sediment water mixture
k = von Karmans constant
U* = shear velocity =
And
= shear stress at the channel bed

= mass density of the sediment water mixture
Depending on the particle size the total sediment load is
classified as:
1. Bed material load the load scoured from the channel
bed
2. Wash load the sediment collected as the water flows
along

The transport of the bed material load is due to the fluid
transmitted stresses, while the transport of wash load is due
to minor turbulence only.
Depending on the mode of movement of sediment particles,
the total sediment load can be divided into:
1. Bed load which moves by:
o Sliding or rolling along the bed
o Saltation hopping and rolling
2. Suspended load always moving in suspension as the water
flows along
A state of equilibrium is always aimed at by the flow in a river.
At a particular discharge Q, a river tends to maintain a
channel slope s and will have a capacity to transport a certain
load W of sediment of a particular mean size d50.

If any of these factors changes, the other factors are
also affected.
Therefore the equilibrium may be achieved after
some interval of time in which case at any particular
time the river stays at a quasi equilibrium state.
The total amount of sediment that passes any
section of a stream is known as the sediment yield
and is given by:
The total load = Bed load + suspended load
(100%)
(5-20%)
(80-95%)
3.6.1. Estimation of Amount of Sediment in a

Channel
This is done by establishing a sediment rating curve for the
particular channel
The relation between suspended sediment transport Qs and
stream flow Q is represented by a logarithmic plot:
Qs = kQn n = 2 to 3 and k is very small
Continuous records of steam discharges are maintained by
gauging stations and also sediment load gauging stations can
be installed.
Flow synthesizing techniques are used to estimate future
flows assuming this relationship will be holding in future
years.

Channel Cont.............
1
4
2
3
Use simposons rule to estimate

discharge Q
Log Qs
Amount of sed
Log Q flow rate

Channel Cont......
The relation between suspended sediment transport Qs and
stream flow Q is represented by a logarithmic plot:
Qs = kQn n = 2 to 3 and k is very small
Continuous records of steam discharges are maintained by
gauging stations and also sediment load gauging stations can
be installed.
Flow synthesizing techniques are used to estimate future
flows assuming this relationship will be holding in future
years.
If Q increases Qs will increase but this relationship will not be
maintained throughout i.e. Qs vs Q is an average relationship.

Channel Cont......
WHY? With the first rise of a flood in a river,
most of the erosion occurs hence there will be a
large amount of sediment to be transported; as
the flood continues the sediment content of the
water will decrease.
For a channel of discharge Q, the power
available in the water which is imparted to the
soil to cause erosion is given by: P = Q s
3.6.2. Measurement of Qs (sediment flow)
Region of bed load flow

10-20 cm
3.6.2. Measurement of Qs (sediment flow) Cont..

Sub-divided into:
a) Bed load measurements

b) Suspended load measurements
c) Total load measurements
For measurement of bed-load samples are taken from bed
load flow region which is located 1020cm above the channel
bed. For small rivers, samples are obtained by pumping from
this region.

Cont.......
For larger rivers a scoop type of sample is used. The scoop is
placed at the channel bed and left there for some time
interval for the sediment to collect inside; the scoop is then
removed and the accumulated sediment measured.
The sediment load measured is expressed in parts per million
(ppm) or mg/l.
Due to discontinuous flow of sediment along the channel bed
and the interaction between water and channel bed, the
sediment forms ripples on the channel bed. As flow changes
further, the ripples change to dunes i.e. with the increase in
Froude No. of flow, i.e.

Cont.......
a) ripples are formed
b) dunes are formed
c) flat bed results (occasionally) then
d) anti dunes begin to form
Because of the non-uniform flow or movement of
dunes along the channel bed, there is usually a
difficulty in obtaining samples from the channel
bed.

Cont.......
a scoop placed in the trough of the

dunne collects little sediment
scoop placed here is completely

submerged by the sediment
3.6.3 Suspended Load Measurements

a) Point integrating samplers
kept at a fixed depth
a) Depth integrating samplers
lowered and removed at a known
constant velocity
sediment flow
sample kept at
a fixed depth
; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; ;, ,; ;, ,; ;, ,; ;, ,; ;, ,; ;, , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; ,
3.6.3. Suspended Load Measurements

Cont..........
By keeping the sampler at different points of the
channel depth the sediment concentration at each
depth can be obtained.
The depth sampler is lowered into the water and then
lifted up. The sampler is designed such that whatever
depth it is at, it will allow sediment inflow at a constant
rate. The depth sampler gives an average sediment
concentration along the channel bed directly.
The equi-transit-rate (ETR) method is a type of depth
sampling in which the sampler is lowered and removed
at a uniform rate. Sediment sampling is fast and the
average concentration is obtained directly.
3.6.4. Errors inherent in sediment

measurements
Reasons for errors in sediment sampling in streams are as
follows:
1. The presence of the sampler itself is sufficient to disturb
the flow pattern and as such the intensity of sediment
concentration is not correctly obtained.
2. Often it is difficult to give the sampler a correct vertical
and horizontal alignment with respect to the direction of
motion of the sediment flow.
3. No bed-load sampler can collect all the sizes (i.e. from the
coarsest to the finest) of the bed load. The fraction of the
actual bed load caught by a sampler is influenced by the
type of sampler used and the relation between the
geometry of the sampler and the size and geometry of
the bed form i.e. ripples, dunes, etc.

measurements Cont....................
4. The accuracy of bed-load measurements by using radio-active
tracers is affected by the amount of background concentration
of the tracer in the stream and the degree of mixing of the
tracer with the sediments between the point of introduction
and point of sampling.
5. Accuracy in suspended load measurements is affected by the
following factors;
a) The suspended load samplers do not traverse a region of
about 10 cm above the channel bed. Since sediment
concentration is maximum near the channel bed a
significant proportion of the suspended sediment may
remain unmeasured.

measurements Cont..............
b) Experimental evidence indicates that the standard
deviation of the depth integrated suspended load
concentration at a vertical may be 10% or more of the
mean.
c) The depth integrated concentrations between 2 verticals
in the x-section measured on the same day may differ by
more than 100%.
d) Verticals having maximum and minimum concentrations in
a x-section change position with time.
e) In a cross-section the verticals for maximum concentration
of different size ranges may not coincide.
3.6.5. Sediment inflow into a reservoir

as time passes the whole of this
area may be filled up with sed, hence
reverser capacity is reduced

..
..
. .. . . .
..
.. ..
heavy particles settle
..
..
. .. .
..
..
..
..
. . . . . .....
.
.
.. ... .
.. ..
. .. .
. . . . .... . .
. .. .
. .. .
..
down first in the form
..
...
... ..
..
... ..
.. ..
..
.. ..
of a delta
finer particles continue

to move on the water forming
density currents
some sediment may

be sucked down a sluice way
3.6.5. Sediment inflow into a reservoir Cont.......

As reservoir silts up, the already deposited silt gets
consolidated and the density of this silt may vary between
0.64 1.76 g/cm3
Freshly deposited sediment has a density of 0.80 0.88 g/cm3
whereas old deposits may have a density of 1.04 1.12 g/cm3.
The mean density for sediment is usually 0.96 g/cm3
The ratio of sediment trapped in reservoir to the amount of
sediment brought into the reservoir is known as TRAP
EFFICIENCY.
Trap eff. = amount of sediment trapped in the reservoir
amount of sediment brought into reservoir
3.6.5. Sediment inflow into a reservoir Cont.......
,.
,.
., ,.
.,
,.
,.
.,,. ,.
,.
,.
.,
,.
,.
., ,.
.,
,.
,.
,.
,. ,.
,.
,.
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,. .,
,.
,. ,.
,.
.,
,.,. ,.
,.
,. ,. .,., ,.,.
., ,.
., ,. ,. ,.
.,
,.
,.
,. ,.
,.
.,
,. ., .,
., ,. .,.,
,. ,. .,.,.,,.,.
,.
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,.
., ., ., ., ,. ,.
., .,,.,.
.,
., ., ,. ., .,,.., ,.
., ,.
.,
., ., ., .,
,.
,.., ., ,. ,. ., .,.,,. .,
.,
.,
.,
,.
,.
,.
,.
., .,
.,
,.
., .,
., ,. ,. ., ,. .,,..,,. .,
,. ., ,. .,
.,
.,
., ,. ., .,,.
., ,. ., ,.., ,.
,.
,.
.,
.,
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,. .,
., ., ., ,. ,.
., ,. .,,.., ., .,
.,
,.
,.
., ,. .,
,.
.,
.,
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.,., ,.
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.,., ,.., ., ,.
., ,. .,
.,
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.,.,
.,
,.
., ,.
,.
Trap eff.
,.
,.
,.
Capacity/inflow ratio
3.6.6. Capacity Inflow ratio
This is the ratio of reservoir capacity to the

total inflow of water into it.
It has been found that the trap efficiency is a
function of capacity inflow ratio
3.6.6. Capacity Inflow ratio Cont........

100
Trap eff
% sediment
trapped
80
60
40
20
0
0.001
0.01
0.1
1.0
10
100
3.6.6. Capacity Inflow ratio Cont........
From curve we can see that if capacity reduces (with

constant inflow) trap efficiency reduces, and hence
lesser sediment is trapped.
Silting rate in the reservoir will be more in the
beginning, and as its capacity reduces due to silting,
the silting rate will also reduce hence complete
reservoir silting may take a longer period.
3.6.7. Reservoir Sedimentation Control

In real life sedimentation of reservoir cannot be prevented; it
may only be retarded. So the rules of planning require that
you:
1. Select site where sediment inflow is low naturally; some
basins are more prolific sources of sediment than others
due to soil type, land slopes, soil cover, and rainfall
characteristics. Avoid these prolific sites if there is an
alternative.
2. Provide a large enough capacity to create a useful life
sufficient to warrant construction of the reservoir.
6.6.7. Reservoir Sedimentation Control

Cont.......
3. Use soil conservation methods within the drainage or

catchments basin
o Terracing
o Strip cropping
o Contour ploughing, etc. to reduce erosion
o Check dams in gullies to retain some sediment and reduce
sediment flow into stream
o Vegetal cover to reduce impact force of raindrops and
minimize erosion.
Note: if stream is denied its normal sediment load it will tend
to scour its bed or cave its banks. Therefore, stream bank
protection by revetment, vegetation, etc, is necessary.
4. Prevent sediment accumulation in reservoir by providing
means of discharge of some sediment.
CHAPTER FOUR
FLOOD ROUTING
4.1. Reservoir Routing
A process that shows how a flood ware can be reduced in
magnitude and lengthened in time (attenuated) by the
use of storage in the reach between two points of a
stream.
Routing techniques are used to compute the hydrograph
which will result from a specified pattern of rainfall
excess.
4.1. Reservoir Routing Cont..........
Inflow rises very fast
Discharge Q
out flow
(routed flow)

The flood is caught up in the reservoir and then released at a
slower rate and intensity. The effect of the flood downstream is
therefore reduced.
In some instances this delayed flow of the flood waters into the
downstream channel from the reservoir can facilitate
arrangements for evacuation before flooding occurs.
Reservoir routing is based upon the continuity equation, which
states that in time t:
i.e.
(1)
Total Inflow into
=
total outflow
+ change in the
reservoir
from the reservoir reservoir storage
i.e
I1 = rate of inflow at the beginning of time t

Q1 = rate of outflow at the beginning of time t
I2 = rate of inflow at the end of time t
Q2 = rate of outflow at the end of time t
S1 = storage in the reservoir at beginning of t
S2 = storage at the end of time t
(1)
(2)
1. Reservoir characteristic curves

a) Capacity curve storage-elevation curve
b) Outflow elevation curve (discharge curve)
2. Anticipated incoming flood inflow hydrograph
elev
or
Storage capacity
elev
Storage capacity
elev
Q
2
Inflow
hydrograph

From curves 1 and 2 we plot the outflow-storage curve (choice of
t depends on total time of analysis).
= routing
internal
Out flow (O)
Storage (S)

1. Find the out-flow rate at the beginning of 1st t; then mark the
point on the ordinate of the out-flow-storage graph;
2. Plot (I1 + I2) t parallel to the abscissa from the S Q t curve;
2
2
1. Erect a vertical from this point up to the S + O t curve (call
this point A);
2
2. From point A move backwards to the ordinate (// to the
abscissa) and read off the outflow O2 at B;
3. Using the elevation discharge curve, find the water storage
level in the reservoir at the end of t;

6. Move to the corresponding point on the S O/2 t curve i.e.
point C;
7. From point C, plot (I1 + I2) t for the next time interval;
-Alternative method of Plotting the D S curves
Suppose t = 6 hrs
Therefore:
O t = O (6x60x60)
i.e. the distance between the S-O/2t and S + O/2t curves
= O( x 24( (60 x 60)
= O (24x60x60)
= O quarter cumec days.
storage in m3 = x 24 x 60 x 60
If t = 24 hrs the storage scale is plotted in 1
cumec-day

Outflow
F
C
A
(I +
I
1 2)
2
(I +I
1 2)
4.2. Routing in Channels

Routing in a natural river channel is complicated by the fact
that storage is not a function of outflow alone.
There tends to be a greater storage for a given outflow during
the rising stages of a flood than during the falling stages.
OThe Muskingums Method of River Routing
The method was advanced by McArthy of the U.S Corps of
Engineers
The same formula as the one used in Puls method is used i.e.
4.2. Routing in Channels Con.........

(3)
In Puls method it is assumed that:
O = f(S)
But in Muskingums method of river routing:
O = f(S, I)
i.e the outflow is a function of both storage and inflow.

Considering a reach between two sections of a natural channel,
the storage is found to be expressed as:
(4)
Where b, m = depend upon the stage discharge characteristics of
the two control sections at the ends of the reach.
a, n = depend on the stage-volume characteristics of the two
control sections
x = is a factor defining the weightage of the inflow/storage to
the outflow. I.e. x is a constant that expresses the relative
importance of inflow and outflow in determining storage.
For a simple reservoir x = 0 (inflow has no effect). If inflow and
outflow are equally effective x = 0.5. For most streams, x = 0 to
0.3; with a mean value of 0.2

For a simple reservoir x = 0 (inflow has no effect). If inflow and
outflow are equally effective x = 0.5. For most streams, x = 0 to
0.3; with a mean value of 0.2.
In a uniform rectangular channel storage would vary with the
first power of stage (S =bgm, where m = 1) and the discharge
would vary as the 5/3 power (Manning formula) q = agn
In the Muskingum method it is assumed that m/n = 1 and if we
let b/a = K then equation (4) becomes:
S = K (xI + (1-x)O)
(5)
K = storage constant time of travel of the flood ware
through the reach.
x varies from 0 1.0 and for moderate size reaches x 0.2

K and x are assumed to be constant throughout the
routing period.
To determine K and x for a river reach we need the
following
o Inflow hydrograph
o Corresponding outflow hydrograph
From
S = K (xI + (1-x)O)
K=
_____S___
in hrs
(6)
(xI + (1-x)O)
a) During every routing interval t, compute the

storage = cumulative inflow cum. Outflow
b) Compute 5 from equation (4) for an assumed or
estimated value of K and several assumed values
of x
c) Plot the 2 values of S obtained from (a) and (b)
against storage; and draw the storage loops

Weighted
Storage
XI+(1-x)0
Storage
x=0.15 1/4 days
WS
x=0.2
WS
x=0.3
WS
x=0.4
WS
a
K=b
a

Choose the loop which is closest to a straight line and take the
corresponding value of x for the river reach. The inverse slope
of the line closest to the loop gives the value of K
d).
Put the obtained value of x into equation (6) and
compute K. Using this value of K find another value of x
by the graphical procedure; then calculate an average
value of x.
With the determined values of K and x for the river reach, an
inflow hydrograph is routed by rewriting equation (4) as
follows:
S2 S1 = K(x (I1 I2) + (1 x) (O2 O1))
O2 = CoI2 + C1I1 + C2O1
(7)

Where;
Co =
Co =
Co =
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
When equations (i), (ii) and (iii) are combined we obtain:

C0 + C 1 + C 2 = 1

t is the routing period in the same units as K.
All the 3 coefficients C0, C1 and C2 must be positive for
equation (7) to give valid results.
The routing procedure is simply a solution of equation (7)
with the O2 of one routing period becoming the O1 for the
succeeding period

Inflow
hydro graph
Outflow
hydro graph
when x=1
Outflow
hydro graph
when x=0
Q
Small k value
Large k value

TUTORIAL EXAMPLES
1. The inflow hydrograph of a river reach is tabulated below.
The storage constant K = 10hr and x
= 0 for the reach. Find graphically the outflow peak in time
and magnitude. What would be the effect of making x > 0?
Assume that the outflow at hour 11 is 28.3m3/s and is
starting to rise.

TIME
(h)
I
(m3/5
Time
(h)
I
(m3/5)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
28.3
26.9
24.1
62.3
133.1
172.7
152.9
121.8
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
90.6
70.8
53.8
42.5
34.0
28.3
24.1

a) This assumption is nearly correct because the river is still at a
low stage and the flow will nearly steady.
b) The first equation to be solved is therefore
O2 = CoI2C1I1+C2OI
Now Co =
Now C1 =
Now Co =
= 0.2
= 0.2
= 0.6
With first value of 01 = I1 = 28.3m3/s: O2 =

0.2x26.9+0.2x28.3+0.6x28.3 = 28.02 m3/s
This value of O2 becomes O1 for the next calculation
and the values are as tabulated.

If x>0; say x = 0.1
C0 =
C1 =
C2 =
= 0.13
= 0.30
= 0.57

Hrs
0.2 I2 0.2 I1 0.6 01 O2

m3/s m3/s m3/s m3/s
I
m3/s
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
5.38
4.82
12.46
26.62
34.4
30.58
24.36
18.12
14.16
10.76
8.50
6.80
5.66
4.82
28.3
26.9
24.1
62.3
133.1
172.7
152.9
121.8
90.6
70.8
53.8
42.5
34.0
28.3
24.1
5.66
5.38
4.82
12.46
26.62
34.4
30.58
24.36
18.12
14.16
10.76
8.50
6.80
5.66
16.98
16.81
16.21
20.09
35.5
57.91
73.73
77.20
71.81
62.45
52.42
43.01
34.99
28.47
28.3
28.02
27.01
33.49
59.17
96.52
122.89
128.67
119.68
104.09
87.37
71.68
58.31
47.45
38.95
The effect of
increasing the
value of X to x=0.1
is to reduce the
peak of the
outflow
hydrograph and
delay the outflow
time slightly.

EXAMPLE 2
The following table gives
the spillway discharge
reservoir storage
relationship for a reservoir.
Spillway
discharge
m3/s
Reservoir
Storage
(1/4 cumec
days)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
10,000
10,200
10,400
10,600
10,800
11,000
11,240
11,500
11,800
12,080
12,400

The water level in the
reservoir is at the
spillway crest level
when the flood
tabulated below inflows
into the reservoir.
Time
(Hrs)
0
6
12
18
24
30
36
42
48
54
60
Flood inflow
m3/s
0
80
200
500
900
800
600
400
200
100
0

Using Puls Method of
reservoir routing with 6 hrrouting interval, find the
flood hydrograph over the
spillway crest. Sketch the
inflow & outflow
hydrographs on the same
axes.
What would be the
maximum head over the
spillway crest if the spillway
is 10m long and has a coefficient of discharge = 4.0?
Time
O2
0-6
6-12
12-18
18-24
24-30
30-36
36-42
42-48
48-54
54-60
18
65
180
395
565
910
575
475
350
215

1.
Construct the storage versus discharge graph i.e. the S-O

curve and obtain the S-O/2 t and the S+0/2 t curves.
The routing graphs.
2.
From the routing graphs the following values for
discharge over the spillway are obtained.
3.
A plot of the following outflow hydrograph reveals that
the maximum discharge = 610m m3/sThe maximum head
over the spillway crest occurs when the discharge over
the spillway is a maximum.
Qmax = Cd L Hmax3/2
Hmax = Qmax/(Cd. L)2/3

EXAMPLE 3
What reservoir capacity is required to assure a yield
of 565x1010 m3/year, for the inflows shown in the
table below?

Month
1990
1991
1992
1993
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
40x1010
80x1010
120x1010
200x1010
240x1010
400x1010
720x1010
880x1010
960x1010
1040x1010
1090x1010
1120x1010
1140x1010
1150x1010
1560x1010
1760x1010
2140x1010
2200x1010
2240x1010
2260x1010
2270x1010
2275x1010
2278x1010
2280x1010
2320x1010
2400x1010
2440x1010
2445x1010
2480x1010
2520x1010
2560x1010
2570x1010
2580x1010
2590x1010
2610x1010
2610x1010
2650x1010
2760x1010
3160x1010
3280x1010
3320x1010
3760x1010
4080x1010
4240x1010
4320x1010
4360x1010
4480x1010
4560x1010
CHAPTER FIVE
SPILLWAYS, GATES AND OUTLET WORKS
Spillways: discharge floods downstream and protects
the dam from being damaged by overtopping.
Gates & sluiceways: Provided on the spillway crest
to permit outlet works the operator to control the
release of water downstream fro various purposes
5.1 Spillways
regarded as the safety valve for the dam
Designed to have the capacity to discharge major foods at the
same time as keeping the reservoir level below same predetermined maximum level.
Of 2 types:
o Controlled provided with crest gates or other facility so
that the outflow rate can be adjusted.
o Uncontrolled free discharging once the water level rises
above crest level.
Selection of capacity is related to the degree of protection
required to be provided to the dam
This in turn depends on:
o Type of dam
o Location of dam
5.1 Spillways Continue..........

o Consequences of failure of the dam
E.g. a high dam storing a large volume of water, located

above or upstream of an inhabited area should have a much
higher degree of protection as compared to a low dam storing
a small quantity of water and whose demonstration reach is
uninhabited.
The probable maximum flood is commonly used in design for
the high dam while a smaller flood based on frequency
analysis is suitable for the low dam.
Determination of the area which would be flooded if the dam
were to fail assists in assessing the acceptable risk.

o Consequences of failure of the dam
E.g. a high dam storing a large volume of water, located

above or upstream of an inhabited area should have a much
higher degree of protection as compared to a low dam storing
a small quantity of water and whose demonstration reach is
uninhabited.
The probable maximum flood is commonly used in design for
the high dam while a smaller flood based on frequency
analysis is suitable for the low dam.
Determination of the area which would be flooded if the dam
were to fail assists in assessing the acceptable risk.

TYPES OF SPILLWAYS
There are different types of spillways as follows:
Overflow spillways
Chute spillways
Side channel spillways
Shaft spillways
Siphon spillways
5.1.1. Overflow Spillways

A section of dam designed to permit water to pass over
its crest;
Widely used on gravity, arch and buttress dams;
For earth dams, the overflow section is normally of
concrete gravity construction designed to serve as a
spillway;
It is important that the overflowing water is guided
smoothly over the crest with minimum turbulence;
If the overflowing water breaks contact with the
spillway surface, a vacuum will from at the point of
separation and cavitation may occur.
5.1.1. Overflow Spillways Cont...........

Cavitation plus the vibration from the alternate making
and breaking of contact between the water and the face
of the dam may result in serious damage to the dam
structure.
In order to reduce the occurrence of such cavitation the
ideal spillway should take the form of the underside of
the nape of a sharp-crested weir when the flow rate
corresponds to the maximum design capacity of the
spillway.

The reverse curve on the downstream face of the spillway
should be smooth and gradual.
The discharge of an overflow spillway is given by the weir
equation.
Q = CwLH3/2
Where: Q = discharge in m3/s
Cw = coefficient of discharge
L = Length of crest (m)
H = head on the spillway (equal to the vertical distance from
the crest of the spillway to the reservoir level.
Cw varies with the design and head (1.4 2.3) but
experimental models are often used to determine the
coefficient in any particular situation.

If the x-sectional area of the reservoir just upstream from the
spillway is less than 5 times the area of flow over the spillway,
the approach velocity may increase the discharge to noticeable
extent. The effect of approach velocity can be accounted for by
the equation:
Q = Cw L (H + V02)3/2
2g
Where: V0 = approach velocity.
End contractions on the spillway often reduce the effective
length below the actual length L.
Square cornered piers disturb the flow considerably and reduce
the effective length by the width of the piers plus about 0.2h
for each pier.
Streamlining the pier or flaring the spillway entrance minimizes
the flow disturbance.
5.1.2 Chute Spillways

Constructed of concrete slabs in the form of a steep-sloped
open channel or trough
The slabs are 250-500 mm thick.
Adapted to earth or rock fill dams
Normally located around the end of the dam as topography
permits, such locations is preferred especially for earth dams
to prevent possible damage to the embankment.
The Chute may be of constant width but is usually narrowed
in some sections for economy and then widened near the end
to reduce discharge velocity.
As far as possible the slope should be steep enough to
maintain flow below critical depth so that unstable flow
conditions do not set in.
5.1.2 Chute Spillways Cont......................

The side walls of the chute must be of adequate height to
accommodate bulking of water caused by entrainment of air
in the high velocity flow.
Expansion joints should be provided in chute spillways at
intervals of 10m, and they should be as watertight as possible
to avoid percolation of water under the slab that may cause
uplift forces under the slab.
As additional insurance against uplift, rock fill or perforated
steel pipe drains should be provided under the spillway.
5.1.3. Side Channel Spillway

A spillway in which the flow, after passing over the crest, is
carried away in a channel running parallel to the crest
The crest is usually a concrete gravity section, but it may
consist of pavement laid on an earth embankment or natural
ground surface.
Usually used in narrow canyons where sufficient crest length
is not available for overflow or chute spillways.
After passing through the side channel, the water may be led
out through a chute or tunnel.
5.1.4 Shaft Spillways (Morning Glory)

The water drops through a vertical shaft to a horizontal
conduit that conveys the water past the dam.
Often used in cases where there is inadequate space for other
types of spillways, its usually undesirable to carry a spillway
over or through an earth dam.
However, if topography prevents the use of chute or side
channel spillway around the end of the dam, a shaft spillway
through the foundation material provides the best alternative.
For low dams where the shaft height is small, no special inlet
design is necessary, but for high dams, a flared inlet, referred
to as a morning glory is used.
May be constructed of metal, concrete pipe or clay tile for
small spillways
5.1.4 Shaft Spillways (Morning Glory) Cont......

May be constructed of metal, concrete pipe or clay tile for
small spillways
For large dams, the vertical shaft is constructed of reinforced
concrete, while the horizontal conduit is tunnel in rock.
Frequent a diversion tunnel is provided so that it may be used
for the spillway outlet.
There are 3 possible conditions of flow in a shaft spillway.
i) At low head, the outlet conduit flows partly full, the
perimeter of the inlet serves as a weir and the discharge of
the spillway is given by;
Q h13/2

ii) As the water level rises, water level in the shaft rises, and
the outlet may flow partly full ( weir flow) or full (orifice
flow), when the shaft is completely filled and the outlet
submerged under those conditions the discharge is given
by;
Q h21/2 where: h2 = hL + V2/2g = total head on the outlet.
At this point, the increase in h2 results in only a very slight
increase in discharge, and therefore this poses a limit on
the capacity of the shaft spillway.
The graph with the solid line depicts the relation
between the flow rate and the water surface elevation
for a properly designed shaft spillway.

iii) When design is not proper there will be a throttling of
the flow as flow changes to pipe flow.
An abrupt transition between the shaft and outlet
conduit may result into cavitations hence a smooth
transition should be planned especially for large
structures.
Complete hydraulic analysis of a shaft spillway is
difficult and therefore models are employed to
simulate flows and to determine the coefficients
needed.
A serious problem with shaft spillways is their potential
to clog with debris. Therefore, they should be protected
with trash racks, floating booms etc.
Flow conditions in a shaft spillway
5.1.5 Siphon Spillways

Usually provided for cases where spillway location space is
limited and where the discharge capacity desired is not large.
They have the advantage of automatically maintaining the
water surface elevation within very close limits.
At higher flows, after the siphon has primed, the discharge is
given by;
Q = CdA2gh; where Cd = coefficient of discharge ( 0.9)
If the outlet of the siphon is not submerged, the head h is the
vertical distance from the water surface in the reservoir to the
end of the siphon barrel.
When the siphon outlet is submerged then h is the difference
in elevation between the headwater and the tail water.
5.1.5
Siphon Spillways Cont......
If air is prevented from entering the outlet end of the siphon,

the flow through the siphon will entrain and remove air at the
crown and prime the siphon.
Entrance of air can be prevented by deflecting the flow across
the barrel in such away as to seal it off, or by submerging the
outlet.
The siphon action will continue until the water level in the
reservoir drops to the elevation at the upper lip of the siphon.
As soon as a siphon is primed, a vacuum forms at the crown.
In order to prevent cavitation, the siphon should be designed
so that this vacuum never exceeds three fourths of
atmospheric pressure (3/4 atm).
5.1.5 Siphon Spillways Conti......

Hence at sea level,
the vertical distance
form the crown of
the siphon down to
the hydraulic grade
line should not
exceed 7.5m.
Trash racks can be
provided to avoid
clogging by debris.
Cross-section through a siphon spillway
5.2. Dynamic Forces on Spillways

Newtons 2nd Law of motion states that force equals the time
rate of change of momentum.
The resultant forces on an element of water are then given
by;
F = Q V
(1)
Where = density of water

Q = flow rate
V= change in velocity
In vector form equation (1) can be re-written as;
Fx = Q(V2x V1x) and Fy = Q(V2y V1y)
(2)
Where x and y represent any convenient system of coordinates
5.2. Dynamic Forces on Spillways Cont........

Equation 2 can be used to calculate the dynamic forces
exerted by water on spillways, deflectors, turbine blades,
pipes and bends, etc.
The forces Fx and Fy are those acting on a significant free body
of fluid and include gravity forces, hydrostatic pressures, and
the reaction of any object or surface in contact with the fluid
body.
5.3. Hydraulics of Outlet Works

The discharge through the dam outlet (Sluiceway) can be
calculated from the equation:
Q = CdA2gH
(3)
Where A = area of the outlet sluice
Cd = coefficient of discharge whose value depends on
the type of gate, trash rack, conduit friction, transitions etc.
H = differential head causing flow (usually the
difference in elevation between u/s and d/s.
5.3. Hydraulics of Outlet Works Cont........

The total headloss in the conduit include losses in
o trash racks
o conduit entrance
o conduit friction
o gates and valves
o transitions
o bends
Entrance loss is taken as 0.5v2 for square edged entrance. For
2g
a bell-mouthed entrance the loss is taken as 0.04 v2
2g
5.3. Hydraulics of Outlet Works Cont.....

Conduit friction loss is calculated from the standard pipe formulae
e.g.
or
(4)
Gate loss for a fully open gate and butterfly value is taken as 0.2v2
2g
Headloss through trash racks are found to follow the table below. v2
5.3. Hydraulics of Outlet Works Cont.....

If discharge is calculated
from the net effective head
then;
Heff = Differential head H
minus headloss
Q = CdA2g Heff
(5)
Velocity thro
Head loss
Trash rack (m/s) (m)
0.15
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.60
0.62
0.006
0.01
0.03
0.05
0.09
0.09
0.13
0.15
5.4. Protection against Scour

Water flowing over a spillway or through a sluiceway is capable
of causing severe erosion of the stream bed and banks below
the dam.
The type of protection against erosion that should be provided
depends on the degree of damage expected from this erosion.
The time required to develop serious erosion depends not only
on the character of the stream bed material and the velocity
distribution but also on the frequency with which scouring flows
occur.
Often model studies are conducted during the planning period
to determine the relevant factors.
5.4. Protection against Scour Cont.........

Solid rock is often resistant to erosion although if the rock has
bedding planes it may not resist high velocity flow. Also if the
rock has a rough, jagged surface, cavitation may assist in its
erosion.
Loose earth and rock are vulnerable to the erosive action of
flowing water, and may scour at velocities as low as 0.6 1.0m/s
Movablebed model studies with gravel, sand, or powdered
coal to simulate the river bed may be used to predict velocity
distributions.
For a horizontal rectangular channel the hydraulic jump is

expressed as:
(6)
Where y1, and y2 are the depths of flow before and after the
jump.

The approximate depth of flow at the toe of the spillway y1
may be found by applying the energy equation along a
streamline between point A on the surface of the reservoir
and point B at the toe of the spillway.
Neglecting friction and velocity of approach, the energy

equation is:
(7)

The average flow velocity V1 at the toe of the spillway is
By substituting values of h, and Q in the energy equation, the
corresponding values of y1 and V1 can be found.
The hydraulic jump equation can then be used to find the
sequent depth y2
The energy dissipated in the jump is equal to the difference in
specific energy before and after the jump (
)
A fully developed hydraulic jump below an ogee spillway is
particularly effective as an energy dissipator in situations
where h is small compared with the height of the spillway.
For a jump to occur, the flow must be below critical depth,
and this condition is satisfied in almost al cases where there is
potential for scour.
Typical scour
protection works
Appurtenances in
a stilling basin
CHAPTER SIX
WATER LAW
6.1
Introduction
Where there is inadequate water to meet the needs of

potential users, water is a commodity of considerable value.
Hence a system of laws is necessary to determine who has the
right to water abstraction and use.
Water law can also play a major role in the economic aspects
of water development since limitation on who may develop
water resources will also control how it is developed and
utilized.
6.2 Common Law

Each country has its own legislation that governs the
exploitation of water resources that are appropriate to the
country depending on the availability of water.
However, there is a common law upon which the legislation is
built. This common law hinges upon rights.
There are two distinct categories of rights viz; Riparian rights,
and Appropriative rights.
Taken from French Civil law by two American jurists Story

and Kent
6.2 Common Law Cont...........

English courts adopted it in early 19th century as part of its
common law.
Later accepted in the Americas which adopted the English Law
Under the concept of riparian rights the owner of the land
adjacent to a stream known as (riparian land) is entitled to
receive the full natural flow of the stream without change in
quantity and quality.
Hence the riparian owner is protected against diversion of
water upstream from his properly or from diversion of excess
floodwaters towards his property.
No upstream owner may materially lessen or increase the
natural flow of the stream to the disadvantage of a
downstream owner.

In modern society riparian doctrine has serious defect
because it does not provide for actual use of water by the
riparian owners fro irrigation and other intensive user.
Riparian concept has therefore been modified to permit
reasonable use of water which allows riparian owners to
divert and use stream flow in reasonable amounts for
beneficial purposes.
No priority can exist between riparian owners i.e. all riparian
owners have equal rights to their reasonable share of water.
No owner can exercise his rights to the detriment of other
owners.
Riparian rights inhere in the land and are not affected by use
or lack of use. But it can be voided by the process of law.
Riparian rights can also be lost due to upstream adverse use.

If riparian property is sold, the right is automatically
transferred to the new owner.
If the property is sub-divided, the portion not adjacent to
the stream loses its riparian status unless the rights are
specifically preserved in the conveyance.
Riparian rights do not attach to land outside the stream
basin, even though this land is contiguous to riparian
land in the basin; thus riparian owners can not transport
water from the riparian land into the land outside the
riparian area.
Brought to the New World by the Spaniards who adopted it

from the Roman Civil Law
Profoundly influenced by the developments in the mining
industry in USA (California) During the Gold rush of 1849
appropriation of water became a very active system of water
rights.
Under the doctrine of appropriation, water is allocated or
appropriated on the basis of declared beneficial use on a first
come first in rights basis.

Under the exclusive system of appropriative rights, all water in
natural water courses is subject to appropriation. And an
appropriator may store water in reservoir for use during
periods of drought but the amount stored is limited by the
terms of storage appropriation.
Usually direct use and storage appropriations are kept
separate.
6.3. Water Act 2002

Water Act 2002 was enacted to eliminate the inherent
weaknesses in the previous Water Act Cap 372. These
include:
Neglect of water resources management at the expense of
water services owing to lack of separation of the sub
sectors.
Weak apportionment and allocation practices for water
resources.
No centralized coordination of water use among different
sectors: energy, industry, environment, agriculture and
others
Lack of recognition of the role of communities in water
management.
Lack of standards for water services
6.3. Water Act 2002 Cont........

Water Act 2002 was therefore developed upon the following
principles:
State ownership of all surface and groundwater resources.
Exploitation of such resources requires authority granted
through issuance of a water permit
Stakeholder involvement in management of water
resources
Management of water resources on catchment basis and
not administrative boundaries
Equitable allocation of water for all Kenyans
Recognition of the economic value of water
Social objectives including supplying the poor with water
be achieved by other means including Government subsidy
6.3. Water Act 2002 Cont........

Accelerating supply and distribution of water in rural areas
through special funding
Ring-fencing of water service operations
Development of water sector strategies for management and
development of the sector
Protection of the quality of water resources
Cost recovery as a means of sustainable service provision
6.4. Issues and challenges

Kenya with a current population of 35 million and a
projected population of 43 million by 2015 faces
enormous challenges in management of its limited
water resources.
The magnitude of the issues and challenges and
severity of the water crisis, that currently face Kenya
cut across most sectors of the economy making
water resources management a high priority
requiring urgent attention
6.4.1. Water Scarcity

Kenya is classified as a water-scare country. The
natural endowment of renewable freshwater is
currently about 21 BCM (billion cubic meters) of
647m3 per capita per annum.
A country is categorized water-scarce if its
renewable freshwater potential is less than 1,000 m3
per capita per annum.
6.4.2. Water resources underdeveloped

About 40% the renewable freshwater has potential for
development and this represents the safe yield. The remaining 60%
are required to sustain the flows in rivers so as to ensure ecological
biodiversity and act as reserve for development beyond the
timeframes of the strategies.
Kenyas safe yield of surface water resources is 7.4 BCM per annum
and the safe yield of groundwater is about 1.0 BCM per annum.
The current water abstractions are only a fraction (13%-19%) of the
assessed safe yield or potential for development, which in 1992
amounted to 1.1 BCM per annum and is currently 1.6 BCM/annum,
thus indicating an extremely low level of development.
This extremely low level of development portrays a negative picture
of the countrys commitment of developing water resources.
However Kenya, although water-scarce, has room for extensive
development towards achieving maximum utilization of the
renewable fraction of the freshwater resources.
6.4.3.Climate variability
Catchment degradation is causing increased runoff, flash
flooding, reduced infiltration, erosion and siltation and this is
undermining the limited sustainable water resources base in
the county.
The main causes of catchment degradation are poor farming

methods, population pressure (forest excision for
resettlement) and deforestation (for agricultural land and fuel
wood). For example, the sediment yields for the Ewaso Ngiro
and Tana Rivers have increased 15 times the level of 1970.
Catchment degradation will invariably affect surface water
availability as rivers and reservoirs will dry up.
6.4.5. Water resources assessment

and monitoring
The hydrometric network and data recording and reporting
system for monitoring and assessing the river flows has
deteriorated and can no longer support adequate assessment
of the water resources base of the country.
The number of river gauging stations in Kenya has shrunk
from over 900 in the early 1970s to less than 150 currently
operational.
Also the monitoring of groundwater resources and water
resources quality has not been given the attention it
deserves.
The data gaps in the present assessments need to be
addressed.
6.4.6.Trans-boundary water resources

Kenyas neighbours share over half of Kenyas water
resources, mostly surface water. Through the Lake Victoria
Basin, Kenya provides about 45% of surface water inflows to
Lake Victoria, and hence to the upper river Nile.
This inter-dependence between Kenya, its immediate
neighbours, and downstream and upstream Nile countries has
considerable implications in the management of the countrys
major water resources. These resources must be jointly
managed within agreed frameworks to ensure equity and to
avoid conflict.
6.4.6.Trans-boundary water resources Cont.....

The challenge to the management of Kenyas water resources
must therefore offset negative impacts from climatic
variability, ensure fair utilization of trans-boundary waters and
reverse the growing degradation of water resources thereby
achieving a water secure Kenya. This has become a daunting
challenge that has not been adequately addressed during the
last three decades.
There have been inadequate investments in hydraulic and
storage structures for flood control, energy generation,
irrigation development, urban, industrial rural and livestock
water supply. There has also been extensive degradation of
water resources due to weak catchment management,
pollution control and water allocation mechanisms.
6.4.7 Degradation of water resources

Over-abstraction of surface water in some parts of the
country, inappropriate land use changes, soil erosion in
catchments, and deterioration of riparian lads causing flash
floods, turbidity, and siltation of water courses and storage
facilities have led to serious degradation in the quantity and
quality of the water resources.
Poorly controlled discharge of effluent from industry and
sewage outfalls, and excessive nutrient and agrochemical
pollution from rural sources has impacted negatively on the
quality of water.
The dramatic reduction in the depth of Lake Baringo, from
over 15 metres in 1921 to an average of 1.8 metres today is
due not only to reduced inflows but also to the increased
sediment load from surrounding unprotected and degraded
catchments.
6.4.8. HIV/AIDS
HIV/AIDS is also causing untold suffering, particularly
for those living in the rural areas. The challenge for
the GoK is to ensure access to water, among many
other needs, by these vulnerable members of the
society so as reduce water related ailments and
improve their standard of living.
6.5.Policy Direction
In recognition of these issues and challenges, the Government
initiated a process of reform for the entire water sector. The
sector is being transformed in line with national policy as
outlined in the Water Policy Sessional Paper No. 1 of 1999,
which gave birth to the Water Act of 2002, and subsequent
strategies especially the National Poverty Reduction Strategy
Paper, and the Economic Strategy for Wealth and Employment
Creation.
6.5 1. National Water Resources Management

Strategy
The fundamental objectives for managing Kenyas water
resources are enshrined in the Water Act (2002). Sections
11(1) define the National Water Resources Management
Strategy in accordance with which, the water resources of
Kenya shall be managed, protected, used, developed
conserved and controlled.
The strategy shall prescribe the principles, objectives,
procedures and institutional arrangements for the
conservation and control of water resources including:
o Classifying water resources
o Determining the requirements of the reserve for each
water resource
o Identifying areas designated as protected and
groundwater conservation areas
6.5.2. Water Policy Sessional Paper No. 1 of

1999
The Sessional Paper Number 1 of 1999 on National Water
Policy on Water Resources Management and Development
provides the policy direction to address the challenges
mentioned above. The policy underpins the Water Act 2002.
The policy directions include the following:
o Treat water as a social and economic good
o Preservation, conservation and protection of available water
resource
o Supplying adequate amounts of water meeting acceptable
standards for the various needs
o Ensuring safe wastewater disposal for environmental protection
o Developing a sound and sustainable financial system, for
effective and efficient water resources management, water
supply and water borne sewage collection, treatment and
disposal
6.5. Institutional Framework

Emphasis is given to greater involvement by communities to
enhance sustainability.
Development of the sector has been constrained by among
other factors:
Water scarcity attributable to uneven distribution of water
resources and variability in rainfall patterns;
Institutional weaknesses including inadequate
management skills and inability to attract and retain highly
qualified personnel;
Inadequate funds for management of existing water
resources and development of water supplies and
sewerage;
Inappropriate technologies and delivery systems for water and
sewerage services;
6.5. Institutional Framework Cont......

Weak coordination among institutions in the sector and
limited cooperation with other development sectors;
Limited understanding and know-how by communities
on sustainable operation and management of water
supplies.
The reform reviewed the set up of water management
created the following institutional arrangement for water
management.

No.
INSTITUTION
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Ministry of Water and Irrigation

(MWI)
Water Resources Management

Authority (WRMA)
Development of legislation, policy

formulation, sector coordination and
guidance, and monitoring and evaluation.
Planning, management, protection and
conservation of water resources.
Planning, allocation, apportionment,
assessment and monitoring of water
resources.
Issuance of water permits.
Water rights and enforcement of permit
conditions.
Regulation of conservation and abstraction
structures.
Catchment and water quality management.
Regulation and control of water use.
Coordination of the IWRM Plan.

No INSTITUTION
3.
Catchments Area Advisory

Committees (CAACs)
4.
Water Resource Users

Associations (WRUAs)
5.
Water Services Regulatory

Board (WSRB)
Advising WRMA on water resources issues at

catchment level.
Involvement in decision making process to identify and
register water users.
Collaboration in water allocation and catchments
management.
Assisting in water monitoring and information
gathering.
Conflict resolution and co-operative management of
water resources.
Regulation and monitoring of Water Services Boards.
Issuance of licenses to Water Services Boards.
Setting standards for provision of water services.
Developing guidelines for water tariffs.

No INSTITUTION
6.
Water Services Boards (WSBs)
Responsible for efficient and economical provision of

water services.
Developing water facilities.
Applying regulations on water services and tariffs.
Procuring and leasing water and sewerage facilities.
Contracting Water Service Providers (WSPs).
7.
Water Service Providers (WSPs)
8.
Water Services Trust Fund

(WSTF)
Financing provision of water and sanitation to

disadvantaged groups.
9.
The Water Appeals Board

(WAB)
National Water Conservation
and Pipeline Corporation
(NWCPC)
Arbitration of water related disputes and conflicts.
Construction of dams and drilling of boreholes
10.
Provision of water and sewerage services

No INSTITUTION
11.
Kenya Water Institute

(KEWI)
Training and Research
12.
National Irrigation
Board (NIB)
Development of Irrigation Infrastructure
CHAPTER SEVEN
POWER SYSTEMS
7.1. Introduction
Most modern power systems are either thermal or hydro
plants. Selection of either depends on an economic analysis of
costs versus energy produced over a given life time. The least
cost solution is then selected.
Initial cost of hydropower plants are usually much higher than
for thermal plants.
Cost of hydropower plant includes,
Dam
Diversion work
Conduits
Land
7.1. Introduction Cont.........

Water rights
Relocation of rail road, highways and other utilities,
Value of improvements flooded by reservoir (i.e. costs
of environmental impact)
The generating plant itself
Planning process
Associated costs are long transmission lines and inherent loss
of energy.
Costs of thermal plant include;
Fossil fuels oil, coal, nuclear minerals that cause green
gas emissions (disadvantage)

Limited amount of land for siting (advantage)
Possible ecological impact because of cooling waters led back
into water bodies (disadvantage)
Drilling of deep wells in case of geo-thermal systems
Thermal plants have high operational costs in terms of fuel
costs, maintenance, labour, repairs.
Thermal plants require expensive air pollution control
equipment

Efficiency of thermal plants drops with age.
Thermal plants can be located near to the consumer
provided there is sufficient supply of cooling water
hence transmission costs are low.
Thermal plants can be put up quickly because
infrastructure is minimal.
7.2 Power Systems and Load

Power systems may consist of a single plant serving the
system (Supplemented by standby units) or
An array of plants interconnected to serve the system
Whichever arrangement is available, the system should have
enough capacity to supply the expected peak load plus extra
capacity to take care of breakdowns and necessary
maintenance shutdowns.
It is advantageous to have a mixture of thermal and hydro

power in a system in terms of economy and reliability
achievement.
7.2 Power Systems and Load Cont.........
Hydropower plants on standby can be started in a few

minutes (max. 3-4 min) in case of sudden failure in another
line. (Compare with at least 30-40mins for thermal plant), i.e.
hydropower plants are well adapted to provide reserve
capacity at short notice.
It is much more expensive to keep a thermal plant on standby,
because of depreciation.
A hydropower plant alone in a system may be
disadvantageous if the carryover storage is inadequate to
meet demands during a severe drought.
7.2 Power Systems and Load Cont.........

Even during a flood, power shortage is possible at low-head
plants if high tail water at the power house greatly reduces
the net head.
Planning of power systems require an estimate of future
power requirements- taking into account of business
booms and slumps, technological changes. Etc HENCE
forecast is made difficult.
The required generating capacity is determined by the load
for the peak day of the year.
In thermal plants the requirements of the peak week or
month dictates the amount of energy storage required in
the form of fuel or water.
7.2. Power Systems and Load Cont.........

.
Typical curve for
industrial area
load factor =0.8
80
KW
70
X10 3
60
50
40
30
Typical curve
for residential area
load factor =0.6
20
10
12 2
8 10 12 2
Time of day
4 6
10 12
Typical peak-day load curves

Over a given period, the load factor = average load
Peak load
Load factors for industrial areas vary from 50 80%
Load factors for residential areas vary between 30-60%.
High load factor means unit cost of energy will be
comparatively low because under such conditions the system
is operating near capacity and near highest efficiency.
At low load factor the system generating capacity is lying idle
for a large part of the time.

In a combined system, thermal plants are operated
continuously to carry the base load during low flow (drought)
while the hydro-plants are used intermittently to generate
power for peak loads.
During high flows (floods) the operations of thermal and

hydropower plants are sometimes reversed.
However, the optimum mode of operation results in the
fullest utilization of available water and minimum
consumption of fuel.
7.2. Power Systems and Load C ont.........

(I) High flow
.
thermal power
power
water power
Time of day

(ii) Low flow
Power
Water
Power
Thermal power
Time of day
7.3 Types of hydro plants

Storage conventional
Run-of- the river
Pumped storage
Storage type of plant has sufficient reservoir capacity to

permit carry-over storage from wet to dry season.
Run-of-the river plants have no storage or just enough storage
(also called pondage) to permit storing water during off-peak
hours for use during peak hours of the same day. Hence, they
are only suitable for streams with sustained flow during the
dry season or if there are some reservoirs upstream which
release the necessary flow.
Pumped storage provides energy for peak load, but at off
peak hours the water is pumped from the tailwater pool to
the headwater pool for future use.
7.3 Types of hydro plants Cont......
1. Gross head = total difference in elevation between water

surface in the reservoir or stream at the diversion and the
water surface at the tailrace.
2. Net (or effective) Head = head available for energy production
after losses in friction at entrance, unrecovered velocity head
in the draft tube etc.
3. Hydraulic Efficiency = Net head/Gross head
4. Overall efficiency = hydraulic efficiency x efficiency of turbine
and generator; at optimum operation = 60-70%
5. Capacity = maximum power which can be developed by the
generators at normal head with full flow.
7.3 Types of hydro plants Cont......

6. Firm (or primary) Power = power which a plant can be
expected to deliver 100% of the time.
For a single plant it corresponds to the power developed
when available water is a minimum.
7. Surplus (or Secondary) Power = all power available in excess
of firm power.
Much of this secondary power may be sold at low
rates but without guarantee as to continuity of
service.
7.4 Hydropower Project arrangement

Major components of hydro electric scheme are;
Dam diversion structure
Penstock + associated gates
Turbines + governing mechanisms
Generators
Control and switching mechanisms
Housing
Transformers
Transmission lines to consumers
Surge tanks for long penstocks
Forebay a regulating reservoir for temporary storage of
water when load on the plant is reduced; may require
spillways for discharging excess water when necessary.
7.4 Hydropower Project arrangement Cont....

The layout and type of plant suitable for a specific site
depends on several factors:
Topography of area
Head
Available flow
Most low head installations have a concentrated head layout
where the power house is located next to the dam e.g.
Masinga Dam;
In divided fall layouts water is carried to the power house at a
considerable distance from the dam through;
Canal
Tunnel
Penstock (steel pipes, reinforced concrete, wood stave).
7.4 Hydropower Project arrangement Cont....

In the divided fall arrangement it may be possible to obtain a
high head on the powerhouse even if the dam is a low one
e.g. Kiambere.
7.5 Operation of Power Plant

Operational data to be recorded include:
o Generator amperes and kilowatts
o Turbine gate openings
o Head and tail water levels
o Spillway gate openings
o Cost of operation and maintenance of equipment
In addition, continuous hydrological data recording are
needed.
o Rainfall
o River gauge readings
7.5 Operation of Power Plant Cont.....
Good communication is essential for successful operation

between individual plants and the central station. This
facilitates maintenance of continuity of service as the load
dispatcher designates the load each plant is to carry
depending on the changing conditions.
7.6 Planning of Hydropower Development

Assembly and analysis of hydrologic data on stream flows;
simulate if period of records is short;
Make preliminary designs for all stations which appear
competitive in costs; and determine the most economic
design at each site by comparing costs and revenues from
anticipated power sales.
Determine requirements to be satisfied;
o Minimum instantaneous load
o Total energy
o Variation in load with time
7.6 Planning of Hydropower Development

Cont...
Select feasible projects as close to load centre (consumer) as
possible.
Compare best designs from several sites and select site or
combination of sites which gives the most efficient system.
Compare hydro versus thermal alternatives
If hydro is competitive with thermal proceed with detailed
design of the hydro-installation.
CHAPTER EIGHT
ENGINEERING ECONOMY IN WATER
RESOURCES PLANNING
8.1 Social Importance
Once the project is completed major water control structures
cannot be altered with ease; it may not be possible to alter
them at all.
There are only a few suitable dam sites, once they are
appropriated; the possibilities for the economic multipurpose
development are very limited.
Once an irrigation project is developed it cannot be moved
because unfavourable soil or climate factors are discovered.
8.1 Social Importance Cont.....

I.e. there is such finality in the construction of a river basin
development that it is extremely important to be sure that
the right thing is planned before we proceed.
What the engineer might see as a minor problem may occur
so frequently that its aggregate importance becomes
cumulative, and may result in a huge increase in total cost for
the user.
8.2 Steps in an Engineering Economy Study

Identify all alternatives that seem promising and define them
clearly in physical terms.
The physical estimates of each alternative should as far as
possible be translated into monetary estimates. Monetary
estimates may include:
o Incomes to be accrued, and when
o Disbursements to be made and when
o Useful lives and salvage values, if any, of the structures and
other assets required for each alternative
o Length of study (or project useful life)
8.2 Steps in an Engineering Economy Study

Cont......
Place the monetary estimates on a comparable base by
appropriate conversions that utilize mathematics of
compound interest. The conversions should use the
minimum attractive rate of return appropriate for the
particular circumstances e.g. the interest rate.
Recommend a choice among the alternatives based on
comparison in terms of money units and also those
items or matters that are not practicable to reduce to
monetary terms (the intangibles or irreducible).
8.3 Selecting Interest Rates

Choice of interest rate to be used in economy studies has a
considerable influence on the design selected.
At a low interest rate most proposed projects may appear
economical even though the same projects may be quite
costly.
IMPORTANT CRETERIA FOR CHOICE IS: That everything
considered, the chosen rate must be the minimum attractive
rate of return on the capital investment.
In private enterprises; the interest rate should not be less
than the figure that reflects the overall cost of capital.
In public works; the interest rate reflects the fair return
permitted by the regulatory authority that controls utility
rates e.g. Central Bank.
8.3 Selecting Interest Rates Cont....

In Private Enterprises, when there are many competitive
projects to be considered in an environment where there are
limited funds for financing, it is sometimes possible to use a
higher interest rate to eliminate the least productive of the
proposed investments and conserve the limited funds to use
in the most productive places.
However in public works the practice is usually to use the
interest rate equal to the bare cost of borrowed money for
the public body undertaking the investment.
8.4. Capital Recovery Factor (CRF):

The capital recovery cost is referred to as interest plus
depreciation (or amortization); it is usually proportional to the
investment made.
Economy studies are simplified by combining the capital
recovery costs with other costs or charges proportional to
investment e.g.
o For assets subject to general property taxes based on
assessed valuation, the tax cost is an investment charge
which should be combined with the capital recovery cost.
o To determine the tax rate to use in an economy study the
stated tax rate applied to assessed valuation should be
multiplied by the expected ratio of assessed valuation to
first cost.
8.4. Capital Recovery Factor (CRF): Cont.......

o Also for public utilities income taxes may be treated as
investment charges in economy studies
All these costs are combined into a capital recovery factor
(CRF) that takes account of the cost streams throughout the
life of the project. It is expressed as:
Where i is the minimum attractive rate of return on

investment and N is the study period or useful life of project.
8.5. Economic Feasibility of Water

Resources Projects
Economic analysis is an essential component of evaluating
alternatives in water- resources planning. In many cases, a
proposed action may be politically attractive, technologically
feasible, and environmentally acceptable, while economic
analysis shows the action to cost more than it provides in
benefits.
Often complicating the economic analysis of a project, and
particularly of water-resources projects, is determining the
proper perspective from which to view the costs and benefits.
For example, a project to develop water supplies may be
viewed from the utility
perspective, the ratepayer perspective, or the society
perspective, and determining the benefits and costs for
projects will vary according to the perspective from which the
analysis takes place.
8.5. Economic Feasibility of Water

Resources Projects Cont........
The perspective that is appropriate for evaluation must be
determined for each project, and no one perspective is
appropriate for all cases. In water-supply projects, the society
perspective provides the broadest coverage of costs, including
those related to the environment, but the utility perspective
should always be examined to make sure the program is
affordable to the utility and its ratepayers.
These types of projects should be evaluated from each
perspective to assure the decision makers that significant,
relevant impacts have not been overlooked.
8.5.1 Benefit-Cost Analysis

Engineering economy study for a private enterprise is usually
made from the view point of the enterprises in an
economically competitive industry.
The competition itself is hoped in turn to serve the public
interest through its stimulus to technological innovation and
progress, cost reduction, and improvements in the standard
of living.
BUT for public works engineering economy study should be
made from the point of view of all the persons affected.
8.5.1.Benefit-Cost Analysis Cont
o In a proposed water softening plant for a municipal water

supply it is necessary to estimate the benefits that will accrue
to the public from supply of soft water instead of evaluating
the proposal from the point of view of costs and revenue of
the municipality alone.
o In a flood mitigation project in a river basin it is necessary to
investigate damages caused by flood of various magnitudes
and cost them. The benefits can be obtained by investigating
also the reduction in damages from each flood control
proposal; and put monetary units to the benefits.
8.5.1. Benefit-Cost Analysis Cont

Benefit-cost analysis is the commonly used procedure for
economic evaluation of public projects, and its success
depends on the ability to assign monetary values to
social and environmental costs and benefits.
Benefit-cost analysis is most suitable for ranking or
comparing alternatives designed to attain the same ends,
rather than for testing the absolute desirability of one
project.
The boundaries of a benefit-cost analysis must always be
specified at the outset; these are usually political
boundaries (county, state), but may also be those of a
corporate entity.
Costs to an entity developing a water-resources project are

generally classified as either direct or indirect.
Direct costs are those borne by the entity itself, and typically
include: design costs, construction costs, real-estate costs,
rights-of-way costs, capital costs for equipment, and labour
costs for operating and maintaining the system.
Expenditures by those who receive direct benefits from a
project in order to utilize it are included as direct costs.
Indirect costs are those borne by parties not directly related
to the project. Costs imposed on society by environmental
degradation are prime examples of indirect costs.

For overall economic efficiency, all costs should be accounted
for, as under the society perspective, and this requires that
both direct and indirect costs be included to the fullest extent
possible.
Benefits are classified as either direct (internal), indirect

(external), or intangible.
Direct or internal benefits include additional revenue from
such sources as water sales, power generation, recreation-use
fees, impact fees from growth supported by a new water
supply, additional tax revenues from growth in the service
area, and direct savings of reduced potential flood damages
to residences, businesses, and public infrastructure.

Direct benefits may also include increases in land value
because of the increase in market value of property protected
from flood damages. Avoided costs coming about as a result
of not having to use resources in some other way are
generally counted as direct
benefits.
Indirect or external benefits accrue to parties not directly
associated with entities responsible for developing waterresources projects; for example, creating a lake for watersupply purposes may also provide recreation benefits, habitat
for wildlife, and flood-control benefits, and new businesses or
residences may be established in direct response to a newly
completed project.

However, if a new activity is a transfer of an existing activity
from another location, it should not be counted as a benefit
from a national point of view except for any value added to
the new location.
Intangible benefits are those that cannot be quantified and
are not included directly in the benefit-cost analysis. These
benefits must be incorporated in some other way if they are
to be part of the overall study.

Concern:
A concern in using benefits and costs to quantitatively assess
the economics of a project is that not all of them can be
assigned monetary values.
Aesthetic values vary widely among people and cannot be

assigned a true monetary value.
The value of fish and wildlife, aquatic ecosystems, and
vegetation cannot be assigned true monetary values, and
estimates are frequently made using surrogate measures such
as the commercial value of fish or trees or the value of fishing
and hunting experiences.

Spending on water-resources projects often consists of
multiple-year capital programs, with operating and
maintenance costs spread out over time, and benefits that
may be even further spread out over time.
To provide a common basis for cost and benefit comparisons,

financial analysts commonly use the concept of present value
which adjusts future amounts of costs or savings to equivalent
values today.
To make this conversion, a planner needs to know the

earnings that are possible for investing available funds.

The interest rate used is called the discount rate, and is
defined as the highest rate of return that could be earned by
investing available funds with the same level of risk.
The discount rate should reflect either the best alternative
use of the funds available or the cost of capital, which for
most public agencies is equivalent to the interest rate on longterm debt. For government projects, the Central Bank of
Kenya provides guidelines for choosing the discount rates,
based on interest rates for treasury notes and bonds, with
maturities that can be matched to project lives.
From a water-supply utility perspective, the discount rate
would likely be based on long-term tax-exempt bonds of the
utility.

An additional consideration in choosing a discount rate is
whether it should be the nominal or real discount rate.
The nominal discount rate reflects current market conditions,
taking into account current inflationary impacts of money.
Market rates; are nominal rates.
The real discount rate is the nominal rate less expected
inflation which erodes the purchasing power of money over
time. Since the real discount rate is an inflationary adjusted
value, it is sometimes referred to as the constant-dollar rate.
The choice of real or nominal discount rates depends on
whether costs and benefits are evaluated based on a real
(constant-dollar) or nominal basis. The chosen rates are
usually much lower than the normal bank lending rates.

The economic life of a project ends when the incremental
benefit from continued use no longer exceeds the cost of
continued operation.
The period of economic, (benefit-cost) analysis should not
exceed the economic life, and the same period of analysis
must be adopted for all alternatives, even if their economic
lives differ.

Example:
Annual damage from floods in a river basin is estimated to be
$ 400,000. Alternative proposals are made for flood control
works as follows:
Channel improvement alone to increase the capacity of the

stream to carry the flood: - $ 500,000
A dam and storage reservoir or either site A or B but site A is
located inside the reservoir area for B so either of those sites
can be used but not both.
Site A development alone $3,000,000
Site B development alone $ 4,000,000

Site A development with channel improvement $
3,500,000
Site B development with channel improvement, $
4,500,000
No flood mitigation at all, $400,000 annually
Perform a benefit cost analysis to select the best

flood control project to implement if the annual
interest = 3% over a 25year life for channel, 100yrs for
dam.
Solution:

Annual
investment
charges
Annual
O&M
Av.
annual
flood
damages
400,000
Annual
damages
and project
costs
400,000
Channel imp.
alone
500,000
250,000
28,715
100,000
378,720
Dev. At site A
alone
3,000,000
190,000
94,950
60,000
344,950
Project
Investment
No flood
mitigation

Investment Av. annual
flood
damages
Dev. At site B 400,000
125,000
alone
Annual
investment
charges
126,600
Annual
O&M
80,000
Annual
damages and
project costs
331,600
Site A with
3,500,000
channel
improvement
100,000
123,670
160,000
383,670
Site B with
4,500,000
channel
improvement
60,000
155,320
180,000
395,320
Project

In performing a benefit-cost analysis we obtain the following:
Project
No.
Annual Annual
benefits costs
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
150,000
210,00
275,000
300,000
340,000
400,000
128,720
154,950
206,600
283,670
335,320
Benefitcost
ratio
0
1.17
1.36
1.33
1.06
1.01
Benefits
minus
costs
-400,000
21,280
55,050
68,400
16,330
4,680

Looking at the above results, themselves, the benefit-cost
ratios do not give sufficient information to make an
economic choice between the alternatives, hence additional
calculations are necessary.
1. Calculate the additional benefits added by each separate
increment of costs;
2. Calculate the ratios of increment of benefits to the
corresponding increment of costs;
3. Confirm that the extra costs are justifiable whenever the
resulting benefits exceed the extra costs; otherwise the
extra costs are not justified if the resulting benefits are
less than the extra costs.
4. The most economical choice is the one that gives the
greatest excess of benefits over costs.

Project Annual Annual Extra
Extra
No.
benefits costs
benefits costs
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
150,000
210,000
275,000
300,000
340,000
400,000
128,720
154,950
208,600
283,670
335,320
0
60,000
65,000
25,000
40,000
0
26,230
51,650
77,070
51,650
Extra
benefits
to extra
costs
0
2.29
1.26
0.32
0.77
The additional benefits of project 4 lead to its choice over

the other projects.
8.5.2. Compound-Interest Factors

In order to use one of the discounting techniques, alternative
discounting factors must be considered to convert cash flows
to a single number.
Variables used in these analyses include:
present value (P),

future value (F),
uniform annual value (A),
interest rate (i),
number of payment periods (typically years or months)
denoted by n .
8.5.2.1 Single-payment factors

The single-payment compound amount factor gives the
amount that will have accumulated after n years per unit
initial investment at a return rate of i percent per year.
The common notation for this factor is (F/P,i,n), which
indicates a future value, F, of a present amount, P, invested
at i percent for n years or payment periods.
Based on this definition,
F = P (1 + i)n
(7.1)
and
F
n= F
,
i,
n
=
(1
+
i)
P
P
(7.2)
8.5.2.1 Single-payment factors Cont..

The single-payment present-worth factor is the inverse of the
single-payment compound
amount factor (Equation 7.2), and gives the amount that must
be invested initially at i percent in order to have unit (e.g., one
dollar) return at the end of n years or other payment periods.
The notation for this factor is (P/F,i,n), which indicates a present
value, P, which must be invested at i percent for n years or time
periods in order to yield a future value, F.
8.5.2.1 Single-payment factors Cont..

Based on this definition, Equation 7.1 gives:
1
P
P
=
i,n , =
n
F
(1 + i) F
(7.3)
This factor is important when finding the present value of future

costs or benefits that appear as discrete values.
8.5.2.2 Uniform-series factors

In many cases, costs and benefits occur in uniform amounts
year after year, and a better alternative is to use uniform
annual series factors to show the present or future values of
equal annual costs and/or benefits.
The sinking-fund factor gives the uniform amount, A, that

must be invested at i percent at the end of each of n years to
accumulate a unit (e.g., one dollar) return.
Based on this definition, the sinking-fund factor (A/F, i, n) is
given by:
8.5.2.2 Uniform-series factors Cont.
i
A
A
=
i,n =
F
(1 + i)n - 1 F
(7.4)
The uniform-series compound-amount factor, which is the

reciprocal of the sinking- fund factor, gives the amount that will
accumulate from unit (e.g. one dollar) investments at the end of
each of n years at i percent.

Based on this definition, the uniform-series compoundamount factor (F/A, i, n) is given by:
(1 + i)n - 1
F
F
i,
n
=
=
i
A
A
(7.5)
The capital-recovery factor is the annual value that, after n

years, will yield the equivalent of a unit (e.g., one dollar) initial
investment at i percent.
Based on this definition, the capital-recovery factor (A/P, i, n)
is given by:
i(1+i)
A
A
=
i,n =
n
P
P 1+ i - 1
n
(7.6)

The uniform-series present-worth factor, which is the reciprocal
of the capital-recovery factor, gives the present value (or the
amount that must be invested initially) at i percent to yield a unit
(e.g. one dollar) return at the end of each of n years.
Based on this definition, the uniform-series present-worth factor
(P/A, i, n) is given by:
P
1+ i - 1 P
=
,i,n =
n
A
A i(1+i)
n
(7.7)
8.5.2.3. Arithmetic-gradient Factors

The arithmetic-gradient present-worth factor gives the amount
that must be invested initially at i percent in order to obtain an
incremental unit (e.g., one dollar) return at the end of the second
year, an incremental two-unit (e.g., two dollars) return at the end
of the third year, and continuing to an incremental n - l-unit (e.g.,
n 1 dollars) at the end of the nth year.
Based on this definition, the arithmetic-gradient present-worth
factor (P/G, i, n) is given by:
P
P
1+ i - in - 1
=
,i,n =
2
n
i (1+i)
G
G
(7.8)
8.5.2.3. Arithmetic-gradient Factors Cont....

where G is the increment in investment return from one year
to the next.
To determine the present worth of a uniformly decreasing
series, subtract a uniformly increasing series from a uniform
annual series.
The arithmetic-gradient uniform-series factor (A/G, i, n) can
be derived by multiplying the A/P and P/G factors and is given
by:
A
1
i,n = G
i
n
A
=
n
(1 + i) - 1
G
(7.9)
8.5.2.3. Arithmetic-gradient Factors Cont..

The arithmetic-gradient future-worth factor (F/ G, i, n) can be
derived by multiplying the P/G and F/P factors and is given by:
n
F
1
(1
+
i)
-1
A
- n ]=
i,n = - [
i
G
G
i
(7.10)
In cases where the initial return at the end of the first year is Ao
and the annual return increases by an increment G in
subsequent years, the present worth of these is calculated by
adding the present worth of the annual series Ao over n years
to the present worth of the uniform-gradient series with
annual increments of G.
8.5.2.4 Geometric-gradient factors

In cases where investment returns or expenditures change from
period to period by a constant percentage, this defines a
geometric-gradient series.
To characterize a geometric-gradient series, it is convenient to
define the parameter, g, as the constant rate of change, in decimal
form, by which amounts increase or decrease from one time
period to the next.
Defining P as the present worth of the entire cash-flow series, and
Ao as the initial cost or revenue, then the geometric-gradient
present-worth factor (P/Ao,g,i,n) is given by:
8.5.2.4 Geometric-gradient factors Cont.
n
1
1 i
g , i,n =
ig
A0
A0
1 i'
(7.10)
Corresponding factors for equivalent A and F values can be

derived; however, it is easier to determine P and then multiply
by A/P or F/P factors to determine the required information.
8.5.3 Evaluating Alternatives

Four different approaches can be used to deal with comparisons
of time and value in considering the economic merits of
alternative plans.
These approaches are:
present-worth analysis,
annual-worth analysis,
rate-of-return analysis,
benefit-cost analysis.
They are different ways of analyzing the same information. Each
emphasizes a particular economic aspect, and each has its own
advantages and disadvantages.
However, each approach should identify the same alternative as
the best choice from an economic perspective.
8.5.3 Evaluating Alternatives Cont..
A present-worth analysis uses the net present value (NPV) of

costs minus benefits as the basis for comparing alternatives,
and the alternative with the highest NPV is ranked highest, as
it contributes the greatest amount to net benefits.
In using present-worth analysis, annual net benefits (benefits
minus costs) are calculated for each year of the project, the
present value of each is determined, and the net sum of all
present values is calculated.
Suggested rules in performing present-worth analyses are as
follows:

o Use the same time period and discount rates for all
alternatives.
o Calculate the present worth of each alternative. Choose all
alternatives having
a positive present worth. Reject the rest.
o In a set of mutually exclusive alternatives choose the one
having the greatest
present worth.
o If the alternatives in the set of mutually exclusive
alternatives have benefits
which cannot be quantified but are approximately equal,
choose the alternative
having the least cost.

Individual future amounts are discounted using the presentworth factor (P/F, i, n);
Series of equal amounts over n years (periods) are discounted
using the uniform-series present -worth factor (P/A, i, n);
For a non-uniform series of payments, present worth can be
determined by calculating all individual present worths, or by
using an arithmetic-gradient present-worth factor, if
appropriate.
By using net present worth, comparisons can be made of
costs and benefits on an equivalent basis throughout the life
of the project.

This method is similar to the present-worth method, but it
converts present worths to equivalent uniform annual values.
Annual net benefits are first calculated for each year of the
project, the present value of each is determined, and the net
sum of all present values in obtained.
Once this value is obtained, the appropriate capital recovery
factor (A/P, i, n) is applied to determine equivalent annual
figures.
The appropriate decision rule in this method is to select the
alternative having the greatest annual benefit.
Although the annual-cost method is much like the presentworth method, it is often preferred by people more accustomed
to thinking of annual costs rather than present worth.
This approach identifies the rate of return at which the net

present worth of all benefits and costs over the project life is
equal to zero.
The rate of return is also called the internal rate of return,
return on investment, and the profitability index.
Rate-of-return analysis provides for a direct comparison
between the earning power, or return from the proposed
investment, and alternative forms of investment.
Suggested rules in rate-of-return analysis are as follows:
o Compare all alternatives over the same period of
analysis.
o Calculate the rate of return for each alternative.
o Choose all alternatives having a rate of return
exceeding the minimum acceptable value. Reject the
rest.

o Rank the alternatives in the set of mutually exclusive
alternatives in order
of increasing cost. Calculate the rate of return on the
incremental cost and
incremental benefits of the next alternative above the
least costly alternative.
Choose the more costly alternative if the incremental rate
of return exceeds the
minimum acceptable discount rate. Otherwise choose the
less costly alternative.
Continue the analysis by considering the alternatives in
order of increased
costliness, the alternative on the less costly side of each
increment being the
most costly project chosen thus far.

The incremental procedure described above must be used in
place of choosing the mutually exclusive alternative having the
highest rate of return in order to have the same decisions as
provided by a present-worth analysis.
If the rate of return of a proposed investment exceeds the
minimum attractive rate of return, the project is considered to be
economically feasible. Typically, a target rate of return is
determined based on some alternative investment opportunity.
Rate-of-return analysis is used less than other methods because
it requires prior calculation of net present worth, and it must be
used with caution in comparing alternatives.
Rate-of-return analysis provides a means of screening projects
for economic feasibility but should not be used to rank projects
for implementation.
This approach is based on the premise that the ratio of

benefits to costs must exceed 1.0 for a project to be
considered economically feasible.
Public-investment analysis is commonly done using the
benefit-cost ratio method, by government agencies.
All benefits and costs are identified individually, with
appropriate monetary values assigned and time periods
determined, then all benefits and costs are brought to a
comparable time (using present-worth analysis), and the
benefit-cost ratio computed at this time.

Benefits are viewed as all the positive returns from a project,
regardless of who benefits, while costs are measured as the
outlays made by the project sponsors as well as losses suffered
by groups directly affected by the project.
The benefit-cost ratio can have either of the following forms:
BD
or __B_
(7.14)
C
C+D
where B is the benefit ($), C is the cost ($), and D measures the
disbenefits, hardships, and losses caused by the project ($).
The alternative benefit-cost ratios in Equation 7.14 give slightly
different results for the same set of numbers.

Benefit-cost ratios can be based on either present values,
annual values, or future values; the present-value approach is
more common.
It is very important to note that the benefit-cost ratio provides
information about the economic feasibility of the project and
the efficiency of allocating monetary resources, but benefitcost ratios should not be used to develop a ranking of feasible
projects; for that purpose the net-present-value approach is
preferable.
CHAPTER NINE
RAINWATER HARVESTING
Planning for rainwater harvesting starts with

determination of water requirements of the
community or individual;
domestic
livestock
irrigation
industrial
9.2. Domestic Requirements;
Depend on availability of water within a reasonable distance from the

dwelling place. The following observations have been made with
respect to consumptions;
Availability within
Consumption
15 km of water source
1 km of water source
Next to house
Tap in house + WC and slower
Full sanitary installation
2-3 l/day
3-3 l/day
10-20 l/day
60-80 l/day
150-250 l/day
9.3. Livestock Requirements;
Rates of consumption for livestock have been estimated as

follows;
Type of livestock
Consumption
Graded dairy cattle
Graded beef cattle
Local/traditional cattle
Sheep
Goat
100 l/day
50 l/day
9.4. Water Harnessing from Rain

Rain catchments depend on two major factors;
i. rainfall itself
ii. The area on which the rain falls.
The areas are called catchments areas and may be divided into
3 types depending on the surface of the catchments area.
Type 1 areas: Total run off occurs in areas with hard surfaces
such as roofs and rocks.
Type 2 areas: Half run-off comes from semi-hard surfaces eg
roads, compounds around a house and rocky slopes.
9.4. Water Harnessing from Rain Cont......

Type 3 areas: Quarter run-off may be collected from
catchments areas with loose soil surfaces such as fields and
valleys.
Type 1 areas provide potential for harnessing clean water for
human consumption. Type 2 may provide fairly clean water
from livestock watering, fish farming, biogas generation etc;
whereas Type 3 may provide water for irrigation, construction
of holding dams, ponds, or sinking of shallow wells.
9.5. Calculation of run-off from roof

catchments
1. Measure out the area of the roof sq.m
2. Obtain data of rainfall from the nearest weather station
(mean annual rainfall in mm)
Runoff = Roof area x mean annual rainfall
Example: for Makindu area, a roof of say 60m2 and mean
annual rainfall of 619mm the expected run-off yield will be:
Run off = 60x619x10-3 = 37.14 m3
9.6. Calculation of run-off from rock

catchments
To calculate the average yield of an area of rock
surface the following formulae may be used:
Yield = 4/5 AxR
where A = area of harvester in m2
R = average rainfall in mm.
4/5 = run-off co-efficient.
9.7. Artificial Harvesters

Where there is no roof or rock surface to harvest rainwater
artificial harvesters can be constructed. These may be in the
form of;
.
This is done by use of chicken

wire as reinforcement to prevent cracking and an appropriate
conduit is led from the paved area to the storage tank.
9.7. Artificial Harvesters Cont...........

.
PAVED AREA
STORAGE
TANK

: This can be constructed
following the procedure below.
a) Excavate and level out a reasonable area of the ground;
b) Spread a layer of sand to an appropriate depth and grade in the
excavated area;
c) Spread a large sheet of plastic on the sand ensuring that the
edges of the plastic are raised up against the side walls of
excavation;
d) Place a drainage system over the plastic consisting of clean
river sand and gravel and a slotted PVC pipe at the lowest point
of the excavation. The pipe will collect the water and lead it
into the storage reservoir.
e) Raise the edges of the catchment with a rim of concrete work
to keep off any mud and debris from the surrounding and
fence off the catchment area to prevent access

mixture of
rough river sand
gravel
gravel
run-off pipe
plastic
sand sheeting
SAND BED
slotted
PVC
--------GRAVEL
STORAGE
TANK

In semi arid areas, river beds often dry up during the dry
season. However, these river beds can be used as storage
reservoirs for water by making appropriate constructions.
There are three ways of constructing subsurface dams;
a) The cheapest and easiest method is to construct clay or
other non-porous barriers across the river bed, which rests
on the solid impervious bedrock of the riverbed.
b) Gravity concrete dam or weir across the watercourse.
Protrudes above the river bed to catch more water thus
increasing the volume of the sub surface reservoir.
c) An arch weir built of blocks or concrete as a thin walled arch
across the river bed. Fairly cheap to build, but requires rock
abutments on both river banks (suitable for narrow river
courses).

.
Sub
-su
r
CLA
YB
AR
RIE
R
fac
Wa
e re
ter
h
ser
eld
the
voir
i
n sa
imp
erv
nd
iou
by
sb
arri
ers

The structures are designed and constructed in such a way as
to allow overflow of excess run off without need for
spillways.
The structure allows coarse sand to silt up behind the dam
and this acts as the water reservoir thus reducing loss of
water by evaporation.
The water is protected from contamination because it is not
exposed for access by animals. Also there is no possibility for
breeding of mosquitoes.
The water is withdrawn from the reservoir through a shallow
well located either downstream or upstream of the dam.

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Water Resources Engineering

CHAPTER ONE- INTRODUCTION TO

1.1. What is WRE?

1.2. Fields of WRE

1.2. Fields of WRE (cont..)

1.3. Quantity of Water

1.3. Quantity of Water (Cont...)

Diversion or withdrawal of water from a system.

1.3. Quantity of Water (cont..)

1.4. Water Quality

Available water must meet the standards of quality for the

1.5. Hydraulic Structures

PLANNING FOR WATER RESOURCES

2.2. Levels of Planning

2.3. Phases of Planning

2.4. Why so many phases of planning?

2.5. Objectives of Planning

2.5. Objectives of Planning (cont..)

2.6. Data Requirements

2.6. Data Requirements (cont..)

2.7 Project Formulation

2.7. Project Formulation (cont..)

2.7. Project Formulation (cont..)

2.8. Multiple Purpose Projects

2.8. Multiple Purpose Projects (cont..)

2.8. Multiple Purpose Projects (cont..)

2.9. Functional Requirements of a Multipurpose Project

2.9. Functional Requirements of a Multipurpose Project (cont..)

2.9. Functional Requirements of a Multipurpose Project (cont..)

2.9. Functional Requirements of a Multipurpose Project (cont..)

2.9. Functional Requirements of a Multipurpose Project (cont..)

2.9. Functional Requirements of a Multipurpose Project (cont..)

2.9. Functional Requirements of a Multipurpose Project (cont..)

2.10. Compatibility of Multi-purpose Use

2.10 Compatibility of Multi-purpose Use

2.11 Environmental Considerations

2.11 Environmental Considerations (cont..)

2.11. Environmental Considerations

CHAPTER THREE - RESERVOIRS

3.1. Physical Characteristics of a Reservoir

(w.r.t. storage reservoirs only)

3.1.1. Storage Capacity

o From the surveyed cross-sections of the reservoir one can plot

3.1.1. Storage Capacity Continue.......

3.1.1. Storage Capacity Continue.......

3.1.2. Normal Pool Level

NATURAL STREAM SURFACE BEFORE DAM CONSTRUCTION

3.1.3. Minimum Pool Level

3.1.4. Useful Storage

3.1.5. Dead Storage

3.1.6. Bank Storage

3.1.7. Valley Storage

3.2. Reservoir Yield

3.2.1. Safe or Firm yield (Draft)

Is the maximum quantity of water which can

3.2.2. Secondary Yield

Power commitments to domestic or other essential uses

3.3. Selection of Capacity of a Reservoir

3.3. Selection of Capacity of a Reservoir

3.3. Selection of Capacity of a Reservoir

vol Pan evap Precip.

3.3. Selection of Capacity of a Reservoir Cont.............

3.3. Selection of Capacity of a Reservoir Cont.............

The determination of the required capacity of a reservoir is called an