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BIBLIOGRAPHIES:

1. Case Study: the Khaos Super Turbo Charger (KSTC)


• http://www.fuelsaving.info/khaos.htm
2. Air Pollution Causes and Effects (History.. Human probably…)
• http://healthandenergy.com/air_pollution_causes.htm
3. Frequently-Asked Questions About Khaos
• http://bestofpinoys.manila.ph/khaos-turbo-charger/faq.htm

ADDITIONAL RESEARCH WORKS:

1. Pinoy’s gas-saving invention gets millions of dollars in offers


http://www.asiafinest.com/forum/index.php?showtopic=17459

The Philippine Star 09/13/2004

(IMG:http://www.philstar.com/philstar/main/20040913/images/sf.jpg)

A former jeepney operator’s gasoline-saving invention has attracted offers from


multinational companies interested in buying the rights to the device.

Pablo Planas, the 67-year-old inventor of the Khaos super turbo charger, said he has
received offers from companies based in the United States, Germany, Singapore and
China after his invention passed the emission standards set by Taiwan.

The Department of Energy (DOE) recently conducted tests on the device’s durability,
reliability, emissions and gas savings. Among the vehicles tested was Energy
Secretary Vincent Perez’s Honda Accord service vehicle.

The tests conducted by Taiwan and the DOE proved to be a turning point for Planas,
who said he has turned down a multimillion-dollar offer that included the migration
of his family to the US because only the US would benefit from the "worldwide
distribution" of his invention.

"If I accept the offer, Filipinos would not be able to buy my device because only First
World countries would benefit and be able to afford it," he said, adding that his
invention is the solution to air pollution caused by car emissions and progressive oil
price increases.

Planas actually invented the device, made for gasoline engines, in 1973, at the height
of the Arab oil embargo when the government enforced fuel rationing nationwide and
fuel prices went up. His invention was cited by the late strongman Ferdinand Marcos
in 1977 and again by President Arroyo in 2003.

Planas, then an operator of four jeepneys plying the San Juan-Manila route, started
tinkering with the engine of his jeepneys to figure out how he could save fuel. He said
the source of pollution and of the unburnt fuel, mixed in with the exhaust fumes
emitted by an engine, is the wrong air-fuel ratio.

Planas said his Khaos super turbo charger is an air-regulating mechanical device that
feeds the right air-fuel ratio — 15 parts air to one part fuel — into the engine to
ensure complete combustion and minimize the emission of pollutants such as carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxide.

He noted that efficient combustion can prolong the lifespan of a car’s engine, spark
plugs, muffler and engine oil.

Planas claimed his invention, installed at the intake manifold of a gasoline engine,
can save as much as 50 percent on fuel based on 1,000 different types of vehicles
tested.

He said his invention is different from a catalytic converter since the latter is a post-
combustion device that filters and deposits pollutants in its chamber. The Khaos super
turbo charger, on the other hand, is a pre-combustion device that ensures that fuel is
completely burned by feeding the right air-fuel ratio into the engine all the time.

When the device was reintroduced into the Philippine market last November, Planas
decided to name his invention after Khaos, the Greek goddess of air. It had been
modified to suit today’s engines.

Planas’ invention is now being manufactured and distributed by Inventionhaus


International Corp., an affiliate of construction conglomerate New San Jose Builders,
Inc.

Inventionhaus spokesman Isko Catibayan said they are just waiting for the
government to help them promote the product and give it due recognition.

After exhibiting his invention at car shows abroad, Planas is now targeting the
lucrative US market. He has discussed the possibility of marketing the Khaos super
turbo charger with Claudio Pedery, a Filipino-American who worked for aviation
firm Lockheed-Martin.

Planas and his invention will join an international car parts show in Frankfurt,
Germany from Sept. 14 to 19. He is currently working on a similar device designed
for diesel engines.

2. KHAOS SUPER TURBO CHARGER


http://www.rvusa.com/forum/mbbs22/forums/thread-view.asp?tid=4438

Most, if not all motorists, believe that a vehicle is at its best when it comes fresh out
of the showroom. The fact has suddenly become a myth with the introduction in the
market of Khaos Super Gas Saver, a gas-saving, anti-pollution device invented and
designed by Pablo Planas.

Khaos Super Gas Saver is the fourth generation gas-saving device that was launched
in the 1970s in response to the crippling oil crisis that paralyzed the country as well as
the whole industrial world. Leading car manufacturers and government agencies that
have tested the device have verified the effectiveness and unparalleled performance
of Khaos Super Gas Saver. The tests showed that Khaos is capable of saving up to
50% in gasoline consumption regardless of whether the car is brand-new or not.
Aside from this, it was verified that Khaos can bring a vehicle¡¦s toxic gas emissions
down to zero. Not even a car fresh out of the showroom can perform as effectively.
Khaos Super Gas Saver can be installed in minutes. It has no moving parts to wear
out nor does it require chemicals or additives that need replenishing. Designed along
the principle of air-to fuel ratio efficiency, Khaos¡¦ (named after the Greek goddess of
air) simple design earned the Presidential Award for Best Invention in 2003.

With the introduction of Khaos Super Gas Saver, motorists now have the opportunity
to keep their vehicles at their showroom best. In fact, even better than best.

Khaos Super Gas Saver is the fourth generation gas saving device for gasoline-fed
vehicles that has been proven effective for 30 years now. Tested by Asian
government agencies and leading car manufacturers. Proven to dramatically reduce
gasoline consumption and toxic gas emissions.

Saves up to 50%„h on gas consumption.

Brings pollution level down to zero.„h

„h Prolongs life of engine and parts such as spark plugs,


engine oil.

„h Guaranteed for life.

Durable stainless steel construction„h


with no moving parts to wear out nor
chemicals to replenish.

Outperforms„h other gas saving devices in the market.

Winner: 2003 Presidential„h Award for Best Invention (Philippines)

supermacho_khaos@yahoo.com .
3. AIR POLLUTION
http://www.answers.com/topic/air-pollution

Sci-Tech Encyclopedia: Air pollution


Sci-Tech Encyclopedia

The presence in the atmospheric environment of natural and artificial substances that
affect human health or well-being, or the well-being of any other specific organism.
Pragmatically, air pollution also applies to situations where contaminants impact
structures and artifacts or esthetic sensibilities (such as visibility or smell). Most artificial
impurities are injected into the atmosphere at or near the Earth's surface. The lower
atmosphere (troposphere) cleanses itself of some of these pollutants in a few hours or
days as the larger particles settle to the surface and soluble gases and particles encounter
precipitation or are removed through contact with surface objects. Unfortunately, removal
of some pollutants (for example, sulfates and nitrates) by precipitation and dry deposition
results in acid deposition, which may cause serious environmental damage. Also, mixing
of the pollutants into the upper atmosphere may dilute the concentrations near the Earth's
surface, but can cause long-term changes in the chemistry of the upper atmosphere,
including the ozone layer. See also Atmosphere; Troposphere.

Types of sources

Sources may be characterized in a number of ways. First, a distinction may be made


between natural and anthropogenic sources. Another frequent classification is in terms of
stationary (power plants, incinerators, industrial operations, and space heating) and
moving (motor vehicles, ships, aircraft, and rockets) sources. Another classification
describes sources as point (a single stack), line (a line of stacks), or area (city).

Different types of pollution are conveniently specified in various ways: gaseous, such as
carbon monoxide, or particulate, such as smoke, pesticides, and aerosol sprays; inorganic,
such as hydrogen fluoride, or organic, such as mercaptans; oxidizing substances, such as
ozone, or reducing substances, such as oxides of sulfur and oxide s of nitrogen;
radioactive substances, such as iodine-131; inert substances, such as pollen or fly ash; or
thermal pollution, such as the heat produced by nuclear power plants.

Air contaminants are produced in many ways and come from many sources; it is difficult
to identify all the various producers. Also, for some pollutants such as carbon dioxide and
methane, the natural emissions sometimes far exceed the anthropogenic emissions.

Both anthropogenic and natural emissions are variable from year to year, depending on
fuel usage, industrial development, and climate. In some countries where pollution
control regulations have been implemented, emissions have been significantly reduced.
For example, in the United States sulfur dioxide emissions dropped by about 30%
between 1970 and 1992, and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions were cut by over 30% in
the same period. However, in some developing countries emissions continually rise as
more cars are put on the road and more industrial facilities and power plants are
constructed. In dry regions, natural emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon dioxide
(CO2), and hydrocarbons can be greatly increased during a season with high rainfall and
above-average vegetation growth.

The anthropogenic component of most estimates of the methane budget is about two-
thirds. Ruminant production and emissions from rice paddies are regarded as
anthropogenic because they result from human agricultural activities. The perturbations
to carbon dioxide since the industrial revolution are also principally the result of human
activities. These emissions have not yet equilibrated with the rest of the carbon cycle and
so have had a profound effect on atmospheric levels, even though emissions from fossil
fuel combustion are dwarfed by natural emissions.

Effects

The major concern with air pollution relates to its effects on humans. Since most people
spend most of their time indoors, there has been increased interest in air-pollution
concentrations in homes, workplaces, and shopping areas. Much of the early information
on health effects came from occupational health studies completed prior to the
implementation of general air-quality standards.

Air pollution principally injures the respiratory system, and health effects can be studied
through three approaches, clinical, epidemiological, and toxicological. Clinical studies
use human subjects in controlled laboratory conditions, epidemiological studies assess
human subjects (health records) in real-world conditions, and toxicological studies are
conducted on animals or simple cellular systems. Of course, epidemiological studies are
the most closely related to actual conditions, but they are the most difficult to interpret
because of the lack of control and the subsequent problems with statistical analysis.
Another difficulty arises because of differences in response among different people. For
example, elderly asthmatics are likely to be more strongly affected by sulfur dioxide than
the teenage members of a hiking club. See also Epidemiology.

Damage to vegetation by air pollution is of many kinds. Sulfur dioxide may damage field
crops such as alfalfa and trees such as pines, especially during the growing season (Fig.
1). Both hydrogen fluoride (HF) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in high concentrations have
been shown to be harmful to citrus trees and ornamental plants, which are of economic,
importance in central Florida. Ozone and ethylene are other contaminants that cause
damage to certain kinds of vegetation.

Air pollution can affect the dynamics of the atmosphere through changes in longwave
and shortwave radiation processes. Particles can absorb or reflect incoming short-wave
solar radiation, keeping it from the Earth's surface during the day. Greenhouse gases can
absorb long-wave radiation emitted by the Earth's surface and atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide, methane, fluorocarbons, nitrous oxides, ozone, and water vapor are
important greenhouse gases. These represent a class of gases that selectively absorb long-
wave radiation. This effect warms the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere and surface
higher than would be found in the absence of an atmosphere (the greenhouse effect).
Because the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is rising, there is a possibility
that the temperature of the atmosphere will gradually rise, possibly resulting in a general
warming of the global climate over a time period of several generations. See also
Greenhouse effect.

Researchers are also concerned with pollution of the stratosphere (10–50 km or 6–30 mi
above the Earth's surface) by aircraft and by broad surface sources. The stratosphere is
important, because it contains the ozone layer, which absorbs part of the Sun's short-wave
radiation and keeps it from reaching the surface. If the ozone layer is significantly
depleted, an increase in skin cancer in humans is expected. Each 1% loss of ozone is
estimated to increase the skin cancer rate 3–6%. See also Stratosphere.

Visibility is reduced as concentrations of aerosols or particles increase. The particles do


not just affect visibility by themselves but also act as condensation nuclei for cloud or
haze formation. In each of the three serious air-pollution episodes discussed above, smog
(smoke and fog) were present with greatly reduced visibility.

Chemistry

Air pollution can be divided into primary and secondary compounds, where primary
pollutants are emitted directly from sources (for example, carbon monoxide, sulfur
dioxide) and secondary pollutants are produced by chemical reactions between other
pollutants and atmospheric gases and particles (for example, sulfates, ozone). Most of the
chemical transformations are best described as oxidation processes. In many cases these
secondary pollutants can have significant environmental effects, such as acid rain and
smog.

Smog is the best-known example of secondary pollutants formed by photochemical


processes, as a result of primary emissions of nitric oxide (NO) and reactive
hydrocarbons from anthropogenic sources such as transportation and industry as well as
natural sources. Energy from the Sun causes the formation of nitrogen dioxide, ozone
(O3), and peroxyacetalnitrate, which cause eye irritation and plant damage.

It has been shown that when emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide from tall
power plant and other industrial stacks are carried over great distances and combined
with emissions from other areas, acidic compounds can be formed by complex chemical
reactions. In the absence of anthropogenic pollution sources, the average pH of rain is
around 5.6 (slightly acidic). In the eastern United States, acid rain with a pH less than 5.0
has been measured and consists of about 65% dilute sulfuric acid, 30% dilute nitric acid,
and 5% other acids.

Modern Science: air pollution


Modern Science
air pollution
The addition of harmful chemicals to the atmosphere. The most serious air pollution
results from the burning of fossil fuels, especially in internal-combustion engines.

Encyclopedia of Public Health: Ambient Air Quality


Public Health Encyclopedia

Human exposures to airborne chemicals vary widely among inhalation microenvironment


categories, which include workplaces, residences, outdoor ambient air, transportation,
recreation areas, and public spaces. There are also wide variations in exposure within
each category, depending on the number and strength of the sources of the airborne
chemicals, the volume and mixing characteristics of the air within the defined
microenvironment, the rate of air exchange between indoor and outdoor air, and the rate
of loss to surfaces within the microenvironment.

Exposures to airborne chemicals in the workplace are extremely variable in terms of


composition and concentration, depending on the materials being handled, the process
design and operation, the kinds and degree of engineering controls applied to minimize
releases to the air, work practices followed, and personal protection provided. Airborne
chemicals in residential microenvironments are attributable to their presence in the air
infiltrating from out of doors and to their release from indoor sources, such as unvented
cooking stoves and space heaters, cigarettes, and consumer products, including volatile
emissions from wallboard, textiles, carpets, and other materials. Indoor sources can
release nitrogen dioxide (NO2), fine particle mass (FPM), and formaldehyde (HCHO) to
such an extent that indoor concentrations for these chemicals can be much higher than
those in ambient outdoor air.

For pollutants having National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), such as
particulate matter, NO2, carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O2), lead (PB), and sulfur dioxide
(SO2), there is an extensive network of fixed-site monitors, generally on rooftops.
Although these devices generate large volumes of data, the concentrations at these sites
may differ substantially from the concentrations that people breathe, especially for
tailpipe pollutants such as carbon monoxide.

Transportation sources represent a significant source of exposures. Many people spend up


to three hours each day in autos or buses as they go to work, to school, or shopping.
Inhalation exposures to CO in vehicles and garages can represent a significant fraction of
total CO exposures. Recreational exposure while exercising may also be important to
total daily exposure because the increased respiratory ventilation associated with exercise
can produce much more than proportional increases in delivered dose and functional
responses.

Current concern regarding community air quality, is focused on particulate matter (PM)
and ozone. A broad variety of processes produce suspended particulate matter (PM) in
the ambient air in which we live and breathe, and there are statistically significant
associations between the concentrations of airborne PM and the rates of mortality and
morbidity in human populations. The PM concentrations have almost always been
expressed in terms of mass. Also, in studies that reported on associations between health
effects and more than one mass concentration, the strength of the association generally
improves as one goes from total suspended particulate matter (TSP) to thoracic
particulate matter (PM10 microns or less in aerodynamic diameter [PM10]), to fine
particulate matter (PM2.5 microns or less in aerodynamic diameter [PM2.5]).

(SEE ALSO: Airborne Particles; Carbon Monoxide; Clean Air Act; Hazardous Air
Pollutants; Inhalable Particles [Sulfates]; Lead; National Ambient Air Quality
Standards; Smog [Air Pollution]; Sulfur-Containing Air Pollutants [Particulates]; Total
Suspended Particles [TSP])

Bibliography

Lippmann, M., ed. (2000). Environmental Toxicants, 2nd edition. New York: Wiley.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2001). Air Quality Criteria for Particulate
Matter. EPA 600/P-99/002. Washington, DC: Author.

— MORTON LIPPMANN

Geography Dictionary: air pollution


Geographical Dictionary

The presence in the earth's atmosphere of man-caused, or man-made, contaminants which


may adversely affect property, or the lives of plants, animals, or humans. Common air
pollutants include: carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen oxides, ozone,
smoke, and sulphur dioxide. In 1988 the EC adopted a directive to limit emissions of
sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and dust from power stations above a certain capacity,
and the most rigorous environmental protection targets in the 1990s have been set by the
six founding states of the EC, together with Denmark. See ambient air standard. See also
pollution.

Columbia Encyclopedia: air pollution


Columbia Encyclopedia
air pollution, contamination of the air by noxious gases and minute particles of solid and
liquid matter (particulates) in concentrations that endanger health. The major sources of
air pollution are transportation engines, power and heat generation, industrial processes,
and the burning of solid waste.

Sources of Air Pollution

The combustion of gasoline and other hydrocarbon fuels in automobiles, trucks, and jet
airplanes produces several primary pollutants: nitrogen oxides, gaseous hydrocarbons,
and carbon monoxide, as well as large quantities of particulates, chiefly lead. In the
presence of sunlight, nitrogen oxides combine with hydrocarbons to form a secondary
class of pollutants, the photochemical oxidants, among them ozone and the eye-stinging
peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN). Nitrogen oxides also react with oxygen in the air to form
nitrogen dioxide, a foul-smelling brown gas. In urban areas like Los Angeles where
transportation is the main cause of air pollution, nitrogen dioxide tints the air, blending
with other contaminants and the atmospheric water vapor to produce brown smog.
Although the use of catalytic converters has reduced smog-producing compounds in
motor vehicle exhaust emissions, studies have shown that in so doing the converters
produce nitrous oxide, which contributes substantially to global warming.

In cities, air may be severely polluted not only by transportation but also by the burning
of fossil fuels (oil and coal) in generating stations, factories, office buildings, and homes
and by the incineration of garbage. The massive combustion produces tons of ash, soot,
and other particulates responsible for the gray smog of cities like New York and Chicago,
along with enormous quantities of sulfur oxides (which also may be result from burning
coal and oil). These oxides rust iron, damage building stone, decompose nylon, tarnish
silver, and kill plants. Air pollution from cities also affects rural areas for many miles
downwind.

Every industrial process exhibits its own pattern of air pollution. Petroleum refineries are
responsible for extensive hydrocarbon and particulate pollution. Iron and steel mills,
metal smelters, pulp and paper mills, chemical plants, cement and asphalt plants-all
discharge vast amounts of various particulates. Uninsulated high-voltage power lines
ionize the adjacent air, forming ozone and other hazardous pollutants. Airborne pollutants
from other sources include insecticides, herbicides, radioactive fallout, and dust from
fertilizers, mining operations, and livestock feedlots.

Effects on Health and the Environment

Like photochemical pollutants, sulfur oxides contribute to the incidence of respiratory


diseases. Acid rain, a form of precipitation that contains high levels of sulfuric or nitric
acids, can contaminate drinking water and vegetation, damage aquatic life, and erode
buildings. When a weather condition known as a temperature inversion prevents dispersal
of smog, inhabitants of the area, especially children and the elderly and chronically ill,
are warned to stay indoors and avoid physical stress. The dramatic and debilitating effects
of severe air pollution episodes in cities throughout the world-such as the London smog
of 1952 that resulted in 4,000 deaths-have alerted governments to the necessity for crisis
procedures. Even everyday levels of air pollution may insidiously affect health and
behavior. Indoor air pollution is a problem in developed countries, where efficient
insulation keeps pollutants inside the structure. In less developed nations, the lack of
running water and indoor sanitation can encourage respiratory infections. Carbon
monoxide, for example, by driving oxygen out of the bloodstream, causes apathy, fatigue,
headache, disorientation, and decreased muscular coordination and visual acuity.

Air pollution may possibly harm populations in ways so subtle or slow that they have not
yet been detected. For that reason research is now under way to assess the long-term
effects of chronic exposure to low levels of air pollution-what most people experience-as
well as to determine how air pollutants interact with one another in the body and with
physical factors such as nutrition, stress, alcohol, cigarette smoking, and common
medicines. Another subject of investigation is the relation of air pollution to cancer, birth
defects, and genetic mutations.

A recently discovered result of air pollution are seasonal "holes" in the ozone layer in the
atmosphere above Antarctica and the Arctic, coupled with growing evidence of global
ozone depletion. This can increase the amount of ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth,
where it damages crops and plants and can lead to skin cancer and cataracts. This
depletion has been caused largely by the emission of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) from
refrigerators, air conditioners, and aerosols. The Montreal Protocol of 1987 required that
developed nations signing the accord not exceed 1986 CFC levels. Several more
meetings were held from 1990 to 1997 to adopt agreements to accelerate the phasing out
of ozone-depleting substances.

Solutions to Air Pollution

To combat pollution in the United States, the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 gave
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to establish and enforce air
pollution standards and to set emission standards for new factories and extremely
hazardous industrial pollutants. The states were required to meet "ambient air quality
standards" by regulating the emissions of various pollutants from existing stationary
sources, such as power plants and incinerators, in part by the installation of smokestack
scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, and other filters. Auto manufacturers were
mandated to install exhaust controls or develop less polluting engines. The Clean Air Act,
as amended in 1977, authorized the EPA to impose stricter pollution standards and higher
penalties for failure to comply with air quality standards.

In 1990 when the act was reauthorized it required most cities to meet existing smog
reduction regulations by the year 2005. The 1990 amendments also expanded the scope
and strength of the regulations for controlling industrial pollution. The result has been
limited progress in reducing the quantities of sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxide, ozone, particulate matter, and lead in the air. The EPA also regulated hazardous air
pollutants, which in 1992 included mercury, beryllium, asbestos, vinylchloride, benzene,
radioactive substances, and inorganic arsenic.

The most satisfactory long-term solutions to air pollution may well be the elimination of
fossil fuels and the ultimate replacement of the internal-combustion engine. To these ends
efforts have begun in the United States, Japan, and Europe to develop alternative energy
sources (see energy, sources of), as well as different kinds of transportation engines,
perhaps powered by electricity or steam. A system of pollution allowances based on
trading emission rights has been established in the United States in an attempt to use the
free market to reward pollution reductions, and the international sale of surplus emission
rights is permitted under the Kyoto Protocol (see below). Other proposed solutions
include raising electricity and gasoline rates to better reflect environmental costs and to
discourage waste and inefficiency, and mechanical controls on coal-fired utility plants.
In 1992, 150 nations signed a treaty on global warming at the UN-sponsored summit on
the environment in Rio de Janeiro. A UN Conference on Climate Change, held in Kyoto,
Japan, in 1997, produced an international agreement to combat global warming by
sharply reducing emissions of industrial gases. Although the United States abandoned the
treaty in 2001, saying it was counter to U.S. interests, most other nations agreed that year
on the details necessary to make the protocol a binding international treaty, and the
necessary ratifications brought the treaty into force in 2005.

See environmentalism; pollution.

Bibliography

See R. G. Bond et al., Air Pollution (1972); U.S. Council on Environmental Quality,
Environmental Quality (22d Annual Report, 1991); World Bank, World Development
Report (1992).

Law Encyclopedia: Air Pollution


Law Encyclopedia
This entry contains information applicable to United States law only.

Air pollution has plagued communities since the industrial revolution and even before.
Airborne pollutants, such as gases, chemicals, smoke particles, and other substances,
reduce the value of and ability to enjoy affected property and cause significant health and
environmental problems. Despite the long history and significant consequences of this
problem, effective legal remedies are relatively recent. Though some cities adopted air
quality laws as early as 1815, air pollution at that time was seen as a problem best
handled by local laws and ordinances. Only as the United States' cities continued to grow,
and pollution and health concerns with them, did federal standards and a nationwide
approach to air quality begin to emerge.

The earliest cases involving air pollution were likely to be brought because of a noxious
smell, such as from a slaughterhouse, animal herd, or factory, that interfered with a
landowner's ability to enjoy his or her property. These disputes were handled through the
application of the nuisance doctrine, which provides that the possessor of land has a duty
to make a reasonable use of his or her property in a manner that does not harm other
individuals in the area. A person who polluted the air and caused harm to others was
liable for breaching this duty and was required to pay damages or was enjoined (stopped
through an injunction issued by a court) from engaging in the activities that created the
pollution. In determining whether to enjoin an alleged polluter, courts balanced the
damage to the plaintiff landowner's property against the hardship the defendant polluter
would incur in trying to eliminate, or abate, the pollution. Courts often denied injunctions
because the economic damage suffered by the defendant — and, by extension, the
surrounding community, if the defendant was essential to the local economy — in trying
to eliminate the pollution often outweighed the damage suffered by the plaintiff. Thus, in
many cases, the plaintiff was left only with the remedy of money damages — a cash
payment equal to the estimated monetary value of the damage caused by the pollution —
and the polluting activities were allowed to continue.

Using the nuisance action to control widespread air pollution proved inadequate for other
reasons as well. At common law, only the attorney general or local prosecutor could sue
to abate a public nuisance (one that damages a large number of persons) unless a private
individual could show "special" damage that was distinct from and more severe than that
suffered by the general public. The private plaintiff with special damage had the
necessary standing (legally protectible interest) to seek injunctive relief. The problem of
standing has been corrected in some states through laws that allow a private citizen to sue
to abate public nuisances such as air pollution, though these laws are by no means the
norm. Yet another difficulty with the nuisance doctrine is the plaintiff's burden of
showing that the harm she or he has experienced was caused by a particular defendant.
Pollutants can derive from many sources. As a result, it can be difficult, if not impossible,
to prove that a particular polluter is responsible for a particular problem. Lastly, nuisance
law was useful only to combat particular polluters; it did not provide an ongoing and
systematic mechanism for the regulation and control of pollution.

Early in the nineteenth century, a few U.S. cities recognized the shortcomings of
common-law remedies and enacted local laws that attempted to address the problem of
air pollution. Pittsburgh, in 1815, was one of the first to institute air quality laws. Others,
like Chicago and Cincinnati, passed smoke control ordinances in 1881, and by 1912,
twenty-three U.S. cities with populations of over two hundred thousand had passed
smoke abatement laws.

Though the early court cases usually addressed polluted air as an interference with the
enjoyment of property, scientists quickly discovered that air pollution also poses
significant health and environmental risks. It is believed to contribute to the incidence of
chronic diseases such as emphysema, bronchitis, and other respiratory illnesses and has
been linked to higher mortality rates from other diseases, including cancer and heart
disease.

The shortcomings associated with the common-law remedies to control air pollution and
increasing alarm over the problem's long-range effects finally resulted in the development
of state and federal legislation. The first significant legislation concerning air quality was
the Air Pollution Control Act, enacted in 1955 (42 U.S.C.A. § 7401 et seq. [1955]). Also
known as the Clean Air Act, it gave the secretary of health, education, and welfare the
power to undertake and recommend research programs for air pollution control.
Amendments passed during the 1960s authorized federal agencies to intervene to help
abate interstate pollution in limited circumstances, to control emissions from new motor
vehicles, and to provide some supervision and enforcement powers to states trying to
control pollution. By the end of the 1960s, when it became clear that states had made
little progress in combating air pollution, Congress toughened the Clean Air Act through
a series of new laws, which were known as the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 (Pub.
L. No. 91-604, 84 Stat. 1676 [Dec. 31, 1970]).
The 1970 amendments greatly increased federal authority and responsibility for
addressing the problem of air pollution. They provided for, among other things, uniform
national emissions standards for the hazardous air pollutants most likely to cause an
increase in mortality or serious illness. Under the amendments, the states retained some
regulatory authority, having "primary responsibility for assuring air quality within the
entire geographic area comprising such state." Thus, states could not "opt out" of air
pollution regulation and for the first time were required to attain certain air quality
standards within a specified period of time. In addition, the amendments directed the
administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which was also established
in 1970, to institute national standards regarding ambient air quality for air pollutants
endangering public health or welfare, in particular sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and
photochemical oxidants in the atmosphere. The EPA was also granted the authority to
require levels of harmful pollutants to be brought within set standards before further
industrial expansion would be permitted.

Despite the ambitious scope of the 1970 legislation, many of its goals were never
attained. As a result, the Clean Air Act was extensively revised again in 1977 (Pub. L.
No. 95-95, 91 Stat. 685 [Aug. 7, 1977]). One significant component of the 1977
amendments was the formulation of programs designed to inspect, control, and monitor
vehicle emissions. The 1977 revisions also sought to regulate parking on the street,
discourage automobile use in crowded areas, promote the use of bicycle lanes, and
encourage employer-sponsored carpooling. Unlike the goals of several of the 1970
amendments, many of the 1977 reforms have become reality. Many states, with the help
of federal funding, have developed programs that require automobiles to be tested
regularly for emissions problems before they can be licensed and registered. The 1977
amendments also directed the EPA to issue regulations to reduce "haze" in national parks
and other wilderness areas. Under these regulations the agency has sought to improve air
quality in a number of areas, including the Grand Canyon in Arizona.

During the 1980s and 1990s, several environmental issues, including acid rain, global
climate change, and the depletion of the ozone layer, gave rise to further federal
regulation. Acid rain, which has caused significant damage to U.S. and Canadian lakes, is
created when the sulfur from fossil fuels, such as coal, combines with oxygen in the air to
create sulfur dioxide, a pollutant. The sulfur dioxide then combines with oxygen to form
sulfate, which, when washed out of the air by fog, clouds, mist, or rain, becomes acid
rain, with potentially catastrophic effects on vegetation and water. Amendments to the
Clean Air Act in 1990 (Pub. L. No. 101-549, 104 Stat. 2399 [Nov. 15, 1990]) sought to
address the challenges posed by acid rain by commissioning a number of federally
sponsored studies, including an analysis of Canada's approach to dealing with acid rain
and an investigation of the use of buffering and neutralizing agents to restore lakes and
streams. The 1990 laws also directed the EPA to prepare a report on the feasibility of
developing standards related to acid rain that would "protect sensitive and critically
sensitive aquatic and terrestrial resources." In addition, the amendments provided for a
controversial system of "marketable allowances," which authorize industries to emit
certain amounts of sulfate and which can be transferred to other entities or "banked" for
future use.
The problem of global climate change is linked to the accumulation of gases, including
carbon dioxide and methane, in the atmosphere. Scientists disagree over the net effect of
this pollution on the global climate: some argue that it produces global warming; others
maintain that it gradually cools global temperatures. Scientists do agree that a sustained
climate change in either direction could significantly affect the environment.

The 1990 amendments implemented a number of strategies to address changes in the


global climate, including the commissioning of studies on options for controlling the
emission of methane. The amendments also contain provisions to deal with the depletion
of the ozone layer, which shields the earth from the harmful effects of the sun's radiation.
Though the long-term consequences are hard to determine at this time, damage has
already been seen in the form of a "hole" in the ozone layer over Antarctica. The
destruction of the ozone layer is believed to be caused by the release into the atmosphere
of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other similar substances. The 1990 laws include a ban
on "nonessential uses" of ozone-depleting chemicals, and the placement of conspicuous
warning labels on certain substances, indicating that their use harms public health and the
environment by destroying the ozone in the upper atmosphere.

In the 1990s, the battle to control air pollution moved indoors, into homes and businesses.
Studies have shown that people are exposed to higher concentrations of air pollution for
longer periods of time inside buildings than out-of-doors. Furthermore, evidence
indicates that this exposure is contributing to a rapidly increasing incidence of illness,
thus costing businesses, taxpayers, and the government billions of dollars in health care
costs and lost work time. The typical U.S. home contains many hazardous chemicals and
substances, including radon, which has been linked to lung cancer and other ailments.
Congress has responded to public concern about indoor air quality by requiring the EPA,
with the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA), to establish a
program to study the problem and make appropriate recommendations (Superfund
Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986, Pub. L. No. 99-499, 100 Stat. 1613
[codified as amended in scattered sections of 10 U.S.C.A., 26 U.S.C.A., 29 U.S.C.A., 33
U.S.C.A., and 42 U.S.C.A.]).

One contentious air pollution issue is the effect of smoking in public places, especially as
it concerns the rights and health of nonsmokers. Many states have enacted legislation
designed to protect nonsmokers in public places, and the battle between smokers and
nonsmokers is also making its way into the courts. An increasing number of restaurants,
airlines, and other public facilities have dealt with the problem by banning smoking
completely.

See: Automobiles; Environmental Law; Environmental Protection Agency; Pollution;


Surgeon General; Tobacco.

Science Dictionary: air pollution


Science Dictionary
The addition of harmful chemicals to the atmosphere. The most serious air pollution
results from the burning of fossil fuels, especially in internal-combustion engines.

Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: air pollution


Britannica Concise Encyclopedia

Release into the atmosphere of gases, finely divided solids, or finely dispersed liquid
aerosols at rates that exceed the capacity of the atmosphere to dissipate them or to
dispose of them through incorporation into the biosphere. Dust storms in desert areas and
smoke from forest and grass fires contribute to particulate and chemical air pollution.
Volcanic activity is the major natural source of air pollution, pouring huge amounts of
ash and toxic fumes into the atmosphere. Air pollution may affect humans directly,
causing irritation of the eyes or coughing. More indirectly, its effects can be measured far
from the source, as, for example, the fallout of tetraethyl lead from automobile exhausts,
which has been observed in the oceans and on the Greenland ice sheet. Still less direct are
possible effects on global climates.

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