Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

A crane is a machine that is capable of raising and lowering heavy objects and moving
them horizontally. Cranes are distinguished from hoists, which can lift objects but that can
not move them sideways. Cranes are also distinguished from conveyors, that lift and move
bulk materials, such as grain and coal, in a continuous process. The word crane is taken from
the fact that these machines have a shape similar to that of the tall, long-necked bird of the
same name.
Human beings have used a wide variety of devices to lift heavy objects since ancient
times. One of the earliest versions of the crane to be developed was the shaduf, first used to
move water in Egypt about four thousand years ago. The shaduf consists of a long, pivoting
beam balanced on a vertical support. A heavy weight is attached to one end of the beam and a
bucket to the other. The user pulls the bucket down to the water supply, fills it, then allows
the weight to pull the bucket up. The beam is then rotated to the desired position and the
bucket is emptied. The shaduf is still used in rural areas of Egypt and India.
As early as the first century, cranes were built that were powered by human beings or
animals operating a treadmill or large wheel. These early cranes consisted of a long wooden
beam, known as a boom, connected to a rotating base. The wheel or treadmill powered a
drum, around which a rope was wound. The rope was connected to a pulley at the top of the
boom and to a hook that lifted the weight.
An important development in crane design occurred during the Middle Ages, when a
horizontal arm known as a jib was added to the boom. The jib was attached to the boom in a
way which allowed it to pivot, allowing for an increased range of motion. By the sixteenth
century, cranes were built with two treadmills, one on each side of a rotating housing
containing the boom.
Cranes continued to rely on human or animal power until the middle of the nineteenth
century, when steam engines were developed. By the end of the nineteenth century, internal
combustion engines and electric motors were used to power cranes. By this time, steel rather
than wood was used to build most cranes.
During the first half of the twentieth century, European and American cranes
developed in different ways. In Europe, where most cranes were used in cities with narrow
streets, cranes tended to be built in the form of tall, slender towers, with the boom and the
operator on top of the tower. Because quiet operation was important in crowded cities, these
tower cranes were usually powered by electric motors when they became widely available.
In the United States, cranes were often used in locations far away from residential
areas. Cranes tended to be built with the boom connected to a trolley, which could be moved
easily from place to place. These mobile cranes tended to be powered by internal combustion
engines. During the 1950s, the availability of stronger steels, combined with an increased
demand for taller buildings, led to the development of cranes with very long booms attached
1

to small trucks, or to crawlers with caterpillar treads. Mobile cranes and tower cranes of
many different kinds are used extensively in construction sites around the world.

1.1 Historical view of cranes

The first construction cranes were invented by the Ancient Greeks and were powered by
men or beasts of burden, such as donkeys. These cranes were used for the construction of tall
buildings. Larger cranes were later developed, employing the use of human tread wheels,
permitting the lifting of heavier weights.
In the High Middle Ages, harbour cranes were introduced to load and unload ships and
assist with their construction some were built into stone towers for extra strength and
stability. The earliest cranes were constructed from wood, but cast iron and steel took over
with the coming of the Industrial Revolution.
For many centuries, power was supplied by the physical exertion of men or animals,
although hoists in watermills and windmills could be driven by the harnessed natural power.
The first 'mechanical' power was provided by steam engines, the earliest steam crane being
introduced in the 18th or 19th century, with many remaining in use well into the late 20th
century. Modern cranes usually use internal combustion engines or electric motors and
hydraulic systems to provide a much greater lifting capability than was previously possible,
although manual cranes are still utilised where the provision of power would be uneconomic.
Cranes exist in an enormous variety of forms each tailored to a specific use. Sizes range
from the smallest jib cranes, used inside workshops, to the tallest tower cranes, used for
constructing high buildings, and the largest floating cranes, used to build oil rigs and salvage
sunken ships.
Demag Cranes & Components Corp. was one of the first companies in the world to massproduce the first steam-powered crane. Since that time Alliance Machine, now defunct, holds
an AISE citation for one of the earliest cranes in the USA market. This crane was in service
until approximately 1980, and is now in a museum in Birmingham , Alabama. Over the years
important innovations, such as the Weston load brake (which is now rare) and the wire rope
hoist (which is still popular), have come and gone.
The original hoist contained components mated together in what is now called the builtup style hoist. These built up hoists are used for heavy-duty applications such as steel coil
handling and for users desiring long life and better durability. They also provide for easier
maintenance. Now many hoists are package hoists, built as one unit in a single housing,
generally designed for ten-year life, but the life calculation is based on an industry standard
when calculating actual life. See the Hoists Manufacturers Institute site for true life
calculation witch is based on load and hours used. In today's modern world for the North
American market there are a few governing bodies for the industry. The Overhead Alliance is
a group that represents Cranes Manufactures Association of America (CMAA), Hoist
Manufacturers Institute (HMI), and Monorail Manufacturers Association (MMA). These
product counsels of the Material Handling Industry of America have joined forces to create
promotional materials to raise the awareness of the benefits to overhead lifting. The members
of this group are marketing representatives of the member companies.

Early manufacture

1830: First Crane company in Germany Ludwig Stuckenholz company now Demag
Cranes & Components GmbH.
1840: Mass production of overhead cranes starts in Germany

1861: First steam powered overhead crane, installed by John Ramsbottom at the
Crewe Railway workshops. Power was transmitted to the crane from a pulley driven by a
stationary engine through an endless cotton rope.

1887: Ludwig Stuckenholz company introduces electrical components to overhead

cranes determining industry design.

1910: The first Mass production Electric motor hoist start being produced in
Germany.

1.2 Problem introduction

The EOT (Electric Overhead Trolly) cranes are use in ESSAR STEEL for shifting
coils.ESSAR is the one of the best company who can make steel coils,so it is necessary for
shifthing coils from one yard to another yard.This crane is called as slingofer crane because it
can be made by slingofer company itself.The problem occurs when this slingofer crane lifts
the coils,its arm falling down and arm lock plate bolts getting sheared.Coil-yard cranes were
having breakdowns due to slingofer failures and operations errors.
When the slingofer crane tries to lift up the coil by its both arm tends to attach with
coil bore.Sensor gives indication about coil and gives this indication to the crane operator,but
when this operator tries to lift up coil about some height its arm broken down and steel coil
fallen down.This may damage the crane and decrease the productivity.This also injure man
who stand near or below the crane.

Chapter 2
Failure & Research papers
2.1 Failure
By its very nature construction is a challenging and dangerous industry. In contrast to
most industries, construction requires travel to multiple sites, each with their own constantly
changing hazards. Cranes play an essential role on construction sites throughout the United
States on a daily basis. Cranes also add many complex risks to the construction process.
Recently, numerous fatal crane collapses have grabbed national news headlines, increasing
attention and scrutiny of construction crane operations. The most highly publicized being
massive tower crane failures in New York, Miami, and Seattle. Estimates indicate that up to
33% of construction casualties and between 8 to 16% of construction fatalities involve cranes
Construction deaths as a whole declined sharply from 2007 to 2008, however, crane related
construction deaths skyrocketed nearly 42% according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
[3]. This article reviews available information on crane system failures. Specifically, types
and causes of crane failures, the major types of cranes, the effects of crane type on failures,
safety measures, and case studies will be discussed.
When the slingofer crane tries to lift up the coil by its both arm tends to attach with
coil bore.Sensor gives indication about coil and gives this indication to the crane operator,but
when this operator tries to lift up coil about some height its arm broken down and steel coil
fallen down.This may damage the crane and decrease the productivity.This also injure man
who stand near or below the crane.

Fig.1 Slinofer crane arm failure

2.1.1 Types and Causes of Crane Failures

The number and description of categories used to classify crane failures varies
significantly in available literature. The list of mutually exclusive proximal causes of cranerelated fatal events proposed by Beavers et al. is used below.
1) Struck by Load (Other than Failure of Boom/Cable)
Being struck by a load accounted for 32% of fatal crane events. The most common
contributing factors to this proximal cause in order were rigging failures, loads being
dropped, equipment damage, unbalanced loads, and accelerated movement.
2) Electrocution
Electrocution accounted for 27% of fatal crane events. All recorded electrocutions
involved mobile cranes and were the result of a cranes boom or wire rope getting to close to
high voltage power lines.
3) Crushed During Assembly/Disassembly
21% of crane related fatalities were contributed to being crushed during crane
assembly or disassembly. Lattice boom cranes were involved in all of these deaths. The most
common contributing factors to this proximal cause in order were improper disassembly and
pin removal, improper boom support, and improper assembly.
4) Failure of Boom/Cable
Failure of a boom or cable accounted for 12% of fatal crane events. The most
common contributing factors to this proximal cause in order were overload, equipment
damage, boom collapse, incorrect assembly, cable snapping, boom buckling, and two
blocking, lifting a load to high and having the hook block strike the tip of the boom.
5) Crane Tip Over
Crane Overturning was the cause of 11% of fatal crane events. The most common
contributing factors to this proximal cause in order were overload, loss of center of gravity
control, outrigger failure, high winds, side pull, and improper maintenance.
6) Struck by Cab/Counterweight
Being struck by the crane cab or counterweight was only responsible for 3% of fatal
crane incidents. Tragically all reported incidents were cause by intentional turntable rotation
or by intentional motion of a bridge crane.

7) Falls
Falls were the cause of 2% of all crane related fatalities. Missing hand rails, improper
crane operation, and improper maintenance were three contributing factors.

2.2 Research papers

The findings illustrated that safety culture within the industry may be relatively poor
in some cases. Productivity can easily take priority over safety, and it appears that
organisations do not always take corrective actions to ensure that safety takes priority or is at
least of equal importance. Complacency of drivers and loading staff was also acknowledged.
Less adequate securing methods may be adopted over time due to the perceptions that
accidents have not occurred in the past.

2.2.1 Why safety required?

The securing of loads in the transport industry is a topic of concern for the Health and
Safety Executive (HSE). Between 2006 and 2007 HSE identified 5 deaths and over 216
major injuries resulting from objects falling onto people in the freight by road industry. A
further 946 people received injuries severe enough to require more than three days absence
from work (HSE, 2008). In addition to this, HSE statistics show that that over a period of five
years leading up to 2003 a total of 60 employees in the industry were killed and over 5,000
were seriously injured. A further 23,000 suffered injuries severe enough for an over three-day
absence (HSE, 2003). The pyramid of harm (Figure 1 below) illustrates these figures, also
highlighting that there is likely to be an even greater number of minor injuries and near
misses.

Fig. 2 Pyramid of harm for incidents in the haulage and distribution industry between 1999
& 2003.

2.2.2 Load or object causing injury can effect safety

A wide variety of load types were identified in the notifier comments (see Figure 3). In order
to make the data more meaningful some of the load types were compiled into categories. For example,
the heavy or large item category included items such as:
A transformer
Blocks
A fridge
Steel beams
A radiator
Tanks
Concrete lumps
Baled metal
The term generic term load was used in a number of cases; therefore, no further classification
could be made. Wooden and timber products included items such as: railway sleepers, doors and Aframes.
It is noteworthy that a manual handling aid (sack truck/barrows) also feature amongst the objects
that caused incidents or accidents. Figure 3 shows the frequencies for all loads/objects involved in
incidents or accidents.

Fig. 3 Frequencies of load types/objects involved in incidents/accidents

2.2.3 Load securing method utilised

A total of 6 different load security methods were identified in the notifier comments
(see Figure 4). The most common were straps, which were identified in 24 cases. Tying and
clips were each used in 2 cases, whilst side posts, a securing chain and a load lock bar were
each identified in 1 case.

Fig. 4 Frequencies for load securing methods

2.2.4 Underlying or contributing factors to a load shifting
A relatively large number of underlying and contributing factors were identified in the
notifier and investigator comments. Those factors that were identified in more than one case
are identified in Figure . The two factors unsecured and incorrectly secured were combined to
form one category. This factor was the most common, appearing in 24 cases. This was
followed by the load shifting when straps were removed (11 cases). Uneven surfaces, such as
hills and cambers were cited in 4 cases. This was followed by removal of straps before
checking the load (in 3 cases) and items being badly loaded (also 3 cases). Other factors such
as the support or safety bar being removed, the skip being uncovered, turning a corner or a
roundabout, a person taking the weight of an object and falling whilst trying to correct a
shifted load were each cited in 2 cases.
8

Fig. 5 Frequencies of underlying and contributing factors to a load shifting (only those with a
frequency greater than 1 are illustrated).

2.3 Safety inspection and assessment for metal structures of overhead

travelling cranes
Xinhua Yang
Wuhan Safety and Environmental Protection Research Institute,
P. R. China, 430081
2.3.1 Abstract
With the rapid economical development, the operation rate of cranes has remarkably
increased year by year, and many cranes are often used beyond their capacity in China, so
safety management and inspection on cranes is becoming more and more important. Safety
inspection on overhead traveling cranes includes the following items: (a) non-destruction
testing to main structures and their welding seams, (b) stress inspection on dangerous
structural sections, (c) structural static deformation inspection, and (d) dynamic testing.
Strength calculation, analysis and safety assessment are all based on inspecting results.

2.3.2 Introduction
With the rapid economical development, the operation rate of cranes has remarkably
increased year by year, and many cranes are often used beyond their capacity in China. For
example, according to a report by some steelworks, the recent operation rate of overhead
traveling cranes is about 10 times as 20 years ago. As a result, the number of hoisting
accidents per year is obviously rising. So safety management and inspection on cranes is
becoming more and more important.
Nowadays, safety inspection and assessment is well known as one of the effective
approaches to ensure safe operation and to decrease hoisting accidents, and also valued by the
government very much in China.
Safety inspection on overhead traveling cranes includes the following items:
(a) Non-destruction testing to main structures and their welding seams;
(b) Stress inspection on dangerous structural sections;
(c) Structural static deformation inspection;
(d) Dynamic testing.
Based on data obtained by inspection, safety assessment on overhead traveling cranes
includes three parts: structural carrying capacity calculation, life estimation and reliability
analysis.
2.3.3 Structural defects
As other structures, metal structures in overhead traveling cranes can have two kinds of
defects: material defects and structural deformation.
(1) Material defects
Material defects in structures include voids, cracks, inclusions, jointing defects and so
on. They are not only caused by manufacturing processes, but also by using processes.
Material defects caused by manufacturing processes can occur everywhere in bridge
structures, but those caused by using processes mainly arises in the dangerous structural
parts, namely high stress fields, subjected heavy loads, such as mid-parts and ends of main
girders. So it seems reasonable that the majority of defects in metal structures of cranes are
concentrated in main girder. The maximum normal stress of a main girder takes place in the
mid-parts of its bottom flanges, so textile cracks, namely I-type cracks, are often found there.
Just like these, shearing cracks, namely II-type cracks, are easier to occur in the end webs of
main girders, because there are just the maximum shearing stresses. In addition, shearing
cracks also easily occur in the end webs of an end carriage. What is more, owing to dynamic
loads, the previous defects will rapidly propagate and cause that main girders of cranes lose
their carrying capacity.
Material defects in structures can be divided into two species, which are micro defects
and macro defects. For safety inspection and assessment of structures, macro defects should
be valued more.
(2) Structural deformation
It is obvious that structural deformation of an overhead traveling crane affect its crab in
stable running and it in safe using. Structural deformation of a main girder, as a beam
structure, can be divided into three types: deflection, side-curvature, and wave-deformation of
10

webs.
For existing overhead traveling cranes, structural deformations are definitely limited in
Outline of safety inspection for cranes (in 1990) as follows.
(a) Deflection
Under no load, deflection must not be greater than S/1500 below the horizontal line;
but under the load of rated capacity, it not greater than S/700. Among them, S is the span
of the inspected crane, namely the length of its main girders.
(b) Side-curvature
Side-curvature of a main girder must not be greater than S/2000. For a bias-rail box
girder, if S19.5m, its side-curvature must not be greater than 5mm; if S19.5m, its sidecurvature not greater than 8mm.
(c) Wave-deformation of webs
Within the region less than H/3 far from the top flange, wave-deformation must not
be greater than 0.7; but in the other region, it must not be greater than 1.2. Among them, H
and is respectively the height and thickness of the inspected web

11

Chapter 3
Working of slingofer crane
Cranes are used in industry for transfer one material or raw material in one warehouse
to another .Slingofer crane used in ESSAR STEEL Industry for transfer steel coils from one
bay to another bay or transfer one bay to wagon wheel area.Coil yard is just a place where
coils are stored for reduced their excess heat.Coil yard is just a temporary storage and
permenant storage .From coil yard coils and be lifts up by this slingofer crane and transfer it
to another bay by wagon wheel .From there another operation taken up like galvenizing of
coil ,coating of coil.
Slingofer crane can be made by slingofer Manufacture of this slingofer crane is
MECCANICA S.p.A. company thats why it is called as slingofer crane .Various devices of
this crane explained in chapter 3.This crane can be operated by operator.This can rotates
about 3600 ,so it can be placed at any situation without any hasitation.
When the operator gives operation for lifing coil from coil-yard,the arm of the crane
are locked in the bore of the coil.This crane provides with sensor that sences the coil when it
gets contact with the coil.The arm can be moved inside and outside with sliding
mechanism.For this sliding mechanism plates with holes are provided inside it.The holes are
provided for just locking purpose,so it can get outside or inside when it gets into lock
position.This plates are capable of lifing coils.If locking doesnt work properly then failure of
arm occures.So reduce this type of failure maintance of the crane and inspection of all the
parts of crane required properly and periodecally.
The internal part of the arm is always in contact with the coils so protect it in case the
material to lift is delicate and/or finished.
The protection on the external part of the arm is suggested to avoid and damage in
case of eventual shocks during the movement of the tong.
So,EOT (Electric Overhead Trolly) cranes are playing vital role in HSM (Hot Strip
Mill)for shifting coils,semi-finished products and rejections in coilyard.Continuous
availability of cranes in coil-yard leads to indirect and direct operative time of the plant and
hence plant production.
Failure occures when work this crane is ,

Arm failure occurs due to lock plate shearing

base pad shearing

arm coming out

12

Fig 6 The sketchmatic diagram of slingofer crane

The weight carring capacity of this crane is 30 ton.

13

Chapter 4
Theories
4.1 Mechanical principles
There are three major considerations in the design of cranes. First, the crane must be
able to lift the weight of the load; second, the crane must not topple; third, the crane must not
rupture.

4.1.1 Lifting capacity

The lever-A balance crane contains a horizontal beam (the lever) pivoted about a
point called the fulcrum. The principle of the lever allows a heavy load attached to the
shorter end of the beam to be lifted by a smaller force applied in the opposite direction to
the longer end of the beam. The ratio of the load's weight to the applied force is equal to
the ratio of the lengths of the longer arm and the shorter arm, and is called the mechanical
advantage.

The pulley-A jib crane contains a tilted strut (the jib) that supports a fixed pulley
block. Cables are wrapped multiple times round the fixed block and round another block
attached to the load. When the free end of the cable is pulled by hand or by a winding
machine, the pulley system delivers a force to the load that is equal to the applied force
multiplied by the number of lengths of cable passing between the two blocks. This
number is the mechanical advantage.

The hydraulic cylinder-This can be used directly to lift the load or indirectly to move
the jib or beam that carries another lifting device.

Cranes, like all machines, obey the principle of conservation of energy. This means that
the energy delivered to the load cannot exceed the energy put into the machine. For example,
if a pulley system multiplies the applied force by ten, then the load moves only one tenth as
far as the applied force. Since energy is proportional to force multiplied by distance, the
output energy is kept roughly equal to the input energy (in practice slightly less, because
some energy is lost to friction and other in efficiencies).
The same principle can operate in reverse. In case of some problem, the combination
of heavy load and great height can accelerate small objects to tremendous speed. Such
projectiles can result in severe damage to nearby structures and people. Cranes can also get in
chain reactions; the rupture of one crane may in turn take out nearby cranes. Cranes need to
be watched carefully.

14

4.1.2 Stability
For stability, the sum of all moments about any point such as the base of the crane
must equate to zero. In practice, the magnitude of load that is permitted to be lifted (called the
"rated load" in the US) is some value less than the load that will cause the crane to tip
(providing a safety margin).
Under US standards for mobile cranes, the stability-limited rated load for a crawler
crane is 75% of the tipping load. The stability-limited rated load for a mobile crane supported
on outriggers is 85% of the tipping load. These requirements, along with additional safetyrelated aspects of crane design, are established by the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers in the volume ASME B30.5-2007 Mobile and Locomotive Cranes.
Standards for cranes mounted on ships or offshore platforms are somewhat stricter
because of the dynamic load on the crane due to vessel motion. Additionally, the stability of
the vessel or platform must be considered.
For stationary pedestal or kingpost mounted cranes, the moment created by the boom,
jib, and load is resisted by the pedestal base or kingpost. Stress within the base must be less
than the yield stress of the material or the crane will fail.

4.2 Types of cranes

On the basis of modern crane study and advancement there are two
basic types of cranes:1. Overhead crane
2. Mobile cranes
3.Fixed cranes
Now we will discuss the two types of cranes in detail:4.2.1 Overhead crane
An overhead crane, also known as a bridge crane, is a type of crane where the hookand-line mechanism runs along a horizontal beam that itself runs along two widely separated
rails. Often it is in a long factory building and runs along rails along the building's two long
walls. It is similar to a gantry crane. Overhead cranes typically consist of either a single beam
or a double beam construction. These can be built using typical steel beams or a more
complex box girder type. Pictured on the right is a single bridge box girder crane with
the hoist and system operated with a control pendant. Double girder bridge are more typical
when needing heavier capacity systems from 10 tons and above. The advantage of the box
girder type configuration results in a system that has a lower deadweight yet a stronger
15

overall system integrity. Also included would be a hoist to lift the items, the bridge, which
spans the area covered by the crane, and a trolley to move along the bridge.
The most common overhead crane use is in the steel industry. At every step of the
manufacturing process, until it leaves a factory as a finished product, steel is handled by an
overhead crane. Raw materials are poured into a furnace by crane, hot steel is stored for
cooling by an overhead crane, the finished coils are lifted and loaded
onto trucks and trains by overhead crane, and the fabricator or stamper uses an overhead
crane to handle the steel in his factory. The automobile industry uses overhead cranes for
handling of raw materials. Smaller workstation cranes handle lighter loads in a work-area,
such as CNC mill or saw.
Almost all paper mills use bridge cranes for regular maintenance requiring removal of
heavy press rolls and other equipment. The bridge cranes are used in the initial construction
of paper machines because they facilitate installation of the heavy cast iron paper drying
drums and other massive equipment, some weighing as much as 70 tons.
In many instances the cost of a bridge crane can be largely offset with savings from
not renting mobile cranes in the construction of a facility that uses a lot of heavy process
equipment.

4.2.2 Mobile cranes or Movable cranes

A mobile crane is the most simple type of crane which is a large steel tower mounted
on a simple movable platform such as a rail. They are moved using remotes. Very heavy
objects are not lifted using mobile cranes.
The most important by use and stability are:1.Truck-mounted crane
2.Sidelift crane
3.Rough terrain crane
4.All terrain crane
5.Pick and carry crane
6.Telescopic handler crane
7.Crowler crane
8.Railroad crane
9.Floating crane
10.Aerial crane
4.2.3 Fixed cranes
As the name indicates, these cranes would not show any appreciable movement.
Exchanging mobility i.e. the ability to move; for the ability to carry greater loads and reach
greater heights as compare to any other type of cranes,and it is due to increased stability,
these types of cranes are characterised that they (or at least their main structure) does not
move
during
16

the period of use. However, many can still be assembled and disassembled and sometimes
show a little movement too but again it is not appreciable to a limit that we may say them
mobile. Mobile cranes are so much easy to use and move but the importance and use of fixed
cranes hasnt lost its importance and we see them everywhere.
The most important by use and stability are:1.Tower crane
2.Self-erecting crane
3.Hammerhead crane
4.Level luffing crane
5.Gantry crane
6.Deck crane
7.Jib crane
8.Loader crane
9.Telescopic crane
10.Bulk-handling crane
11.Stacker crane

4.3 Advantages & Disadvantages of cranes

Advantages

Easy to install
Reliable structure
Single or double speed type
Cheaper in cost
Higher efficiency in saving power.
Available with radio remote control system.
Rubber buffers are provided for extra protection.
Fail safe type breaks, etc.

Disadvantages

High initial cost

High maintenance cost
Requirement of specialized operators

4.4 Application
The most common overhead crane use is in the steel industry. At every step of the
manufacturing process, until it leaves a factory as a finished product, steel is handled by an
overhead crane. Raw materials are poured into a furnace by crane, hot steel is stored for
cooling by an overhead crane, the finished coils are lifted and loaded onto trucks and trains
by overhead crane, and the fabricator or stamper uses an overhead crane to handle the steel in
his factory. The automobile industry uses overhead cranes for handling of raw materials.
Smaller workstation cranes handle lighter loads in a work-area, such as CNC mill or saw.
17

Almost all paper mills use bridge cranes for regular maintenance requiring removal of
heavy press rolls and other equipment. The bridge cranes are used in the initial construction
of paper machines because they facilitate installation of the heavy cast iron paper drying
drums and other massive equipment, some weighing as much as 70 tons.
In many instances the cost of a bridge crane can be largely offset with savings from
not renting mobile cranes in the construction of a facility that uses a lot of heavy process
equipment.

Chapter 5
Design structure and applicable devices of slingofer crane
5.1Electric overhead travelling cranes
EOT cranes can either operate within an industrial building or outside a building.
Industrial buildings housing EOT cranes generally consist of one or more bays with one or
more EOT cranes in each bay.
The magnitude of the loads lifted by EOT cranes varies from 2t up to 630t. The rated
weight of the load lifted by an EOT crane is referred to as the safe working load (SWL) and
is the way in which EOT cranes are referred to (e.g. a 40t crane).
EOT cranes can have various different configurations depending on the application, the
layout of the industrial building housing the crane and the type of loads to be lifted. The three
basic types of electric overhead travelling cranes are bridge cranes as shown in Figure 2.1,
portal cranes and semi-portal cranes. Portal cranes are a portal frame structure with the bottom
of the
frame legs running on rails and semi-portal cranes have one end of the crane bridge running on
an elevated rail and the other end supported on a column(as with a portal frame) with the
bottom of the column running on a lower rail. EOT bridge cranes are the most commonly used
cranes in industry and are the type of cranes which fall under the scope of the crane loading
codes. These bridge cranes will be the focus of this investigation.

18

Figure.7 Main components of an EOT bridge crane

Within the category of EOT bridge cranes there are various different configurations.
The biggest distinction is between under slung overhead travelling cranes and top mounted
overhead travelling cranes. Under slung cranes are supported on the bottom angles of the
runway beams and top mounted over- head cranes are supported on rails on the top of the
runway beams. The main components of an EOT crane are the crane bridge which spans the
width of the bay between the runway girders and moves longitudinally down the length of the
building, the crane crab which traverses the bridge and houses the hoisting mechanism and the
end carriages on either side of the crane bridge which house the wheel blocks. The combined
horizontal longitudinal and transverse movements of the crane bridge and crab and the vertical
movement of the hoist allow the crane to reach any position in the industrial building for the
purpose of lifting or lowering a load. The elements of an EOT crane are shown in Figure 2.1.
Top mounted overhead travelling cranes can have further different configurations.
EOT cranes lifting light loads typically have hot rolled I or H sections for the end carriages
and a single hot rolled I or H section for the crane bridge with the crab hoist running along the
bottom angle of the crane bridge. EOT cranes lifting heavier loads normally have box girders
for the end carriages and crane bridge, the crane bridge consists of two parallel box girders
with the crab unit mounted on rails on top of the crane bridge girders. In cases of cranes with
extremely heavy applications, the crane bridge can consist of four box girders.
There are a wide range of applications for which cranes are used which require
different load lifting mechanisms. Hooks are the most common type of load lifting mechanism
for general warehouse and industrial use. Ladles are used in metal works for transporting
molten metal from the furnace to the casters. Another load lifting mechanism is a grab which
is used for applications such as lifting granular material or scrap metal. Cranes equipped with
a magnet lifting device are typically used for lifting steel plates. Specialised load lifting
mechanisms such as coil lifters are used for specific applications.

19

The wheels are a very important part of EOT bridge cranes because the smooth
running of the crane depends on the quality of the wheels and the wheels transfer the loads
from the crane to the support structure. Most cranes have four wheels, two on each end
carriage, but larger cranes lifting heavier loads can have eight or sixteen wheels in total. The
current practice of wheel configurations is to have independent wheels which are not linked in
any way to the wheels on the opposite end carriages [16; 17; 18; 19]. The driven wheels each
have their own wheel drive.
Buffers are supplied on the end carriages to reduce the impact forces if the crane runs
into the end stops at the end of the runway. The different types of buffers are rubber and
cellular plastic which are used mainly for smaller cranes as well as hydraulic buffers which are
used mainly for larger cranes.

5.2 EOT Crane support structures

The movement of loads is an integral, essential part of many industrial applications
and cranes therefore play a very important role in the smooth running of the industrial process.
A crane that is out of commission can have very serious financial implications for the owner.
For example, if a crane in a steel works building which carries the molten metal from the
furnace to the caster is out of commission, the whole production line comes to a halt with a
great loss in production and hence a great financial loss. The problem of the crane being
unable to fulfil its intended purpose is considered a serviceability problem because the
implications are financial and not safety related.
The crane is also an important aspect when considering the safety of the industrial
area. Cranes are a type of heavy machinery which lift large loads and if something should
cause the load or the crane to fall it would endanger the lives of the people working in the
industrial area.
Problems which could cause cranes to be out of commission or cause a safety hazard
could be related to either the crane itself or the support structure. Ensuring the functioning and
safety of the crane itself when it is manufactured is the responsibility of the crane
manufacturer and ensuring the continued functioning and safety of the crane by means of
regular inspection and maintenance is the responsibility of the owner. The functioning and
safety of the support structure initially is the responsibility of the structural engineer and the
responsibility for the ongoing functioning and safety of the support structure lies partly with
the structural engineer in designing a durable structure and partly with the owner in regular
inspection and maintenance. The aspects of the functioning and safety of the EOT crane in the
industrial area
that will be focussed on here are those which are the responsibility of the structural engineer,
viz. to design a support structure which is sufficiently reliable over the lifetime of the crane.
Ensuring sufficient reliability of the support structure is a twofold process. The first
aspect is the accurate structural modelling of the support structure in the design process, this
includes both load modelling and structure response modelling. The second aspect is ensuring
sufficient statistical reliability of the support structure by means of suitable partial safety
factors.

5.3 Design process for EOT crane support structures

20

The crane support structure consists of the rails, rail fastening system, crane runway
girders, crane columns, crane column bracing, crane column foundations, crane stops and
conductor rail supports .The crane induced loads are applied by the wheels to the rails which
transmit the loads into the girders which in turn transmit the loads to the columns and bracing
and down to the foundations. Figure 2 shows the main components of the crane support

structure.
Fig. 8 Main component of crane support structure
EOT cranes can either operate within an industrial building or outside a building. In
the case where EOT cranes operate inside a building, the building withstands the
environmental actions of wind or temperature and the crane girders are subject to crane loads
only. The crane support structure can be integrated with the building structure (e.g. the crane
girders are supported on corbels connected to the building column) and in this case the roof
members are affected by the crane loads. Heavier cranes are typically supported on columns
that are separate from the building columns and in this case the roof members are not subject
21

to crane loads. In the case where EOT cranes operate outside a building, the crane support
structure carries the crane loads as well as the environmental loads.
Ensuring an EOT crane support structure which does not cause down time for the
crane or cause a safety hazard is the responsibility of the structural engineer. In order to
properly design an EOT crane support structure the designer must have a good understanding
of all the steps in the design process.
5.4Applicable devices of slingofer crane

Fig.9 Slingofer crane

22

Lifting feet
The lifting feet can be of 4 different models:
Standard
protected
Thyssen Type
Tilting
Standard feet
Standard feet have no special protections, they are directly welded on the lifting arms
and made of steel. They are assembled on tongs that are used for the lifting and handling of
materials that dont need to protect their surface.

Fig.10 Standard foot

Protected feet

23

If required, the standard feet can be protected by an interchangeable plate in Vulkollan

or Hardox, in order to preserve coils surface when in contact with the tong.

Fig.11 Protected feet

Thyssen feet
Thyssen feet are composed by an interchangeable cover in Hardox + Fe 430.
They are assembled on the tong by means of a screw.

Fig.12 Thyssen feet

Tilting feet

24

In very restricted areas, where the control of the tong could be very difficult, the
lifting feet are the best solution. The tilting of the feet is made by the chain-motor system.

Fig.13 Tilting feet

Lifting arms
Lifting arms are directly in contact with the coil and/or material to lift. They can be
equipped of different devices to protect coils surface during the handling.
Protection of the arm
Lifting arms can be covered, internally or externally by vullkollan or hardox plates.
The internal part of the arm is always in contact with the coils, we suggest to protect it in case
the material to lift is delicate and/or finished.
The protection on the external part of the arm is suggested to avoid any damages in
case of eventual shocks during the movements of the tong.

25

26

27

Fig.14 Protection of the arm

Lifting hook on the clamping arms

On the lifting arms can be applied some hooks, useful for the lifting , by means of chains,
of wagon or other materials.

Fig.15 Lifting hook on the clamping arms

28

 Rollers
During lifting, when arm are coming in contact with the coil, the steel or nylon rollers
slide on coil surface avoiding any damages.

Fig.16 Rollers
Anti-schuffing device
Each clamping arm can be composed by a sliding plate that allows the clamping and
loading of the coil on the feet without any sliding on the vertical sides.
This plate can be covered by a vullkollan or hardox plate to grant a greatest
preservation of coil surface.

29

Fig.17 Anti schuffing device

Carrying structure
The carrying structure can be of different types and dimensions, in accordance with
the product to lift and with customers necessities.
On the carrying case we can assembled:

Electrical panel board

Lifting hooks

Protection in vullkollan under the case

We have also special cases with lateral movements or cases for tong with double
pinions.

Electrical control panel on board

The control panel board can be assembled directly on the equipment if required. See
picture.

30

Fig 18 Electrical control panel on board

Carrying case with lifting hooks
We can apply extra hooks on the case for the lifting of other materials by means of
chains.

Fig.19 Carrying case with lifting hooks

31

 Protection in vulkollan under the case

This plate is assembled under the case and it is used to avoid any eventual damage of
coil surface during loading.

Fig.20 Protection in vulkollan under the case

Protection for high temperature under the case
Tong can be protected against the high temperature with a special protection under the
case.

Fig.21 Protection for high temperature under the case

32

 Lateral movement
This system is used in case it is necessary to reduce tong height. In this situation, the
motor for the rods control is not placed on the cases but on the sides.

Fig.22 Lateral movement

Double pinion tongs
Tong with double pinion is used to reduce at tong width. In fact, when tong is at
minimum closing, rods dont come out through the case.

Fig.23 Double pinion tongs

33

Suspension to the crane

The suspension can be of three different tipologies:

Single hook
Double hook
Pulleys

Fig.24 Suspension to the crane

34

Suspension pin
For suspension pins too, there are three different tipologies:
Fixed pin
Extractable pin
Detachable pin

Fig.25 Fixed pin

Fig.26 Extraction pin

35

Fig.27 Detachable pin

Sensors
On tong mod. 726 , many different electronic devices can be assembled to grant a
higher safety or to facilitate the tong control.
Anti-opening devices
Coiledge protectore feeler
Limit switches for max.and min. opening
Photo cells to detect coil bore
Anti- impact Reflex
Measuring Encoder
Weighing device
Load cell
Rotating head
Anti opening device
On each support of the clamping arm (lifting foot), it is possible the assembling of an
anti-opening sensor composed by a limit switch on-off controlled by a feeler pin.
When coil is on the foot, the feeler pin excites the limit switch that automatically
avoid the opening of the tong.
To open the clamping arms, operator must unload the coil on earth or on other coils
and descent with the tong of about 5 cm by the crane.
Model of feeler pin and of limit switch are different in relation to the temperature of work
Standard temperature = up to 100C
High temperature = up to 600C
Very high temperature = over 600C

36

Fig.28(a)Sensors for standard temperature

Fig.28(b) Sensors for high temperature

Fig.28(c) Sensors for very high temperature

Coils-edge protector feeler
37

On each clamping jaws, you can place an oscillating feeler pin to stop arms closing. It
is composed by a wearproof plate hinged on a pin that allows a partial rotation.
A spring buffer, placed on the lower part of the clamping lever, maintains the
oscillating feeler pin in opening position (fig.29(a) and 29(b))

Fig.29(a)
Fig.29(b)
When clamping jaws close (fig.29(c) e fig.29(d)), coil surfaces is in contact with the
feeler pin generating a light rotation; it excites a limit switch (with anti-bucking function)
stopping closing movement . It avoids that tong damages the lifted coil. As per the antiopening device, these sensors too, are selected in accordance with the temperature of work.

Fig.29(c)

Fig.29(d)

Photoelectric device to detect the coil presence

Each camping arms can be equipped of a couple of photocells (transmitter/receiver) to
detect the coil presence. When clamping arms are closing, coils will interrupt the beam
between the two photocells and an alarm lamp will switch on to indicate to the operator to
stop the movement of the arms.

38

Fig.30 Photoelectric device to detect the coil presence

ATTENTION: Photocells dont automatically stop the closing of the camping arms , but
they have the simple function to signal to the operator by means of an alarm lamp that the
closing can be interrupted.
Prossimity sonar
The closing of the arm is interrupted by prossimity sensors as soon as these detect the
presence of the coil without hawing any contact with it.

Fig.31 Prossimity sonar

39

 Max. and min. opening limit switches

These limit switches are placed on the carrying structure and stop the electrical motor
when clamping jaws are opened or completely closed.

Fig.32 Max. and min. opening limit switches

Photo electric cells to detect coil bore

Fig.33 (a)Photo electric cells to detect coil bore

When the beam transmitted by the emitter is interrupted by the coil and therefore
doesnt arrive to the receiver, the photo electric cell doesnt allow the closing of the tong.
Only when tong feet reach the coil bore and the beam arrives to the receiver, tong can be
closed.

40

Fig.33(b) Limit switch to detect coil bore

Anti- impact reflex
The scope of Reflex photo cells is to stop crane descent if tong is not enough
opened, avoiding the eventual impact with the coil or the product to lift.

Fig. 34 Anti impact photo cell

41

 Measuring encoder
The encoder allows to operator to determinate the quote of opening and/or closing of
the tong by the number of pinion turns.

Fig. 35 Measuring encoder

Weighing device
The weighing device allows to see the real weight of the coil and can be connected to
an eventual printer.

Fig.36 Weighing device

42

 Load cells
The load cells stop the lifting movement if the product to lift is heavier than the
foreseen maximum weight.
Rotating head
Our ROTATION is equipped with a motorization unit consisting of a motor/reduction
unit with worm gearbox. The worm gearbox is anti-reversing. Inside the reduction unit an
adjustable slipping clutch is incorporated. It is very easy to adjust the clutch.
Thanks to the clutch, the ROTATION motor can turn even when the rotation is locked
or stopped, without causing any damages to the reduction unit or to the other parts of the
rotation
It consists of :
shaft with toothed pinion in hardened steel 36CrNiMo4 mounted on bearings
crown wheel ( special steel T1)
bearing type SKF 29 252
bronze bushings

Fig.37 Rotating head

Alarm lamps
On the tong can be placed an alarm lamp for each different devices.

43

Fig. 38 Alarm lamps

Chapter 6
Observation
When the slingofer crane tries to lift up the coil from coil-yard,damage occurs on its arm.Its
arm coming out and falling down.It can directly effect on
Fatality or human injury due to falling of coil along with arm
Equipments damage
Property damage
Production loss
Problem observed when the crane tries to lift up the coil are
Slingofer arm lock plate bolts getting sheared and arm falling down.
Slingofer Arm base pad getting sheared.
Slingofer Arm getting sheared.

44

Chapter 7
Conclusion

Cranes are important and dangerous producing devices in the modern industry system.
With the rapid economical development, safety inspection and assessment on cranes are
becoming more and more important to reduce accident risk and to ensure producing
processes safety. Some inspecting and assessing methods discussed in this paper can be
considered the summarization of our work for six months.

45

Chapter 8
Action plan
8.1 Action plan
For solving this problem we have to measure all the activities and take some test regarding to
this problem.
Our target is

To improve safe working atmosphere due to cranes in coil yard area. To reduce
failures in Slingofer arm and increase the availability of EOT cranes in coil yard
area.

After achieve this target its benefits are personal and equipment safety, higher
production , minimize crane break down delays.

8.1.1 Measurement taken in future regarding to problem

This failure of slingofer arm occurs in two bays so we will check all the activities occus in
this bay related to slingofer crane failure
46

(EF Bay)
Conveyor to Coil Storage
Coil Storage to DSC coil car saddle
Coil Storage to Trailer area
(FG Bay)
Conveyor to Coil Storage
Coil Storage to Trailer area
Coil Storage to DSC coil car saddle
Storage to Wagon

8.1.2 Measurements and checking

Periodic D P testing of Arm and Lifting pad.
In every 15 days checking of lock plate condition.
Tightness all fasteners
Continuous trails in every week for the over travelling of the arm

8.2 Theories related to failure

8.2.1 Types of stresses
1) Direct shear stress
When a mechanical component is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting
tangentially across the resisting section,it tends to shear off across the section.The stress
induced in such section is known as direct shear stress.It can act along the plane.
td=Ps/A
Where Td= direct shear stress,N/mm2
Ps= direct shear force acting the section,N
A= Cross-section area,mm2
2) Torsional stress

47

When a mechanical component is subjected to the action of the two equal and
opposite couples acting in parallel planes,then the component is said to be in torsion and the
stress induced in it is known as torsional shear stress.
It is zero at the centroidal axis and maximum at the outer-most sufaces.
t=Tr/J
Where t= torsional shear stress N/mm2
T= Applied torque,N-mm
r= radial distance,mm
J= polar moment of inertia of the cross-section about centroidal axis,mm4
d= diameter of the shaft,mm
8.2.2 Maximum shear stress theory[TRESCA AND GUEST THEORY]
The maximum shear stress theory which is also known as Treca and Guest theory
states that the failure of the mechanical component subjected to biaxial or triaxial stress
occurs when the maximum shear stress at any point reaches the yield strength in shear of the
material.
According to this theory,failure occurs when,
tmax >= Ssy
tmax >= 0.5Syt
For safety againt failure,
tmax <= Ssy/Nf
tmax <= 0.5Syt/Nf
Where tmax = maximum shear stress, N/mm2
Ssy = yield strengh of the material in shear,N/mm2
Syt = yield strength of the material in tension,N/mm2
Nf = factor of safety
The ductile materials are weaken in shear.Hence this theory,which accounts for shear
failure,is used for the ductile materials.If this theory is used the result are on conservative
side.Hence,when there exists some uncertanity in loading or assumption are made in design
for simplificatrion,this theory is preferred.
8.2.3 Contact stresses

48

When the two surfaces are pressed against each other the theoretical nature of contact
between the two surfaces is either a point contact or a line contact,depending upon the type of
surfaces.
If the two curved surfaces are pressed against each other by certain forces,as the
theoretical area of the contact is zero.Large stresses are induced at the contact zone.Due to
this the local deformation takes place and point or line contact changes to area contact.
The stress developed in the contact zone is known as Hertz contact stress or contact
stress.
The contact stress is as a surface stress and a theory of contact stress was first
proposed by Hertz.
The contact stresses are induced at contact between a ball and race in ball bearing,a
wheel and a rail,two cylinders mating gear teeth,a cam and a follower etc
8.2.4 Factors influencing machine design
Design considerations are the characteristics or factors which influence the design of the
element or pehaps the entire system.Normally a number of such characteristics have to be
considered in any design problem
In a given design problem,the design engineer should indentify the various design
consideration and incorporate them in the design process in their order of importence.
1) Strength
A machine element should have sufficient strength to avoid failure either due to the
yielding or due to fracture,under the loads.
2) Rigidity
A machine element should have sufficient rigidity so that its linear as well as angular
deflection,under the loading,are within the permissible limits.
3) Reliability
A machine element should have reasonably good realiability so that it can perform its
function satisfactorily over its life span.
4) Safety
A machine element should be designed such that it ensures safety of the users and
machine.
5) Weight
A machine element should have a minimum possible weight.
6) Friction and wear
Friction and wear are major contributing factors for reducing the life of machine
elements and increasing power loss.The friction can be reduced by improving the surface
finish,adequately lubricating the surfaces and replacing the sliding motion by rolling motion.
49

The wear can be reduced by increasing the surface hardness.

7) Lubricatiom
In a design of machine element,due consideration must be given for the lubrication of
the elements,if there is relative sliding or rolling motion between the elements.
8) Stiffness
Whenever a stiffness is a functional requirement like in springs,a machine element
should designed with a precise value of required stiffness.
9) Corrosion
A machine element should be a corrosion resistance.This can be achived by a proper
selection of material and adapting the surface coating.

Chapter 9
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[12] The Telegraph. (2008). Car passenger died when lorry shed load.
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51