Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

Airy hypothesis - Explains isostasy by assuming earths crust has same density everywhere and
differences in elevation result from differences in thickness of outer layer.

albite - Feldspar in which diagnostic positive ion is Na ; sodic feldspar, Na(AlSi3O8). One of plagioclase
feldspars.
alkali rocks - Igneous rocks in which abundance of alkalies is unusually high, generally indicated by soda
pyroxenes, soda amphiboles, and/or feldspathoids.

aa lava - Lava whose surface is covered with random masses of angular jagged blocks.
ablation - As applied to glacier ice, process by which ice below snow line is wasted by evaporation and
melting.
abrasion - Erosion of rock material by friction of solid particles moved by gravity, water, ice, or wind.

alluvial fan - Land counterpart of a delta: an assemblage of sediments marking place where a stream
moves from a steep gradient to a flatter gradient and suddenly loses transporting power. Typical of arid and
semiarid climates but not confined to them.
almandite - A deep-red garnet of iron and aluminum formed during regional metamorphism.

absolute time - Geologic time measured in years. Compare with relative time.

alpha decay - Radioactive decay taking place by loss of an alpha particle from nucleus. Mass of element
decreases by 4, and atomic number decreases by 2.

acid rain - Rain higher in acid than normal. Forms from sulfur dioxide (SO2) from the burning of fossil fuels;
combines with water to form sulfuric acid.
acidic lava - Lava containing 70 percent or more of silica.

alpha particle - A helium atom lacking electrons and therefore having a double positive charge.
Alpine, or mountain, glacier - See valley glacier.

actynolite - A metamorphic ferromagnesian mineral; an asbestos.

amorphous - A state of matter in which there is no orderly arrangement of atoms.

adiabatic rate - In a body of air moving upward or downward, change in temperature without gain or loss of
temperature to air through with it moves.
aftershock - Earthquake that follows a larger earthquake and originates at or near focus of larger
earthquake. Major shallow earthquakes are generally followed by many
aftershocks, which decrease in number as time goes on but may continue for days or even months.

amphibole group - Ferromagnesian silicates with a double chain of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra. Common
example: hornblende. Contrast with pyroxene group.
amphibolite - A faintly foliated metamorphic rock developed during regional metamorphism of simatic
rocks. Composed mainly of hornblende and plagioclase feldspars.
amphibolite facies - An assemblage of minerals formed during regional metamorphism at moderate to
high pressures between 450 and 700 C.

agate - Variety of chalcedony with alternating layers of chalcedony and opal.

A horizon - Soil zone immediately below surface, from which soluble material and fine-grained particles
have been moved downward by water seeping into soil. Varying amounts of organic matter give A horizon
color ranging from gray to black.

andalusite - A silicate of aluminum built around independent tetrahedra, Al2SiO5. Characteristic of middlegrade metamorphism. Compare with kyanite, which has same composition and forms under similar
conditions but which has different crystal habit. Contrast with sillimanite, which has same composition but
different crystal habit and forms at highest metamorphic temperatures.

Glossary of Geology

andesite - A fine-grained igneous rock with no quartz or orthoclase, composted of about 75 percent
plagioclase feldspars, balance ferromagnesian silicates. Important as lavas; possibly derived by fractional
crystallization from basaltic magma. Widely characteristic of mountain-making processes around borders of
Pacific Ocean. Confined to continental sectors.
andesite line - A map line designating the petrographic boundary of Pacific Ocean. Extrusive rocks on
Pacific side of line are basaltic; on other side, andesitic.

Glossary of Geology

aphanitic texture - Individual minerals present but in particles so small that they cannot be identified
without a microscope.
aquifer - A permeable material through which groundwater moves.
arte - A narrow, saw-toothed ridge developed between cirques.
arkose - A detrital sedimentary rock formed by cementation of individual grains of sand size and
predominantly composed of quartz and feldspar. Derived from disintegration of granite.

-8

angstrom - A unit of length equal to one hundred-millionth of a centimeter (10 cm). Abbreviation, .
angular momentum - A vector quantity, product of mass times radius of orbit times velocity. The energy of
motion of solar system.
angular unconformity - An unconformity in which older strata dip at different angle from that of younger
strata.
anhydrite - Mineral calcium sulfate, CaSO4, which is gypsum without water.
anion - A negatively charged atom or group of atoms produced by gain of electrons. Compare cation.
2+

anorthite - Feldspar in which diagnostic positive ion is Ca ; calcic feldspar, Ca(Al2Si2O8). One of
plagioclase feldspars.
anorthosite - A plutonic igneous rock composed of 90 percent or more of feldspar mineral anorthite.
Pyroxene and some olivine usually make up balance of the rock.

arroyo - Flat-floored, vertically walled channel of an intermittent stream typical of semiarid climates; often
applied to such features of southwestern United States. Synonymous with wadi and wash.
artesian water - Water under pressure when tapped by a well and able to rise above level at which first
encountered. It may or may not flow out at ground level.
asbestos - A general term applied to certain fibrous minerals displaying similar physical characteristics
although differing in composition. Some asbestos has fibers long enough to be spun into fabrics with great
heat resistance, such as those for automobile brake linings. Types with shorter fibers are compressed into
insulating boards, shingles, etc. Most common asbestos mineral (95 percent of United States production) is
chrysotile, a variety of serpentine, a metamorphic mineral.
aseismic ridge - An oceanic ridge without extensive seismic activity as, for example, the Hawaiian IslandEmperor Seamount ridge in the Pacific Ocean.
ash - Volcanic fragments of sharply angular glass particles, smaller than cinders. See also volcanic ash.

Antarctic bottom water - Seawater that sinks to ocean floor off Antarctica and flows equatorward beneath
North Atlantic deep water.
Antarctic intermediate water - Seawater that sinks at about 50S and flows northward above North
Atlantic deep water.

asphalt - A brown to black, solid or semisolid bituminous substance. Occurs in nature but is also obtained
as residue from refining of certain hydrocarbons ("artificial asphalt").
asteroids - Orbiting small bodies believed to be either fragments of a disintegrated planet or of matter that
never completed planet forming process.

anthracite - Metamorphosed bituminous coal of about 95 to 98 percent carbon.

anticline - A configuration of folded, stratified rocks in which rocks dip in two directions away from a crest,
as principal rafters of a common gable roof dip away from ridgepole. Reverse of syncline. The "ridgepole,"
or crest, is called axis.

asthenosphere - A zone within earth's mantle where plastic movements occur to permit isostatic
adjustments. Begins 50 to 100 km below surface and extends perhaps to 500 km.
astrogeology - Geology of celestial bodies other than earth. Generally restricted in meaning to geology of
extraterrestrial bodies of our planetary system.

Glossary of Geology

asymmetric fold - A fold in which on limb dips more steeply than the other.
Atlantic Ridge - Belt of mountains under Atlantic Ocean from Iceland to Antarctica and nearly midway
between continents; also called mid-Atlantic Ridge.

Glossary of Geology

atoll - A ring of low coral islands arranged around a central lagoon.

atom - A building block of matter; combination of protons, neutrons, and electrons, of which 103 kinds are
now known.

backset beds - Inclined layers of sand developed on gentler dune slope to windward. These beds may
constitute a large part of total volume of a dune, especially if there is sufficient vegetation to trap most sand
before it can cross over to slip face.

atomic energy - Energy associated with nucleus of an atom. It is releases when nucleus is split.
atomic mass - The nucleus of an atom contains 99.95 percent of its mass. Total number of protons and
neutrons in nucleus is called mass number.

bank-full stage - Stage of flow at which a stream fills its channel up to level of its bank. Recurrence interval
averages 1.5 to 2 years.
barchan - A crescent-shaped dune with wings, or horns, pointing downwing. Has gentle windward slope
and steep lee slope inside horns; about 30 m high and 300 m wide from horn to horn. Moves with wind
about 15 m/year across flat, hard surface where limited supply of sand is available.

atomic number - Number of positive charges on nucleus of an atom; number of protons in nucleus.
atomic reactor - A huge apparatus in which a radioactive core heats water under pressure and passes it to
a heat exchanger.
atomic size - Radius of an atom (average distance from center to outermost electron of neutral atom).
Commonly expressed in angstroms.
augite - A rock-forming ferromagnesian silicate mineral built around single chains of silicon-oxygen
tetrahedral.

barrier island - A low, sandy island near shore and parallel to it, on a gently sloping offshore bottom.
barrier reef - A reef separated from a landmass by a lagoon of varying width and depth opening to sea
through passes in reef.
basal plane - Lower boundary of zone of concentric folding.
basal slip - Movement of an entire glacier over underlying ground surface.

aureole - A zone in which contact metamorphism has taken place.

axial plane - A plane through a rock fold that includes the axis and divides the fold as symmetrically as
possible.

basalt - A fine-grained igneous rock dominated by dark-colored minerals, consisting of plagioclase

feldspars (over 50 percent) and ferromagnesian silicates. Basalts and andesites represent about 98
percent of all extrusive rocks.
base flow - That portion of stream flow attributable to groundwater flow.

axis - Ridge or place of sharpest folding of an anticline or syncline.

base level - Level below which a stream cannot erode. There may be temporary base levels along a
stream's course, such as those established by lakes or resistant layers of rock. Ultimate base level is sea
level.

Glossary of Geology

basement complex - Undifferentiated rocks underlying oldest identifiable rocks in any region. Usually
sialic, crystalline, metamorphosed. Often, but not necessarily, Precambrian.

Glossary of Geology

bergschrund - Gap, or crevasse, between glacier ice and headwall of a cirque.

berms - In coastline terminology berms are storm-built beach features that resemble small terraces; on
seaward edges are low ridges built up by storm waves.

basic lava - Lava containing less than 50 percent silica.

basin - See dome.

beta decay - Radioactive decay taking place by loss of a beta particle (electron) from a neutron in nucleus.
Mass of element remains same, but atomic number increases by 1.

batholith - A discordant pluton that increases in size downward, has no determinable floor, and shows an
2
area of surface exposure exceeding 100 km .

B horizon - Soil zone of accumulation below A horizon. Here is deposited some material moved down from
A horizon.

bauxite - Chief ore of commercial aluminum. A mineraloid mixture of hydrous aluminum oxides.
bay barrier - A sandy beach, built up across mouth of a bay so that it is no longer connected to main body
of water.
bed - (1) A rock mass of large horizontal extent bounded, especially above, by physically different material.
(2) A deposit, as of ore, parallel to local stratification.
bedding - (1) A collective term used to signify existence of beds or layers, in sedimentary rocks. (2)
Sometimes synonymous with bedding plane.
bedding plane - Surface separating layers of sedimentary rocks. Each bedding plane marks termination of
one deposit and beginning of another of different character, such as surface separating a sand bed from a
shale layer. Rock tends to separate, or break, readily along bedding planes.

big-bang theory - Theory that presently expanding universe originated as primeval cosmic fireball in very
short period of time 10 to 12 billion years ago. Compare steady-state theory.
binding energy - Amount of energy that must be supplied to break an atomic nucleus into its component
fundamental particles. It is equivalent to mass that disappers when fundamental particles combine to form a
nucleus.
biochemical rock - A sedimentary rock made up of deposits resulting directly or indirectly from life
processes of organisms.
biotite - "Black mica," ranging in color from dark brown to green. Rock-forming ferromagnesian silicate
mineral with tetrahedra in sheets.
bituminous coal - Soft coal, containing about 80 percent carbon and 10 percent oxygen.

bed load - Material in movement along stream bottom or, if wind is moving agency, along surface. Contrast
with material carried in suspension or solution.
belt of soil moisture - Subdivision of zone of aeration. Belt from which water may be used by plants or
withdrawn by soil evaporation. some water passes down into intermediate belt, where it may be held by
molecular attraction against influence of gravity.
bench mark - A point of known elevation and position - usually indicated on a map by the letters B. M., with
the altitude given (on American maps) to the nearest foot. (Some maps now use meters.)
Benioff zone - A seismic zone dipping beneath a continental margin and having a deep-sea trench as
surface expression.

blowout - A basin scooped out of soft, unconsolidated deposits by process of deflation. Ranges from a few
meters to several kilometers in diameter.
body wave - Push-pull or shake earthquake wave travelling through a body of a medium; distinguished
from waves travelling along free surface.
bornite - A mineral, Cu5FeS4; an important ore of copper.
bottomset bed - Layer of fine sediment deposited in a body of standing water beyond advancing edge of a
growing delta, which eventually builds up on bottomset beds.
boulder size - Volume greater than that of a sphere with diameter of 256 mm.

Glossary of Geology

boulder train - Series of glacier erratics from the same bedrock source, usually with some property that
permits easy identification. Arranged across country in a fan, with apex at source and widening in direction
of glacier movement.

Glossary of Geology

Bowen's reaction series - Series of minerals for which any early-formed phase tends to react with melt
that remains to yield a new mineral further along in the series. Thus early-formed crystals of olivine react
with remaining liquids to form augite crystals; these in turn may further react with liquid then remaining to
form hornblende. See also continuous reaction series and discontinuous reaction series.
calcic feldspar - Anorthite, Ca(Al2Si2O8).
braided stream - Complex tangle of converging and diverging stream channels separated by sand bars or
islands. Characteristic of flood plains where amount of debris is large in relation to discharge.

calcite - A mineral composed of calcium carbonate, CaCO3.

breccia - Clastic rock made up of angular fragments of such size that an appreciable percentage of rock
volume consists of particles of granule size or larger.

caldera - Roughly circular, steep-sided volcanic basin with diameter at least three or four times depth.
Commonly at summit of a volcano. Contrast with crater.

brittle - A property of material whereby strength in tension is greatly different from strength in compression.
Substance ruptures easily with little or no flow.

caliche - Whitish accumulation of calcium carbonate in soil profile.

brown clay - An extremely fine-grained deposit found on the deep ocean floors, most abundantly in the
Pacific Ocean. Derived from the continents and drifted to the open ocean, where the clay-sized particles
settle.
burial metamorphism - Changes resulting from pressures and temperatures in rocks buried to depth of
several kilometers.

capillary fringe - Belt above zone of saturation, in which underground water is lifted against gravity by
surface tension in passages of capillary size.
capillary size - "Hairlike," or very small, such as tubes from 0.0025 to 0.25 cm in diameter.
carbohydrate - compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates are chief products of life
process in plants.
2-

carbonate mineral - Mineral formed by combination of complex ion (CO3) with a positive ion. Common
example: calcite, CaCO3.
carbon cycle - Process in sun's deep interior by which radiant energy is generated in formation of helium
from hydrogen.
carbon 14 - Radioactive isotope of carbon, which has halflife of 5,730 years. Used to date events up to
about 50,000 years ago.
carbon ratio - A number obtained by dividing amount of fixed carbon in coal by sum of fixed carbon and
volatile matter and multiplying by 100. This is same as percentage of fixed carbon, assuming no moisture
or ash.

10

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

cassiterite - A mineral, tin dioxide, SnO2. Ore of tin with specific gravity 7; nearly 75 percent of world's tin
production is from placer deposits, mostly from cassiterite.

chert - Granular cryptocrystalline silica, similar to flint but usually light in color. Occurs as compact massive
rock or as nodules.

cataclastic metamorphism - Textural changes in rocks in which brittle minerals and rocks are broken and
flattened as a result of intense folding or faulting; produces fragmentation of rocks as coarse-grained
breccias and fine-grained mylonites.

chlorite - Family of tetrahedral sheet silicates of iron, magnesium, and aluminum, characteristic of lowgrade metamorphism. Green color, with cleavage like mica except that chlorite small scales are not elastic.
C horizon - Soil zone that contains partially disintegrated and decomposed parent material. Lies directly
under B horizon and grades downward into unweathered material.

cation - A positively charged atom or group of atoms produced by loss of electrons. Compare anion.
cementation - Process by which a binding agent is precipitated in spaces among individual particles of an
unconsolidated deposit. Most common cementing agents are calcite, dolomite, and quartz; others include
iron oxide, opal, chalcedony, anhydrite, and pyrite.
cement rock - Clayey limestone used in manufacturing hydraulic cement. Contains lime, silica, and
alumina in varying proportions.
chalcedony - General name applied to fibrous cryptocrystalline silica with waxy luster. Deposited from
aqueous solutions and frequenly found lining or filling cavities in rocks. Agate is a variety with alternating
layers of chalcedony and opal.
chalcocite - A mineral, copper sulfide, Cu2S; sometimes called copper glance; one of most important ore
minerals of copper.

chromite - Mineral oxide of iron and chromium, FeCr2O4, only ore of commercial chromium. One of first
minerals to crystallize from magma; is concentrated within the magma.
chrysotile - Metamorphic mineral; an asbestos, fibrous variety of serpentine. Silicate of magnesium, with
tetrahedra arranged in sheets.
chute or chute cutoff - Applied to stream flow, chute refers to new route taken by a stream when main
flow is diverted to inside of a bend, along trough between low ridges formed by deposition on inside of
bend, where water velocity is reduced. Compare with neck cutoff.
cinder cone - Structure built exclusively or predominantly of pyroclastic ejecta dominated by cinders.
Parasitic to a major volcano, seldom exceeds 500 m in height. Slopes up 30 to 40. Eample: Parcutin.
cinders - Volcanic fragments; small, slaglike, solidified pieces of magma 0.5 to 2.5 cm across.

chalcopyrite - A mineral, a sulfide of copper and iron, CuFeS2; sometimes called copper pyrite or yellow
copper ore.
chalk - Variety of limestone made up in part of biochemically derived calcite, in form of skeletons or
skeletal fragments of microscopic oceanic plants and animals mixed with very fine-grained calcite deposits
of biochemical or inorganic-chemical origin.
chemical rock - In terminology of sedimentary rocks chemical rock is composed chiefly of material
deposited by chemical precipitation, whether organic or inorganic (compare with detrital sedimentary rock).
Chemical sedimentary rocks may have either clastic or nonclastic (usually crystalline) texture.
chemical weathering - Weathering of rock material by chemical processes that transform original material
into new chemical combinations. Thus chemical weathering of orthoclase produces clay, some silica, and a
soluble salt of potassium.

cirque - A steep-walled hollow in a mountainside at high elevation, formed by ice-plucking and frost action
and shaped like a half bowl or half amphitheater. Serves as principal gathering ground for ice of a valley
glacier.
clastic texture - Texture shown by sedimentary rocks from deposits of minerals and rock fragments.
clay minerals - Finely crystalline, hydrous silicates formed from weathering of such silicate minerals as
feldspar, pyroxene, and amphibole. Most common clay minerals belong to kaolinite, montmorillonite, and
illite groups.
clay size - Volume less than that of a sphere with diameter of 0.004 mm.
cleavage - (1) Mineral cleavage: property possessed by many minerals of breaking in certain preferred
direction along smooth plane surfaces. Planes of cleavage are governed by atomic pattern and represent
direction in which atomic bonds are relatively weak. (2) Rock cleavage: property possessed by certain

11

12

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

rocks of breaking with relative ease along parallel planes or nearly parallel surfaces. Rock cleavage is
designated as slaty, phyllitic, schistose, and gneissic.

concentric folding - Elastic bending of an originally horizontal sheet with all internal movements parallel to
a basal plane (lower boundary of the fold).

coal - Sedimentary rock composed of combustible matter derived from partial decomposition and alteration
of plant cellulose and lignin.

conchoidal fracture - A mineral's habit of fracturing to produce curved surfaces like interior of a shell
(conch). Typical of glass and quartz.

cobble size - Volume greater than that of a sphere with diameter of 64 mm and less than that of a sphere
with diameter of 256 mm.

concordant pluton - An intrusive igneous body with contacts parallel to layering or foliation surfaces of
rocks into which it has intruded.

coesite - High-pressure form of quartz, with density of 2.92. Associated with impact craters and
cryptovolcanic structures.

concretion - An accumulation of mineral matter formed around a center, or axis, of deposition after a
sedimentary deposit has been laid down. Cementation consolidates the deposit as a whole, but the
concretion is a body within hos rock that represents local concentration of cementing material: enclosing
rock is less firmly cemented than the concretion. Commonly spheroidal or disk-shaped and composed of
such cementing agents as calcite, dolomite, iron oxide, or silica.

col - Pass through a mountain ridge. Created by enlargement of two cirques on opposite sides of ridge until
headwalls meet an are broken down.
cold glacier - Glacier in which no surface melting occurs during summer months and whose temperature is
always below freezing.

cone of depression - A dimple in the water table, which forms as water is pumped from a well.
cone sheet - A dike, part of a concentric set dipping inward, like an inverted cone.

colloidal size - between 0.0002 and 0.001 mm.

conglomerate - Detrital sedimentary rock made up of more or less rounded fragments of such size that an
appreciable percentage of volume of rock consists of particles of granule size or larger.

color - Sensation resulting from stimulation of retina by light waves of certain lengths.
column - Column, or post, of dripstone joining floor and roof of a cave; result of joining of stalactite and
stalagmite.
columnar jointing - Pattern of jointing that blocks out columns of rock. Characteristic of tabular basalt
flows or sills.
compaction - Reduction in pore space between individual grains from pressure of overyling sediments or
pressures of earth movement.
composite volcanic cone - Composed of interbedded lava flows and pyroclastic material and
characterized by slopes of close to 30 at summit, progressively reducing to 5 near base. Example:
Mayon.

connate water - Water trapped in a sedimentary deposit when the deposit was laid down.
contact metamorphism - Metamorphism at or very near contact between magma and rock during
intrusion.
continent - One of the principal land masses of the earth, usually regarded as including Africa, Antarctica,
Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South America.
continental drift - Slow, lateral movement of continents; involves rigid plates that may carry both
continental and oceanic areas as they move.
continental glacier - An ice sheet that obscures mountains and plains of a large section of a continent.
Continental glaciers exist on Greenland and Antarctica.

compression - Squeezing stress that tends to decrease volume of a material.

continental margin - Continental rise, continental slope, and continental shelf together make up the
continental margin, particularly on the trailing edge of a continent.

13

14

Glossary of Geology

continental rise - In some places base of continental slope is marked by somewhat gentler continental
rise, which leads downward to deep ocean floor.
continental shelf - Shallow, gradually sloping zone extending from sea margin to a depth at which there is
marked or rather steep descent into ocean depths down continental slope. Seaward boundary of shelf
averages about 130 m in depth.
continental slope - Portion of ocean floor extending downward from seaward edge of continental shelves.
In some places, such as south of Aleutian Islands, slopes descend directly to ocean deeps. In other places,
such as off eastern North America, they grad into somewhat gentler continental rises, which in turn lead to
deep ocean floors.
continuous reaction series - Branch of Bowen's reaction series comprising plagioclase feldspars, in
which reaction of early-formed crystals with later liquids takes place continuously - that is, without abrupt
phase change.
contour interval - The difference in elevation represented by adjacent countour lines.
contour line - A map line connecting points representing places on the earth's surface that have the same
elevation. It thus locates the intersection with the earth's surface of a plane at any arbitrary elevation
parallel to the datum plane. Contours represent the vertical, or third, dimension on a map, which has only
two dimensions. They show the shape and size of physical features such as hills and valleys. A depression
is indicated by an ordinary contour line except that hachures, or short dashes, are used on one side and
point toward the center of the depression.
convection - Mechanism by which material moves because its density differs from that of surrounding
material. Density differences are often brought about by heating.

Glossary of Geology

core - Innermost zone of earth, surrounded by mantle.

Coriolis effect - Tendency of any moving body, on or starting from surface of earth, to continue in direction
in which earth's rotation propels it. Direction in which the body moves because of this tendency combined
with direction in which it is aimed determines ultimate course of the body relative to earth's surface. In the
northern hemisphere Coriolis effect causes a moving body to veer or try to veer to right of its direction of
forward motion; in the southern hemisphere, to left. Magnitude of effect is proportional to velocity of a
body's motion. This effect causes cyclonic storm-wind circulation to be counterclockwise in the northern
hemispher and clockwise in the southern hemisphere and determines final course of ocean currents
relative to trade winds.
correlation - Process of establishing contemporaneity of rocks or events in one area with rocks or events
in another area.
covalent bond - Bond in which atoms combine by sharing their electrons.
crater - Roughly circular, steep-sided volcanic basin with diameter less than three times depth. Commonly
at summit of a volcano (contrast with caldera). Applied also to depressions caused by meteorites by either
direct or explosive impact.
craton - Relatively immobile part of the earth, generally large central portion of a continent.
creep - Applied to soils and surficial material, slow downward plastic movement. As applied to elastic
solids, slow permanent yielding to stresses less than yield point if applied for a short time only.
crevasse - (1) Deep crevice, or fissure, in glacier ice. (2) Breach in a natural levee.
cross bedding - See inclined bedding.

convection cell - Pair of convection currents adjacent to each other.

convection current - Closed circulation of material sometimes developed during convection. Convection
currents normally develop in pairs, each pair called convection cell.

crosscutting relationships, law of - A rock is younger than any rock across which it cuts.
3

convergent plate boundary - Boundary between two plates moving toward each other. Compare
divergent plate boundary.
coquina - A coarse-grained, porous, friable variety of clastic limestone made up chiefly of fragments of
shells.

15

crust - Outermost shell of the earth. Continental crust averages 35 km thick, density 2.6 t/m ; oceanic
3
crust, about 5 km thick, density 3 t/m .
cryptocrystalline - State of matter in which there is actually orderly arrangement of atoms characteristic of
crystals but in units so small (material is so fine grained) that crystalline nature cannot be determined with
an ordinary microscope.

16

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

cryptovolcanic structure - Geologic structure in which rocks appear disrupted by volcanic activity but in
which there are no associated volcanic rocks.
crystal - Solid with orderly atomic arrangement, which may or may not develop external faces that give it
crystal form.
crystal form - Geometrical form taken by a mineral, giving external expression to orderly internal atomic
arrangement.
crystalline structure - Orderly arrangement of atoms in a crystal. Also called crystal structure.
datum plane - The reference surface from which all altitudes on a map are measured. This is usually mean
sea level.

crystallization - Process through which crystals separate from fluid, viscous, or dispersed state.
Curie temperature - Temperature above which ordinarily magnetic material loses magnetism. On cooling
below this temperature, it regains magnetism. Example: Iron loses magnetism above 760 C and regains it
while cooling below this temperature. Thus 760 C is the Curie temperature of iron.

debris slide - Small, rapid movement of largely unconsolidated material that slides or rolls downward to
produce irregular topography.
decomposition - Synonymous with chemical weathering.

current bedding - See inclined bedding.

deep focus - Earthquake focus deeper than 300 km. Greatest depth of focus known is 700 km.
cutoff - See chute cutoff, neck cutoff.
deep-sea trenches - See island-arc deeps.
4-

cyclosilicate - Mineral with crystal structure containing silicon-oxygen, (SiO4) , tetrahedra arranged as
rings.

deflation - Erosive process in which wind carries off unconsolidated material.

deformation of rocks - Any change in original shape or volume of rock masses; produced by mountainbuilding forces. Folding, faulting, and plastic flow are common modes of rock deformation.
delta - Plain underlain by an assemblage of sediments accumulated where a stream flows into a body of
standing water, its velocity and transporting power suddenly reduced. Originally named after Greek letter
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alhel
di
nsuspensi
on.

17

18

Glossary of Geology

depositional remanent magnetism -Magnet

i
sm r
esul
t
i
ngf
r
om t
endencyofmagnet
i
cpar
t
i
cl
essuchas
hemat
i
t
et
oor
i
entt
hemsel
v
esi
near
t
h'
smagnet
i
cf
i
el
dast
heyar
edeposi
t
ed.Or
i
ent
at
i
oni
smai
nt
ai
nedas
sof
tsedi
ment
sar
el
i
t
hi
f
i
edandt
husr
ecor
dsear
t
h'
sf
i
el
dwhenpar
t
i
cl
esar
el
ai
ddown.Abbr
ev
i
at
i
on,DRM.

Glossary of Geology

dip-slip fault -Faul

ti
nwhi
chdi
spl
acementi
si
ndi
r
ect
i
onoff
aul
t
'
sdi
p.
discharge -Wi
t
hr
ef
er
ence t
o st
r
eam f
l
ow,quant
i
t
y ofwat
ert
hatpasses a gi
ven poi
nti
n uni
tt
i
me.
Measur
edi
ncubi
cmet
er
spersecondor
,of
t
en,cubi
cf
eetpersecond(
abbr
ev
i
at
i
on,cf
s)
.

desert varnish -Thi

n,shi
nyl
ayerofi
r
onandmanganeseox
i
dest
hatcoat
ssomedeser
t
r
ocksur
f
aces.
disconformity -Unconf
or
mi
t
yi
nwhi
chbedsonopposi
t
esi
desar
epar
al
l
el
.
detrital sedimentary rock -Rockf
or
medf
r
om accumul
at
i
onofmi
ner
al
sandr
ock
sder
i
v
edf
r
om er
osi
onof
pr
ev
i
ousl
yex
i
st
i
ngr
ock
sorf
r
om weat
her
edpr
oduct
soft
heser
ock
s.
diabase -Rock ofbasal
t
i
c composi
t
i
on,essent
i
al
l
yl
abr
ador
i
t
e and py
r
ox
ene,char
act
er
i
zed byophi
t
i
c
t
ex
t
ur
e.
diamond -A mi
ner
alcomposedofel
ement
alcar
bon;har
destsubst
anceknown.Usedasagem and,i
n
i
ndust
r
y
,f
orcut
t
i
ngt
ool
s.
differential erosion -Pr
ocessbywhi
chdi
f
f
er
entr
ockmassesordi
f
f
er
entpar
t
sofsamer
ocker
ode at
di
f
f
er
entr
at
es.
dike -Tabul
ardi
scor
dantpl
ut
on.

discontinuity -Wi
t
hi
n ear
t
h'
si
nt
er
i
or
,sudden orr
api
d changes wi
t
h dept
hi
n one ormor
e phy
si
cal
pr
oper
t
i
esofmat
er
i
al
sconst
i
t
ut
i
ngt
heear
t
h,asev
i
dencedbysei
smi
cdat
a.
discontinuous reaction series -Br
anch ofBowen'
sr
eact
i
on ser
i
esi
ncl
udi
ng mi
ner
al
s ol
i
v
i
ne,augi
t
e,
hor
nbl
ende,andbi
ot
i
t
e,f
orwhi
cheachser
i
eschanger
epr
esent
sabr
uptphasechange.
discordant pluton -Ani
nt
r
usi
v
ei
gneousbodywi
t
h boundar
i
est
hatcutacr
osssur
f
acesofl
ayer
i
ng or
f
ol
i
at
i
oni
nr
ock
si
nt
owhi
chi
thasi
nt
r
uded.
disintegration -Sy
nony
mouswi
t
hmechani
calweat
her
i
ng.
divergent plate boundary -Boundar
ybet
weent
wopl
at
esmov
i
ngapar
t
.New oceani
ct
y
pel
i
t
hospher
ei
s
cr
eat
edatt
heopeni
ng.Compar
econv
er
gentpl
at
eboundar
y
.

dike swarm -Gr

oupofappr
ox
i
mat
el
ypar
al
l
eldi
kes.
divide -Li
nesepar
at
i
ngt
wodr
ai
nagebasi
ns.
dilatancy -Tendencyofr
ock
st
oex
pandal
ongmi
nut
ef
r
act
ur
esi
mmedi
at
el
ypr
i
ort
of
ai
l
ur
e;st
r
essmaybe
f
r
om ear
t
hmovement
sorf
r
om cont
r
ol
l
edl
abor
at
or
yex
per
i
ment
s.
diorite -Coar
segr
ai
nedi
gneousr
ockwi
t
hcomposi
t
i
onofandesi
t
e(
noquar
t
zoror
t
hocl
ase)
,composedof
75per
centpl
agi
ocl
asef
el
dspar
sandbal
ancef
er
r
omagnesi
ansi
l
i
cat
es.
dip -(
1)Acut
e angl
et
hata r
ock sur
f
ace makes wi
t
h a hor
i
zont
alpl
ane.Di
r
ect
i
on ofdi
pi
s al
way
s
per
pendi
cul
art
ost
r
i
ke.(
2)Seemagnet
i
cdecl
i
nat
i
on.
dipole -Any obj
ectopposi
t
el
y char
ged att
wo poi
nt
s.Mostcommonl
yr
ef
er
st
o a mol
ecul
et
hathas
concent
r
at
i
onsofposi
t
i
v
echar
geornegat
i
v
echar
geatt
wodi
f
f
er
entpoi
nt
s.
dipole magnetic field -Por
t
i
onofear
t
h'
smagnet
i
cf
i
el
dbestdescr
i
bedbyadi
pol
epassi
ngt
hr
oughear
t
h'
s
cent
erandi
ncl
i
nedt
oear
t
h'
sr
ot
at
i
onax
i
s.Seeal
sonondi
pol
emagnet
i
cf
i
el
dandex
t
er
nalmagnet
i
cf
i
el
d.

dolomite -Mi
ner
alcomposedofcar
bonat
eofcal
ci
um andmagnesi
um,CaMg(
CO3).Al
sousedasr
ock
namef
orf
or
mat
i
onscomposedl
ar
gel
yofmi
ner
aldol
omi
t
e.
dome -Ant
i
cl
i
nalf
ol
dwi
t
houtcl
ear
l
ydevel
opedl
i
near
i
t
yofcr
estsot
hatbedsi
nv
ol
veddi
pi
nal
ldi
r
ect
i
ons
f
r
om acent
r
alar
ea,l
i
keani
nv
er
t
edbutusual
l
ydi
st
or
t
edcup.Rev
er
seofbasi
n.
drainage basin -Ar
eaf
r
om whi
chagi
v
enst
r
eam andi
t
st
r
i
but
ar
i
esr
ecei
v
ewat
er
.
drift -Anymat
er
i
all
ai
ddowndi
r
ect
l
ybyi
ceordeposi
t
edi
nl
akes,oceans,orst
r
eamsasr
esul
tofgl
aci
al
act
i
v
i
t
y
.Unst
r
at
i
f
i
edgl
aci
aldr
i
f
ti
scal
l
edt
i
l
landf
or
msmor
ai
nes;st
r
at
i
f
i
edf
or
msout
washpl
ai
ns,esker
s,
kames,andv
ar
v
es.
dripstone -Cal
ci
um car
bonat
edeposi
t
edf
r
om sol
ut
i
onbyunder
gr
oundwat
erent
er
i
ngacav
ei
nzoneof
aer
at
i
on.Somet
i
mescal
l
edt
r
av
er
t
i
ne.

dip pole -Seemagnet

i
cpol
e.

19

20

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

DRM -Seedeposi
t
i
onal
r
emanentmagnet
i
sm.
drumlin -Smoot
h,st
r
eaml
i
nedhi
l
lcomposedoft
i
l
l
.Longax
i
sor
i
ent
edi
ndi
r
ect
i
onofi
cemov
ement
:Bl
unt
nosepoi
nt
supst
r
eam,andgent
l
ersl
opet
ai
l
sof
fdownst
r
eam.I
nhei
ghtdr
uml
i
nsr
angef
r
om 8t
o60m,wi
t
h
aver
age somewhatl
ess t
han 30 m.Mostdr
uml
i
ns ar
e bet
ween 0.
5 and 1 km i
nl
engt
h,t
he l
engt
h
commonl
ysev
er
alt
i
meswi
dt
h.Di
agnost
i
cchar
act
er
i
st
i
csar
eshapeandcomposi
t
i
onofunst
r
at
i
f
i
edgl
aci
al
dr
i
f
t
,i
ncont
r
astt
okames,orst
r
at
i
f
i
edgl
aci
aldr
i
f
tandr
andom shapes.
dune -Moundorr
i
dgeofsandpi
l
edbywi
nd.

earthflow -Combi
nat
i
onofsl
umpandmudf
l
ow.

dust-cloud hypothesis -Hy

pot
hesi
st
hatsol
arsy
st
em wasf
or
medf
r
om condensat
i
onofi
nt
er
st
el
l
ardust
cl
ouds.

earth waves -Mechani

sm f
ort
r
ansmi
t
t
i
ngener
gyf
r
om ear
t
hquakef
ocus.

dust size -Vol

umel
esst
hant
hatofspher
ewi
t
hdi
amet
er0.
06mm;usedi
nr
ef
er
encet
opar
t
i
cl
escar
r
i
edi
n
suspensi
onbywi
nd.

ecliptic -Appar
entpat
hoft
hesuni
nt
heheav
ens;pl
aneofpl
anet
s'
or
bi
t
s.
eclogite facies -Met
amor
phi
cr
ock
sofgabbr
oi
ccomposi
t
i
on,consi
st
i
ngpr
i
mar
i
l
yofpy
r
ox
eneandgar
net
.
elastic deformation -Nonper
manentdef
or
mat
i
on,af
t
erwhi
chbodyr
et
ur
nst
oor
i
gi
nalshapeorv
ol
ume
whendef
or
mi
ngf
or
cer
emoved.
elastic energy -Ener
gy st
or
ed wi
t
hi
n a sol
i
d dur
i
ng el
ast
i
c def
or
mat
i
on and r
el
eased dur
i
ng el
ast
i
c
r
ebound.
elastic limit -Max
i
mum st
r
esst
hatpr
oducesonl
yel
ast
i
cdef
or
mat
i
on.
elastic rebound -Recover
yofel
ast
i
cst
r
ai
n,whenmat
er
i
albr
eaksordef
or
mi
ngf
or
cei
sr
emoved.
elastic solid -Asol
i
dt
haty
i
el
dst
oappl
i
edf
or
cebychangi
ngshape,v
ol
ume,orbot
hbutr
et
ur
nst
oor
i
gi
nal
condi
t
i
onswhenf
or
cei
sr
emov
ed.Amountofy
i
el
di
spr
opor
t
i
onalt
of
or
ce.
elasticity -A pr
oper
t
yofmat
er
i
al
st
hatdef
i
nesex
t
entt
owhi
cht
heyr
esi
stsmal
ldef
or
mat
i
ons,f
r
om whi
ch
t
heyr
ecov
ercompl
et
el
ywhendef
or
mi
ngf
or
cei
sr
emov
ed.El
ast
i
ci
t
yequal
sst
r
essdi
v
i
dedbyst
r
ai
n.
electric charge -Pr
oper
t
yofmat
t
err
esul
t
i
ngf
r
om i
mbal
ancebet
weennumberofpr
ot
onsandnumberof
el
ect
r
onsi
n gi
v
en pi
ece ofmat
t
er
.The el
ect
r
on hasnegat
i
vechar
ge;t
hepr
ot
on,posi
t
i
v
echar
ge.Li
ke
char
gesr
epeleachot
her
;unl
i
kechar
gesat
t
r
acteachot
her
.
electric current -Fl
ow ofel
ect
r
ons.

21

22

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

electric turbine generator -Appar

at
ust
hatusesst
eam f
r
om heatex
changert
odr
i
v
et
ur
bi
neandgener
at
e
el
ect
r
i
ci
t
y
.

erosion -Mov
ementofmat
er
i
alf
r
om onepl
acet
oanot
heronear
t
h'
ssur
f
ace.Agent
sofmovementi
ncl
ude
gr
av
i
t
y
,wat
er
,i
ce,andwi
nd.

electrical energy -Ener

gyofmov
i
ngel
ect
r
ons.

erosional flood plain -Fl

oodpl
ai
ncr
eat
edbyl
at
er
aler
osi
onandgr
adual
r
et
r
eatofval
l
eywal
l
s.

electron -Fundament
alpar
t
i
cl
eofmat
t
er
,t
hemostel
ement
ar
yuni
tofnegat
i
v
eel
ect
r
i
calchar
ge.Mass,
0.
00055u(
at
omi
cmassuni
torj
ustmassuni
t
)
.

erratic -I
nt
er
mi
nol
ogyofgl
aci
at
i
onast
oneorboul
dercar
r
i
edbyi
cet
oapl
acewher
ei
tr
est
sonornear
bedr
ockofdi
f
f
er
entcomposi
t
i
on.

electron shell -I
magi
nar
yspher
i
cal
sur
f
acer
epr
esent
i
ngal
lpossi
bl
epat
hsofel
ect
r
onswi
t
hsameaver
age
di
st
ancef
r
om nucl
eusandwi
t
happr
ox
i
mat
el
ysameener
gy
.

escape velocity -Mi

ni
mum v
el
oci
t
yanobj
ectmusthav
et
oescapef
r
om gr
av
i
t
at
i
onalf
i
el
d.Formoont
hi
si
s
about2.
83km/
sandf
orear
t
habout11.
2km/
s.

electron-capture decay -Radi

oact
i
v
edecayt
hatt
akespl
aceasanor
bi
t
alel
ect
r
oni
scapt
ur
edbyapr
ot
on
i
nnucl
eus.Massofel
ementr
emai
nsconst
ant
,butat
omi
cnumberdecr
easesby1.

esker -Wi
ndi
ng r
i
dge ofst
r
at
i
f
i
ed gl
aci
aldr
i
f
t
,st
eepsi
ded,3 t
o 15 m hi
gh,and f
r
om a f
r
act
i
on ofa
k
i
l
omet
ert
oov
er160km l
ong.

element -Uni
que combi
nat
i
ons ofpr
ot
ons,neut
r
ons,and el
ect
r
ons t
hatcannotbe br
oken down by
or
di
nar
ychemi
calmet
hods.Fundament
alpr
oper
t
i
esofanel
ementar
edet
er
mi
nedbynumberofpr
ot
ons,
eachel
ementassi
gnedanumbercor
r
espondi
ngt
oi
t
snumberofpr
ot
ons.Combi
nat
i
onscont
ai
ni
ngf
r
om 1
t
hr
ough103pr
ot
onsar
enowknown.

eugosyncline -Par
tofgeosy
ncl
i
nei
nwhi
chv
ol
cani
sm i
sassoci
at
edwi
t
hcl
ast
i
csedi
ment
at
i
on,gener
al
l
y
l
ocat
edawayf
r
om cr
at
on.

end moraine -Ri

dge orbel
toft
i
l
lmar
k
i
ng f
ar
t
hestadvances ofa gl
aci
er
.Somet
i
mescal
l
ed t
er
mi
nal
mor
ai
ne.
energy -Capaci
t
yf
orpr
oduci
ngmot
i
on.Ener
gyhol
dsmat
t
ert
oget
herandcanbecomemassorbeder
i
v
ed
f
r
om mass.Takessucht
er
msask
i
net
i
c,pot
ent
i
al
,heat
,chemi
cal
,el
ect
r
i
cal
,andat
omi
cener
gy
;onef
or
m
ofener
gycanbechangedt
oanot
her
.
energy level -Di
st
ance f
r
om at
omi
c nucl
eus atwhi
ch el
ect
r
ons or
bi
t
.May be t
houghtofas shel
l
sur
r
oundi
ngnucl
eus.

eustatic change -Changei

nseal
evelpr
oducedent
i
r
el
ybyi
ncr
easeordecr
easei
namountofwat
eri
n
oceans;henceofwor
l
dwi
depr
opor
t
i
ons.
eutrophic -I
nl
akeagi
ngper
t
ai
nst
oanol
dagel
akeandi
ndi
cat
eshi
ghsuppl
yofnut
r
i
ent
ssuppor
t
i
nghi
gh
bi
ol
ogi
cpr
oduct
i
v
i
t
y
.
evaporation -Pr
ocessbywhi
chl
i
qui
dbecomesv
aporatt
emper
at
ur
ebel
ow boi
l
i
ngpoi
nt
.
evaporite -r
ockcomposedofmi
ner
al
spr
eci
pi
t
at
edf
r
om sol
ut
i
onsconcent
r
at
edbyev
apor
at
i
onofsol
v
ent
s.
Ex
ampl
es:r
ocksal
t
,gy
psum,anhy
dr
i
t
e.
exfoliation -Pr
ocessbywhi
chr
ockpl
at
esar
est
r
i
ppedf
r
om l
ar
gerr
ockmassbyphy
si
calf
or
ces.

epicenter -Ar
eaonsur
f
acedi
r
ect
l
yabovef
ocusofear
t
hquake.
epidote -Si
l
i
cat
eofal
umi
num,cal
ci
um,andi
r
onchar
act
er
i
st
i
cofl
owgr
ademet
amor
phi
sm andassoci
at
ed
wi
t
hchl
or
i
t
eandal
bi
t
ei
ngr
eenschi
stf
aci
es.Bui
l
tar
oundi
ndependentt
et
r
ahedr
a.
epidote-amphibolite facies -Assembl
ageofmi
ner
al
sf
or
medbet
ween250and450 C dur
i
ngr
egi
onal
met
amor
phi
sm.
erg -Uni
tofener
gyex
pr
essi
ngcapaci
t
yf
ordoi
ngwor
k
.Equalt
oener
gyex
pendedwhenf
or
ceof1dy
ne
act
st
hr
oughdi
st
anceof1cm.

23

exfoliation dome -Lar

ge,r
oundeddomalf
eat
ur
epr
oducedi
nhomogenouscoar
segr
ai
nedi
gneousr
ock
s
andsomet
i
mesi
ncongl
omer
at
esbypr
ocessofex
f
ol
i
at
i
on.
external magnetic field -Componentofear
t
h'
sf
i
el
dor
i
gi
nat
i
ngf
r
om act
i
v
i
t
yaboveear
t
h'
ssur
f
ace.Smal
l
whencompar
edwi
t
hdi
pol
eandnondi
pol
ecomponent
soff
i
el
d,whi
chor
i
gi
nat
ebeneat
hsur
f
ace.
extravasate -Tocause(
mol
t
enl
ava)t
opourf
or
t
hf
r
om av
ol
cani
cv
ent
.

24

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

extrusive rock -Rocksol

i
di
f
i
edf
r
om massofmagmapour
edorbl
ownoutuponear
t
h'
ssur
f
ace.

facies -Assembl
ageofmi
ner
al
,r
ock
,orf
ossi
lf
eat
ur
esr
ef
l
ect
i
ngenv
i
r
onmenti
nwhi
chr
ockwasf
or
med.
Seesedi
ment
ar
yf
aci
es,met
amor
phi
cf
aci
es.
fault -Sur
f
aceofr
ockr
upt
ur
eal
ongwhi
chhasbeendi
f
f
er
ent
i
almovement
.Af
r
act
ur
ei
nt
hecont
i
nui
t
yofa
r
ockf
or
mat
i
on caused by a shi
f
t
i
ng ordi
sl
odgi
ng oft
he ear
t
h'
s cr
ust
,i
n whi
ch adj
acentsur
f
aces ar
e
di
f
f
er
ent
i
al
l
ydi
spl
acedpar
al
l
el
t
ot
hepl
aneoff
r
act
ur
e.Al
socal
l
edshift.
fault-block mountain -Mount
ai
nboundedbyoneormor
ef
aul
t
s.
feldspars -Si
l
i
cat
emi
ner
al
scomposedofsi
l
i
conoxy
genandal
umi
numoxy
gent
et
r
ahedr
al
i
nkedt
oget
her
i
nt
hr
eedi
mensi
onalnet
wor
k
swi
t
hposi
t
i
v
ei
onsf
i
t
t
edi
nt
oi
nt
er
st
i
cesofnegat
i
v
el
ychar
gedf
r
amewor
kof
t
et
r
ahedr
a.Cl
assedasal
umi
nosi
l
i
cat
es.Whenposi
t
i
v
ei
oni
sK+,mi
ner
ali
sor
t
hocl
ase;whenNa+,mi
ner
al
i
sal
bi
t
e;whenCa+,mi
ner
ali
sanor
t
hi
t
e.
felsite -Gener
al
t
er
mf
orl
i
ght
col
or
ed,f
i
negr
ai
nedi
gneousr
ock
s.
ferromagnesian silicate -Si
l
i
cat
ei
nwhi
chposi
t
i
v
ei
onsar
edomi
nat
edbyi
r
on,magnesi
um,orbot
h.
fibrous fracture -Mi
ner
alhabi
tofbr
eaki
ngi
nt
ospl
i
nt
er
sorf
i
ber
s.
fiery cloud -Av
al
ancheofi
ncandescentpy
r
ocl
ast
i
cdebr
i
smi
x
edwi
t
hst
eam andot
hergases,heav
i
ert
han
ai
r
,andpr
oj
ect
eddownav
ol
cano'
ssi
de.Al
socal
l
ednuear
dent
e.
fiord -Gl
aci
al
l
ydeepenedval
l
eynowf
l
oodedbyt
heseat
of
or
ml
ong,nar
r
ow,st
eepwal
l
edi
nl
et
.
firn -Gr
anul
ari
ce f
or
med by r
ecr
y
st
al
l
i
zat
i
on ofsnow.I
nt
er
medi
at
e bet
ween snow and gl
aci
eri
ce.
Somet
i
mescal
l
ednv.
fissility -Pr
oper
t
yofspl
i
t
t
i
ng al
ong cl
osel
yspaced pl
anes mor
e orl
esspar
al
l
elt
o beddi
ng.Pr
esence
di
st
i
ngui
shesshal
ef
r
om mudst
one.
fission -Pr
ocessbywhi
chat
omi
cnucl
eusbr
eak
sdownt
of
or
m nucl
eiofl
i
ght
erat
oms.
fissure eruption -Ex
t
r
usi
onofl
avaf
r
om f
i
ssur
ei
near
t
h'
scr
ust
.

25

26

Glossary of Geology

flashy stream -St

r
eam wi
t
hhi
ghf
l
oodpeakofshor
tdur
at
i
on,whi
chmaybecausedbyur
bani
zat
i
on.

Glossary of Geology

fossil -Ev
i
denceofpastl
i
f
e,suchasdi
nosaurbones,anci
entcl
am shel
l
,f
oot
pr
i
ntofl
ongex
t
i
nctani
mal
,or
i
mpr
essi
onofl
eafi
nr
ock
.

flint -Gr
anul
arcr
y
pt
ocr
y
st
al
l
i
ne si
l
i
ca,usual
l
y dul
land dar
k.Of
t
en occur
s as l
umps ornodul
es i
n
cal
car
eousr
ock
s,suchasCr
et
aceouschal
kbedsofsout
her
nEngl
and.
flood basalt -Basal
tpour
edoutf
r
om f
i
ssur
esi
nf
l
oodst
hatt
endt
of
or
m gr
eatpl
at
eaus.Somet
i
mescal
l
ed
pl
at
eaubasal
t
.

fossil fuels -Or

gani
cr
emai
nsusedt
opr
oduceheatorpowerbycombust
i
on.I
ncl
udecoal
,pet
r
ol
eum,and
nat
ur
algas.
fractional distillation -Recov
er
y-oneormor
eatat
i
me-off
r
act
i
onsofcompl
exl
i
qui
d,eachofwhi
chhas
di
f
f
er
entdensi
t
y
.

flood frequency -Ti

mewi
t
hi
nwhi
chaf
l
oodofagi
v
ensi
zecanbeex
pect
edt
ooccur
.
fractionation -Pr
ocesswher
ebycr
y
st
al
st
hatf
or
medear
l
yf
r
om magmahav
et
i
met
oset
t
l
eappr
eci
abl
y
bef
or
et
emper
at
ur
edr
opsmuchf
ur
t
her
.Theyar
et
husef
f
ect
i
v
el
yr
emov
edf
r
om env
i
r
onmenti
nwhi
cht
hey
f
or
med.

flood plain -Ar

eabor
der
i
ngast
r
eam,overwhi
chwat
erspr
eadsi
nt
i
meoff
l
ood.
flood plain of aggradation -Fl
oodpl
ai
nf
or
medbybui
l
di
ngupofv
al
l
eyf
l
oorbysedi
ment
at
i
on.

fracture -Asmi
ner
alchar
act
er
i
st
i
c,wayi
nwhi
chmi
ner
albr
eak
swheni
tdoesnothav
ecl
eavage.Maybe
conchoi
dal(
shel
lshaped)
,f
i
br
ous,hackl
y
,oruneven.

flotation -Pr
ocesst
hatbegi
nsconcent
r
at
i
onofor
emi
ner
al
sf
r
om gangue.
fracture cleavage -Sy
st
em ofj
oi
nt
sspacedf
r
act
i
onofcent
i
met
erapar
t
.
fluid -Mat
er
i
alt
hatof
f
er
sl
i
t
t
l
eornor
esi
st
ancet
of
or
cest
endi
ngt
ochangei
t
sshape.
freeboard of continents -Rel
at
i
v
eel
ev
at
i
onofcont
i
nent
swi
t
hr
espectt
oseal
evel
.
focus -Sour
ceofgi
vensetofear
t
hquakewaves.
fringing reef -Reefat
t
acheddi
r
ect
l
yt
ol
andmass.
fold -Bend,f
l
ex
ur
e,orwr
i
nkl
ei
nr
ockpr
oducedwhenr
ockwasi
napl
ast
i
cst
at
e.
frost action -Pr
ocess ofmechani
calweat
her
i
ng caused byr
epeat
ed cy
cl
es off
r
eezi
ng and t
hawi
ng.
Ex
pansi
onofwat
erdur
i
ngf
r
eez
i
ngcy
cl
epr
ov
i
desener
gyf
orpr
ocess.

fold mountains -Mount

ai
nsconsi
st
i
ngpr
i
mar
i
l
yofel
evat
ed,f
ol
dedsedi
ment
ar
yr
ock
s.
foliation -Lay
er
i
ng i
n some r
ock
s caused bypar
al
l
elal
i
gnmentofmi
ner
al
s;t
ex
t
ur
alf
eat
ur
e ofsome
met
amor
phi
cr
ock
s.Pr
oducesr
ockcl
eavage.
footwall -One ofbl
ock
s ofr
ocki
nv
ol
v
ed i
nf
aul
tmov
ement
.Onet
hatwoul
d beunderf
eetofper
son
st
andi
ngi
nt
unnelal
ongoracr
ossf
aul
t
;opposi
t
ehangi
ngwal
l
.

fumarole -Ventf
orvol
cani
cst
eam andgases.
fundamental particles -Pr
ot
ons,neut
r
ons,andel
ect
r
ons,whi
chcombi
net
of
or
m at
oms.Eachpar
t
i
cl
ei
s
def
i
nedi
nt
er
msofi
t
smassandi
t
sel
ect
r
i
cchar
ge.
fusion -Pr
ocessbywhi
chnucl
eiofl
i
ght
erat
omsj
oi
nt
of
or
m nucl
eiofheav
i
erat
oms.

fore dune -Dunei

mmedi
at
el
ybehi
ndshor
el
i
neofoceanorl
ar
gel
ake.
foreset beds -I
ncl
i
nedl
ay
er
sofsedi
mentdeposi
t
edonadv
anci
ngedgeofgr
owi
ngdel
t
aoral
ongl
eesl
ope
ofadv
anci
ngsanddune.
foreshock -Rel
at
i
v
el
ysmal
lear
t
hquaket
hatpr
ecedesl
ar
gerear
t
hquakebyaf
ew day
sorweek
sand
or
i
gi
nat
esatornearf
ocusofl
ar
gerear
t
hquake.

27

28

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

gabbro -Coar
segr
ai
nedi
gneousr
ockwi
t
hcomposi
t
i
onofbasal
t
.
galaxy -Fami
l
yofst
ar
sgr
oupedi
nspace.Theear
t
hbel
ongst
oMi
l
kyWaygal
axy
,whi
chcont
ai
nsabout
100bi
l
l
i
onst
ar
s.
galena -Ami
ner
al
;l
eadsul
f
i
d,PbS.Pr
i
nci
palor
eofl
ead.
gangue -Commer
ci
al
l
yv
al
uel
essmat
er
i
al
r
emai
ni
ngaf
t
eror
emi
ner
alex
t
r
act
i
onf
r
om r
ock
.
garnet -f
ami
l
yofsi
l
i
cat
esofi
r
on,magnesi
um,al
umi
num,cal
ci
um,manganese,andchr
omi
um,whi
char
e
bui
l
tar
oundi
ndependentt
et
r
ahedr
aandappearcommonl
yasdi
st
i
nct
i
v
e12si
ded,f
ul
l
ydev
el
opedcr
y
st
al
s.
Char
act
er
i
st
i
cofmet
amor
phi
cr
ock
s;gener
al
l
ycannotbedi
st
i
ngui
shedf
r
om oneanot
herwi
t
houtchemi
cal
anal
y
si
s.
gas -(
1)St
at
eofmat
t
ert
hathasnei
t
heri
ndependentshapenorvol
ume,canbecompr
essedr
eadi
l
y
,and
t
endst
o ex
pand i
ndef
i
ni
t
el
y
.(
2)I
n geol
ogy"
gas"i
ssomet
i
mes used t
or
ef
ert
o nat
ur
algas,gaseous
hy
dr
ocar
bonst
hatoccuri
nr
ock
s,domi
nat
edbymet
hane.Compar
e"
oi
l
,
"r
ef
er
r
i
ngt
opet
r
ol
eum.
geode -Roughl
yspher
i
cal
,hol
l
ow orpar
t
i
al
l
yhol
l
ow accumul
at
i
onofmi
ner
almat
t
erf
r
om af
ewcent
i
met
er
s
t
onear
l
y0.
5m i
ndi
amet
er
.Out
erl
ay
erofchal
cedonyl
i
nedwi
t
hcr
y
st
al
st
hatpr
oj
ectt
owar
dhol
l
ow cent
er
.
Cr
y
st
al
s,of
t
enper
f
ect
l
yf
or
med,usual
l
yquar
t
zal
t
houghcal
ci
t
eanddol
omi
t
eal
sof
oundand-mor
er
ar
el
yot
hermi
ner
al
s.Geodesmostcommonl
yf
oundi
nl
i
mest
oneandmor
er
ar
el
yi
nshal
e.
geographic poles -Poi
nt
sonear
t
h'
ssur
f
acemar
kedbyendsofax
i
si
nr
ot
at
i
on.
geologic column -Chr
onol
ogi
car
r
angementofr
ockuni
t
si
ncol
umnarf
or
m,wi
t
hol
destuni
t
satbot
t
om
andy
oungestatt
op.
geologic-time scale -Chr
onol
ogi
csequenceofuni
t
sofear
t
ht
i
me.
geologize -Tost
udygeol
ogyormakegeol
ogi
ci
nvest
i
gat
i
ons.
geology -Or
gani
zedbodyofk
nowl
edgeaboutt
heear
t
h,i
ncl
udi
ngphy
si
calgeol
ogyandhi
st
or
i
calgeol
ogy
,
amongot
her
s.
geomagnetic poles -Di
pol
ebestappr
ox
i
mat
i
ngear
t
h'
sobser
v
edf
i
el
di
sonei
ncl
i
ned11.
5f
r
om ax
i
sof
r
ot
at
i
on.Poi
nt
s atwhi
ch ends oft
hi
si
magi
nar
ymagnet
i
c ax
i
si
nt
er
sectear
t
h'
s sur
f
ace ar
e known as
geomagnet
i
cpol
es.Theyshoul
dnotbeconf
usedwi
t
hmagnet
i
c,ordi
p,pol
esorv
i
r
t
ualgeomagnet
i
cpol
es.

29

30

Glossary of Geology

geophysical prospecting -Mappi

ng r
ock st
r
uct
ur
es by met
hods ofex
per
i
ment
alphy
si
cs.I
ncl
udes
measur
i
ng magnet
i
cf
i
el
ds,f
or
ce ofgr
av
i
t
y
,el
ect
r
i
calpr
oper
t
i
es,sei
smi
cwav
e pat
hs and v
el
oci
t
i
es,
r
adi
oact
i
v
i
t
y
,andheatf
l
ow.

Glossary of Geology

Gondwanaland -Hy
pot
het
i
calcont
i
nentt
houghtt
ohavebr
okenupi
nMesozoi
c.Resul
t
i
ngf
r
agment
sar
e
post
ul
at
edt
of
or
m pr
esent
daySout
hAmer
i
ca,Af
r
i
ca,Aust
r
al
i
a,I
ndi
a,andAnt
ar
ct
i
ca.
graben -El
ongat
ed,t
r
enchl
i
ke,st
r
uct
ur
alf
or
m boundedbypar
al
l
elnor
malf
aul
t
scr
eat
edwhenbl
ockt
hat
f
or
mst
r
enchf
l
oormov
esdownwar
dr
el
at
i
vet
obl
ock
st
hatf
or
m si
des.

geophysics -Phy
si
csoft
heear
t
h.
geosyncline -Li
t
er
al
l
y
,"
ear
t
h sy
ncl
i
ne.
"Ter
m now r
ef
er
s,however
,t
o a basi
ni
n whi
ch t
housands of
met
er
sofsedi
ment
shaveaccumul
at
ed,wi
t
haccompany
i
ngpr
ogr
essi
v
esi
nki
ngofbasi
nf
l
oorex
pl
ai
ned
onl
yi
npar
tbyl
oadofsedi
ment
s.Commonusagei
ncl
udesbot
haccumul
at
edsedi
ment
st
hemsel
v
esand
geomet
r
i
calf
or
m ofbasi
ni
n whi
ch t
hey ar
e deposi
t
ed.Al
lf
ol
ded mount
ai
nr
anges wer
e bui
l
tf
r
om
geosy
ncl
i
nes,butnotal
lgeosy
ncl
i
neshav
ebecomemount
ai
nr
anges.
geothermal field -Ar
eawher
ewel
l
sdr
i
l
l
edt
oobt
ai
nel
ement
scont
ai
nedi
nsol
ut
i
oni
nhotbr
i
nesandt
ot
ap
heatener
gy
.
geothermal gradient -Seet
her
mal
gr
adi
ent
.

grade -Ter
m usedt
odesi
gnatex
t
entt
owhi
chmet
amor
phi
sm hasadv
anced.Foundi
nsuchcombi
nat
i
ons
as"
hi
ghgr
ade"or"
l
owgr
ademet
amor
phi
sm.
"Compar
ewi
t
hr
ank.
graded bedding -Ty
peofbeddi
ngshownbysedi
ment
ar
ydeposi
twhenpar
t
i
cl
esbecomepr
ogr
essi
v
el
y
f
i
nerf
r
om bot
t
om t
ot
op.
gradient -Sl
ope ofst
r
eam bed orl
andsur
f
ace;ex
pr
essed i
n per
cent
,asf
eetpermi
l
e,ormet
er
sper
k
i
l
omet
er
,ori
ndegr
ees.

geyser -Speci
alt
y
peoft
her
mal
spr
i
ngt
hati
nt
er
mi
t
t
ent
l
yej
ect
si
t
swat
erwi
t
hconsi
der
abl
ef
or
ce.

granite -Coar
segr
ai
nedi
gneousr
ockdomi
nat
edbyl
i
ght
col
or
edmi
ner
al
s,consi
st
i
ngofabout50per
cent
or
t
hocl
ase,25per
centquar
t
z
,andbal
anceofpl
agi
ocl
asef
el
dspar
sandf
er
r
omagnesi
ansi
l
i
cat
es.Gr
ani
t
es
andgr
anodi
or
i
t
escompr
i
se95per
centofal
li
nt
r
usi
v
er
ock
s.

glacier -A massofi
ce,f
or
medbyr
ecr
y
st
al
l
i
zat
i
onofsnow,t
hatf
l
owsf
or
war
dorhasf
l
owedatsomepast
t
i
meunderi
nf
l
uenceofgr
av
i
t
y
.Byconv
ent
i
onweex
cl
udei
ceber
gsevent
hought
heyar
el
ar
gef
r
agment
s
br
okenf
r
om seawar
dendofgl
aci
er
s.

granitization -Speci
alt
y
peofmet
amor
phi
sm bywhi
chsol
ut
i
onsofmagmat
i
cor
i
gi
nmovet
hr
oughsol
i
d
r
ock
s,changei
onswi
t
ht
hem,andconv
er
tt
hem i
nt
or
ock
st
hatachi
ev
egr
ani
t
i
cchar
act
erwi
t
houthav
i
ng
passedt
hr
oughmagmat
i
cst
age.

glacier ice -Uni

quef
or
m ofi
cedevel
opedbycompr
essi
onandr
ecr
y
st
al
l
i
zat
i
onofsnow andconsi
st
i
ngof
i
nt
er
l
ocki
ngcr
y
st
al
s.

granodiorite -Coar
segr
ai
nedi
gneousr
ocki
nt
er
medi
at
ei
ncomposi
t
i
onbet
weengr
ani
t
eanddi
or
i
t
e.

glass -For
m ofmat
t
ert
hatex
hi
bi
t
spr
oper
t
i
esofasol
i
dbuthasat
omi
car
r
angement
s,orl
ackofor
der
,ofa
l
i
qui
d.

granular texture -Composed ofmi

ner
algr
ai
nsl
ar
ge enough t
o beseen byunai
ded eye;al
socal
l
ed
phaner
i
t
i
ct
ex
t
ur
e.
granulite facies -Gnei
ssi
cr
ock
spr
oducedbydeepseat
edhi
ghgr
ader
egi
onalmet
amor
phi
sm.

Glossopteris flora -A l
at
ePal
eozoi
cassembl
ageoff
ossi
lpl
ant
snamedf
orseedf
er
nGl
ossopt
er
i
s,a
pl
anti
nt
hef
l
or
a.Wi
despr
eadi
nSout
hAmer
i
ca,Sout
hAf
r
i
ca,Aust
r
al
i
a,I
ndi
a,andAnt
ar
ct
i
ca.
gneiss -Met
amor
phi
cr
ockwi
t
hgnei
ssi
ccl
eavage.Commonl
yf
or
medbymet
amor
phi
sm ofgr
ani
t
e.

graphic structure -I
nt
i
mat
ei
nt
er
gr
owt
hofpot
assi
cf
el
dsparandquar
t
zwi
t
hl
ongax
esofquar
t
zcr
y
st
al
s
l
i
ni
nguppar
al
l
elt
of
el
dsparax
i
s.Quar
t
zpar
ti
sdar
kandf
el
dspari
sl
i
ghti
ncol
or
;sopat
t
er
nsuggest
s
Egy
pt
i
anhei
r
ogl
y
phs.Commonl
yf
oundi
npegmat
i
t
es.

gneissic cleavage -Rockcl

eavagewher
esur
f
acemaybeaf
ewhundr
edt
hsofami
l
l
i
met
ert
oacent
i
met
er
ormor
eapar
t
.

graphite -"
Bl
ackl
ead.
"A mi
ner
alcomposedent
i
r
el
yofcar
bon.Ver
ysof
tbecauseofcr
y
st
al
l
i
nest
r
uct
ur
e;
di
amond,i
ncont
r
ast
,hassamecomposi
t
i
onbuti
t
shar
destsubst
anceknown.

goethite -Hy
dr
ousi
r
onox
i
de,FeO(
OH)
.

gravity anomaly -Di

f
f
er
encebet
weenobser
v
edandcomput
edv
al
uesofgr
av
i
t
y
.

31

32

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

gravity fault -Faul

ti
n whi
ch hangi
ng wal
lappear
st
ohavemov
eddownwar
dr
el
at
i
vet
of
oot
wal
l
.Al
so
cal
l
ednor
mal
f
aul
t
.
gravity meter -Ani
nst
r
umentf
ormeasur
i
ngf
or
ceofgr
av
i
t
y
.Al
socal
l
edgr
av
i
met
er
.
gravity prospecting -Mappi
ng f
or
ce ofgr
av
i
t
yatdi
f
f
er
entpl
acest
o det
er
mi
ne di
f
f
er
encesi
n speci
f
i
c
gr
av
i
t
yofr
ockmasses and,t
hr
ough t
hi
s,di
st
r
i
but
i
on ofmassesofdi
f
f
er
entspeci
f
i
cgr
av
i
t
y
.Done wi
t
h
gr
av
i
t
ymet
er(
gr
av
i
met
er
)
.
graywacke -Av
ar
i
et
yofsandst
onegener
al
l
ychar
act
er
i
zedbyhar
dness,dar
kcol
or
,andangul
argr
ai
nsof
quar
t
z
,f
el
dspar
,andsmal
l
r
ockf
r
agment
sseti
nmat
r
i
xofcl
ay
si
zedpar
t
i
cl
es.Al
socal
l
edl
i
t
hi
csandst
one.
greenschist -Schi
stchar
act
er
i
zedbygr
een col
or
.Pr
oductofr
egi
onalmet
amor
phi
sm ofsi
mat
i
cr
ock
s.
(
Gr
eencol
ori
si
mpar
t
edbymi
ner
alchl
or
i
t
e.
)
greenschist facies - Assembl
age of mi
ner
al
sf
or
med bet
ween 150 and 250 C dur
i
ng r
egi
onal
met
amor
phi
sm.
groundmass -Fi
nel
ycr
y
st
al
l
i
neorgl
assypor
t
i
onofpor
phy
r
y
.
ground moraine -Ti
l
ldeposi
t
ed f
r
om a gl
aci
eras v
eneeroverl
andscape and f
or
mi
ng gent
l
yr
ol
l
i
ng
sur
f
ace.
groundwater -Under
gr
oundwat
erwi
t
hi
nzoneofsat
ur
at
i
on.
groundwater table -Uppersur
f
aceofzoneofsat
ur
at
i
onf
orunder
gr
oundwat
er
.Ani
r
r
egul
arsur
f
acewi
t
h
sl
ope orshape det
er
mi
ned byquant
i
t
yofgr
oundwat
erand per
meabi
l
i
t
yofear
t
h mat
er
i
al
s.I
n gener
al
,
hi
ghestbeneat
hhi
l
l
sandl
owestbeneat
hval
l
ey
s.Al
sor
ef
er
r
edt
oaswat
ert
abl
e.
guyot -Fl
at
t
oppedseamountr
i
si
ngf
r
om oceanf
l
oorl
i
keav
ol
canobutpl
anedof
font
opandcover
edby
appr
eci
abl
ewat
erdept
h.Sy
nony
mouswi
t
ht
abl
emount
.
t
,commonmi
ner
ali
nsedi
ment
ar
yr
ock
s,wher
ei
t
gypsum -Hy
dr
ouscal
ci
um sul
f
at
e,CaSO4 2H2O.Asof
somet
i
mesoccur
si
nt
hi
ckbedsi
nt
er
st
r
at
i
f
i
edwi
t
hl
i
mest
onesandshal
es.Somet
i
mesoccur
sasl
ayerunder
bedofr
ocksal
tsi
ncei
ti
soneoff
i
r
stmi
ner
al
st
ocr
y
st
al
l
i
zeonevapor
at
i
onofseawat
er
.Al
abast
eri
saf
i
negr
ai
nedmassi
vev
ar
i
et
yofgy
psum.

33

34

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

heat energy -Speci

almani
f
est
at
i
onofki
net
i
cener
gyi
nat
oms.Temper
at
ur
eofasubst
ancedependson
aver
agek
i
net
i
cener
gyofcomponentpar
t
i
cl
es.Whenheati
saddedt
oasubst
ance,aver
agek
i
net
i
cener
gy
i
ncr
eases.

H -Sy
mbol
f
ormi
ner
al
har
dness.

heat exchanger -Uni

ti
n at
omi
cpowergener
at
i
on t
hatuses wat
er(
heat
ed underpr
essur
e byat
omi
c
r
eact
or
)t
of
or
m st
eam f
r
om wat
eri
nanot
hersy
st
em andt
odr
i
v
eat
ur
bi
nef
orel
ect
r
i
ci
t
ygener
at
i
on.

hackly fracture -Mi

ner
al
'
shabi
tofbr
eaki
ngt
opr
oducej
agged,i
r
r
egul
arsur
f
aceswi
t
hshar
pedges.
half-life -Ti
meneededf
oronehal
fofnucl
eii
nsampl
eofr
adi
oact
i
v
eel
ementt
odecay
.

heat flow - Pr
oduct of t
her
mal gr
adi
ent and t
her
mal conduct
i
v
i
t
y of ear
t
h mat
er
i
al
s.
2
s.
Av
er
ageov
erwhol
eear
t
h,1.
20.
15 cal
/
cm -

halide -Compoundmadef
r
om ahal
ogen,suchaschl
or
i
ne,i
odi
ne,br
omi
ne,orf
l
uor
i
ne.
heave -Todi
spl
aceormov
e(
avei
n,l
ode,orst
r
at
um,f
orexampl
e)
.
halite -A mi
ner
al
;r
ocksal
torcommonsal
t
,NaCl
.Occur
swi
del
ydi
ssemi
nat
edori
nex
t
ensi
v
ebedsand
i
r
r
egul
armassespr
eci
pi
t
at
edf
r
om seawat
erandi
nt
er
st
r
at
i
f
i
edwi
t
hr
ock
sofot
hert
y
pesast
r
uesedi
ment
ar
y
r
ock
.
hanging valley -A v
al
l
eyt
hathasgr
eat
erel
ev
at
i
ont
hant
he v
al
l
eyt
owhi
ch i
ti
st
r
i
but
ar
y
,atpoi
ntof
j
unct
i
on.Of
t
en(
butnotal
way
s)cr
eat
edbydeepeni
ngofmai
nv
al
l
eybyagl
aci
er
.Hangi
ngv
al
l
eyi
t
sel
fmay
ormaynotbegl
aci
at
ed.

height -Thev
er
t
i
caldi
f
f
er
encei
nel
evat
i
onbet
weenanobj
ectandi
t
si
mmedi
at
esur
r
oundi
ngs.
hematite -I
r
onox
i
de,Fe2O3.Pr
i
nci
palor
emi
ner
alf
orabout90per
centofcommer
ci
ali
r
onpr
oducedi
n
Uni
t
edSt
at
es.Char
act
er
i
st
i
cr
edcol
orwhenpowder
ed.
hinge fault -Faul
ti
nwhi
chdi
spl
acementpr
ecept
i
bl
ydi
esoutal
ongst
r
i
keandendsatdef
i
ni
t
epoi
nt
.

hanging wall -Oneofbl

ock
si
nv
ol
v
edi
nf
aul
tmovement
.Onet
hatwoul
dbehangi
ngover
headf
orper
son
st
andi
ngi
nt
unnelal
ongoracr
ossf
aul
t
;opposi
t
ef
oot
wal
l
.
hardness -Mi
ner
al
'
sr
esi
st
ance t
o scr
at
chi
ng on a smoot
h sur
f
ace.Mohs scal
e ofr
el
at
i
v
e har
dness
consi
st
sof10mi
ner
al
s,eachscr
at
chi
ngal
lt
hosebel
ow i
ti
nscal
eandbei
ngscr
at
chedbyal
lt
hoseabove
i
t
:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

historical geology -Br

anchofgeol
ogyt
hatdeal
swi
t
hhi
st
or
yoft
heear
t
h,i
ncl
udi
ngr
ecor
dofl
i
f
eonear
t
h
aswel
lasphy
si
cal
changesi
near
t
hi
t
sel
f
.
horn -Spi
r
eofbedr
ockl
ef
twher
eci
r
queshaveeat
eni
nt
oamount
ai
nf
r
om mor
et
hant
wosi
desar
ounda
cent
r
alar
ea.Ex
ampl
e:Mat
t
er
hor
noft
heSwi
ssAl
ps.
hornblende - A r
ock
f
or
mi
ng f
er
r
omagnesi
an si
l
i
cat
e mi
ner
alwi
t
h doubl
e chai
ns ofsi
l
i
conoxy
gen
t
et
r
ahedr
al
.Anamphi
bol
e.

t
al
c
gy
psum
cal
ci
t
e
f
l
uor
i
t
e
apat
i
t
e
or
t
hocl
ase
quar
t
z
t
opaz
cor
undum
di
amond

hornfels -Dense,gr
anul
armet
amor
phi
cr
ock.Si
ncet
hi
st
er
mi
s commonl
yappl
i
ed t
o a met
amor
phi
c
equi
v
al
entofanyf
i
negr
ai
nedr
ock,composi
t
i
oni
sv
ar
i
abl
e.
hornfels facies -Assembl
age ofmi
ner
al
sf
or
med ast
emper
at
ur
esgr
eat
ert
han 700 C dur
i
ng cont
act
met
amor
phi
sm.

head -Di
f
f
er
encei
nel
ev
at
i
onbet
weeni
nt
akeanddi
schar
gepoi
nt
sf
oral
i
qui
d.I
ngeol
ogymostcommonl
y
ofi
nt
er
esti
nconnect
i
onwi
t
hmov
ementofunder
gr
oundwat
er
.

35

horst -El
ongat
edbl
ockboundedbypar
al
l
elnor
malf
aul
t
si
nsuchawayt
hati
tst
andsabovebl
ock
sonbot
h
si
des.

36

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

hot spot -Local

i
zed mel
t
i
ng r
egi
on i
n mant
l
e nearbase ofl
i
t
hospher
e,a f
ew hundr
ed ki
l
omet
er
si
n
di
amet
erandper
si
st
entovert
ensofmi
l
l
i
onsofy
ear
s.Ex
i
st
enceofheati
sassumedf
r
om v
ol
cani
cact
i
v
i
t
y
atsur
f
ace.
hot spring -Ther
malspr
i
ngt
hatbr
i
ngshotwat
ert
osur
f
ace.Wat
ert
emper
at
ur
eusual
l
y6.
5 C ormor
e
abovemeanai
rt
emper
at
ur
e.
hydration -Pr
ocessbywhi
chwat
ercombi
neschemi
cal
l
ywi
t
hot
hermol
ecul
es.
hydraulic gradient -Headofunder
gr
oundwat
erdi
v
i
dedbydi
st
anceoft
r
avelbet
weent
wopoi
nt
s:I
fhead
i
s10m f
ort
wopoi
nt
s100m apar
t
,hy
dr
aul
i
cgr
adi
enti
s0.
1or10per
cent
.Whenheadanddi
st
anceoff
l
ow
ar
esame,hy
dr
aul
i
cgr
adi
enti
s100per
cent
.
hydraulic mining -Use ofst
r
ong wat
erj
ett
o move deposi
t
s ofsand and gr
avelf
r
om or
i
gi
nalsi
t
et
o
separ
at
i
ngequi
pment
,wher
esought
f
ormi
ner
al
i
sex
t
r
act
ed.
hydrocarbon -Compoundofhy
dr
ogenandcar
bont
hatbur
nsi
nai
rt
of
or
m wat
erandox
i
desofcar
bon.
Ther
ear
emanyhy
dr
ocar
bons.Thesi
mpl
es,met
hane,i
schi
efcomponentofnat
ur
algas.Pet
r
ol
eum i
sa
compl
exmi
x
t
ur
eofhy
dr
ocar
bons.
hydroelectric power -Conv
er
si
onofener
gyt
oel
ect
r
i
ci
t
ybyf
r
eef
al
lofwat
er
.Thi
smet
hodsuppl
i
esabout
4per
centofwor
l
d'
sel
ect
r
i
calener
gy
.
hydrograph -Gr
aphofv
ar
i
at
i
onofst
r
eam f
l
ow ov
ert
i
me.
hydrologic cycle -Gener
alpat
t
er
n ofwat
ermovementby ev
apor
at
i
on f
r
om sea t
o at
mospher
e,by
pr
eci
pi
t
at
i
onont
ol
and,andbyr
et
ur
nt
oseaunderi
nf
l
uenceofgr
av
i
t
y.
hydrothermal solution -Hot
,wat
er
ysol
ut
i
ont
hatusual
l
yemanat
esf
r
om magmai
nl
at
est
agesofcool
i
ng.
Fr
equent
l
ycont
ai
ns,anddeposi
t
si
neconomi
cal
l
ywor
kabl
econcent
r
at
i
ons,mi
norel
ement
st
hat
,because
ofi
ncommensur
at
ei
oni
cr
adi
iorel
ect
r
oni
cchar
ges,hav
e notbeen abl
et
of
i
ti
nt
o at
omi
cst
r
uct
ur
esof
commonmi
ner
al
sofi
gneousr
ock
s.
hysteresis -Ret
ar
dat
i
onofr
ecov
er
yf
r
om el
ast
i
cdef
or
mat
i
onaf
t
erst
r
essi
sr
emoved.

37

38

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

intensity -Measur
eofef
f
ect
sofear
t
hquakewav
esonhumanbei
ngs,st
r
uct
ur
es,andear
t
h'
ssur
f
aceat
par
t
i
cul
arpl
ace.Cont
r
astwi
t
hmagni
t
ude,whi
chi
smeasur
eoft
ot
alener
gyr
el
easedbyanear
t
hquake.
icecap -Local
i
zedi
cesheet
.
ice sheet -Br
oad,moundl
i
ke mass ofgl
aci
eri
ce ofconsi
der
abl
e ex
t
entt
hathast
endencyt
ospr
ead
r
adi
al
l
yunderownwei
ght
.Local
i
zedi
cesheet
sar
esomet
i
mescal
l
edi
cecaps.

intermediate belt -Subdi

v
i
si
onofzoneofaer
at
i
on.Bel
tt
hatl
i
esbet
weenbel
tofsoi
lmoi
st
ur
eandcapi
l
l
ar
y
f
r
i
nge.
intermediate lava -Lav
acomposedof60t
o65per
centsi
l
i
ca.

igneous -(
1) For
medbysol
i
di
f
i
cat
i
onf
r
om amol
t
enst
at
e.Usedofr
ock
s.(
2) Oforr
el
at
i
ngt
or
ockso
f
or
med;py
r
ogeni
c.

intrusive rock -Rocksol

i
di
f
i
edf
r
om massofmagmat
hati
nvadedear
t
h'
scr
ustbutdi
dnotr
eachsur
f
ace.

igneous rock -Aggr

egat
eofi
nt
er
l
ocki
ngsi
l
i
cat
emi
ner
al
sf
or
medbycool
i
ngandsol
i
di
f
i
cat
i
onofmagma.

ion -El
ect
r
i
cal
l
yunbal
ancedf
or
m ofanat
om orgr
oupofat
oms,pr
oducedbygai
norl
ossofel
ect
r
ons.

illite -Cl
aymi
ner
alf
ami
l
yofhy
dr
ousal
umi
noussi
l
i
cat
es.St
r
uct
ur
ei
ssi
mi
l
art
ot
hatofmont
mor
i
l
l
oni
t
e,but
al
umi
num r
epl
aces10t
o15per
centofsi
l
i
con,whi
chdest
r
oy
smont
mor
i
l
l
oni
t
e'
spr
oper
t
yofex
pandi
ngwi
t
h
addi
t
i
on of wat
er because weak bonds r
epl
aced by st
r
ong pot
assi
umi
on l
i
nk
s. St
r
uct
ur
al
l
yi
l
l
i
t
e
i
nt
er
medi
at
ebet
weenmont
mor
i
l
l
oni
t
eandmuscov
i
t
e.Mont
mor
i
l
l
oni
t
econv
er
t
st
oi
l
l
i
t
ei
nsedi
ment
s;i
l
l
i
t
e,t
o
muscov
i
t
eundercondi
t
i
onsofl
owgr
ademet
amor
phi
sm.I
l
l
i
t
ei
scommonestcl
aymi
ner
ali
ncl
ayeyr
ock
s
andr
ecentmar
i
nesedi
ment
sandi
spr
esenti
nmanysoi
l
s.

ionic bond -Bondi

nwhi
chi
onsar
ehel
dt
oget
herbyel
ect
r
i
calat
t
r
act
i
onofopposi
t
echar
ges.
ionic radius -Av
er
age di
st
ancef
r
om cent
ert
o out
er
mostel
ect
r
on ofan i
on.Commonl
yex
pr
essed i
n
angst
r
oms.
island-arc deeps -Ar
cuat
et
r
enchesbor
der
i
ngsomecont
i
nent
s;somer
eachdept
hsof9,
000m ormor
e
bel
owseasur
f
ace.Al
socal
l
eddeepseat
r
enchesort
r
enches.

ilmenite -I
r
ont
i
t
ani
um ox
i
de.Account
sf
ormuchofuni
queabundanceoft
i
t
ani
um onmoon.
inclined bedding -Beddi
ngl
ai
ddownatangl
et
ohor
i
zont
al
.Al
sor
ef
er
r
edt
oascr
ossbeddi
ngorcur
r
ent
beddi
ng.
index minerals -Chl
or
i
t
e,l
owgr
ademet
amor
phi
sm;al
mandi
t
e,mi
ddl
egr
ademet
amor
phi
sm;si
l
l
i
mani
t
e,
hi
ghgr
ademet
amor
phi
sm.
induced magnetism -I
nt
er
mi
nol
ogyofr
ockmagnet
i
sm oneofcomponent
sofr
ock'
snat
ur
alr
emanent
magnet
i
sm.I
ti
spar
al
l
elt
oear
t
h'
spr
esentf
i
el
dandr
esul
t
sf
r
om i
t
.
inertia member -Cent
r
alel
ementofasei
smogr
aph,consi
st
i
ngofwei
ghtsuspendedbywi
r
eorspr
i
ngso
t
hati
tact
sl
i
kependul
um f
r
eet
omov
ei
nonl
yonepl
ane.

isoclinal folding -Bedsonbot

hl
i
mbsnear
l
ypar
al
l
el
,whet
herf
ol
dupr
i
ght
,over
t
ur
ned,orr
ecumbent
.
isograd -Li
neconnect
i
ngt
hoser
ock
scompr
i
si
ngt
hesamemet
amor
phi
cf
aci
es;l
i
neconnect
i
ngsi
mi
l
ar
t
emper
at
ur
epr
essur
ev
al
ues;l
i
nemar
k
i
ngt
heboundar
ybet
weent
womet
amor
phi
cf
aci
es.
isoseismic line -Li
neconnect
i
ngal
lpoi
nt
sonsur
f
aceofear
t
hwher
ei
nt
ensi
t
yofshak
i
ngf
r
om ear
t
hquake
wavesi
ssame.
isostasy -I
dealcondi
t
i
on ofbal
ancet
hatwoul
d be at
t
ai
ned byear
t
h mat
er
i
al
sofdi
f
f
er
i
ng densi
t
i
esi
f
gr
av
i
t
ywer
et
heonl
yf
or
cegover
ni
nghei
ght
sr
el
at
i
v
et
oeachot
her
.
isotope -Al
t
er
nat
i
vef
or
m ofanel
ementpr
oducedbyv
ar
i
at
i
onsi
nnumberofneut
r
onsi
nnucl
eus.

infiltration -Soaki
ngi
nt
ogr
oundofwat
eronsur
f
ace.
inosilicate -Mi
ner
alwi
t
hcr
y
st
al
st
r
uct
ur
econt
ai
ni
ngsi
l
i
conoxy
gent
et
r
ahedr
ai
nsi
ngl
eordoubl
echai
ns.

39

40

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

jasper -Gr
anul
ar
,cr
y
pt
ocr
y
st
al
l
i
nesi
l
i
causual
l
ycol
or
edr
edbyhemat
i
t
ei
ncl
usi
ons.
joint -Br
eaki
nr
ockmasswi
t
hnor
el
at
i
v
emovementofr
ockonopposi
t
esi
desofbr
eak
joint system -Combi
nat
i
onofi
nt
er
sect
i
ngj
oi
ntset
s,of
t
enatappr
ox
i
mat
el
yr
i
ghtangl
es.
juvenile water -Wat
erbr
oughtt
osur
f
aceoraddedt
ounder
gr
oundsuppl
i
esf
r
om magma.

kame -St
eepsi
dedhi
l
lofst
r
at
i
f
i
edgl
aci
aldr
i
v
e.Di
st
i
ngui
shedf
r
om dr
uml
i
nbyl
ackofuni
queshapeandby
st
r
at
i
f
i
cat
i
on.

41

42

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

kame terrace -St

r
at
i
f
i
edgl
aci
aldr
i
f
tdeposi
t
edbet
weenwast
i
nggl
aci
erandadj
acentval
l
eywal
l
.Wheni
ce
mel
t
s,t
hi
smat
er
i
al
st
andsasat
er
r
aceal
ongv
al
l
eywal
l
.
Kansan -Of
,orr
el
at
i
ngt
o,t
hesecondgl
aci
alst
ageoft
hePl
ei
st
ocenei
nNor
t
hAmer
i
ca.
8

kaolinite -Cl
aymi
ner
al
,hy
dr
ousal
umi
noussi
l
i
cat
e,Al
OH).St
r
uct
ur
econsi
st
sofonesheetof
4Si
4O10(
4si
l
i
conoxy
gent
et
r
ahedr
aeachshar
i
ngt
hr
eeox
y
genst
ogi
v
er
at
i
oof(
Si
i
nkedwi
t
honesheetof
4O10) l
al
umi
num and hy
dr
ox
l
. Composi
t
i
on of pur
e kaol
i
ni
t
e does not v
ar
y as f
or ot
her cl
ay mi
ner
al
s,
mont
mor
i
l
l
oni
t
eandi
l
l
i
t
e,i
nwhi
chr
eadyaddi
t
i
onorsubst
i
t
ut
i
onofi
onst
akespl
ace.
karst topography -I
r
r
egul
art
opogr
aphychar
act
er
i
zedbysi
nkhol
es,st
r
eaml
essv
al
l
ey
s,andst
r
eamst
hat
di
sappearunder
gr
ound-al
ldevel
opedbyact
i
onofsur
f
aceandunder
gr
oundwat
eri
nsol
ubl
er
ocksuchas
l
i
mest
one.

L -Sy
mbol
f
orear
t
hquakesur
f
acewaves.
laccolith -Concor
dantpl
ut
ont
hathasdomedupst
r
at
ai
nt
owhi
chi
ti
nt
r
uded.

Kerguelen-Gaussberg Ridge -Bel

tofmount
ai
nsunderI
ndi
anOceanbet
weenI
ndi
aandAnt
ar
ct
i
ca.
kettle -Depr
essi
oni
ngr
oundsur
f
acef
or
medbymel
t
i
ngofabl
ockofi
cebur
i
edorpar
t
i
al
l
ybur
i
edbygl
aci
al
dr
i
f
t
,ei
t
herout
washort
i
l
l
.
kinetic energy -Ener
gyofmov
ement
.Amountpossessedbyanobj
ectorpar
t
i
cl
edependsonmassand
speed.
i
O5 i
n
kyanite -A si
l
i
cat
e mi
ner
alchar
act
er
i
st
i
c oft
emper
at
ur
es ofmi
ddl
egr
ade met
amor
phi
sm.Al
2S
bl
adedbl
uecr
y
st
al
si
ssof
t
ert
hanakni
f
eal
ongt
hecr
y
st
al
.I
t
scr
y
st
al
l
i
nest
r
uct
ur
ei
sbasedoni
ndependent
t
et
r
ahedr
a.Compar
ewi
t
handal
usi
t
e,whi
chhassamecomposi
t
i
onandf
or
msundersi
mi
l
arcondi
t
i
onsbut
hasdi
f
f
er
entcr
y
st
alhabi
t
.Cont
r
astwi
t
hsi
l
l
i
mani
t
e,whi
chhassamecomposi
t
i
onbutdi
f
f
er
entcr
y
st
alhabi
t
andf
or
msathi
ghestmet
amor
phi
ct
emper
at
ur
es.

lag time -Onst

r
eam hy
dr
ogr
apht
i
mei
nt
er
valbet
weencent
erofmassofpr
eci
pi
t
at
i
onandcent
erofmass
ofr
esul
t
i
ngf
l
ood.
laminar flow -Mechani
sm bywhi
chf
l
ui
d(
suchaswat
er
)mov
essl
owl
yal
ongasmoot
hchannelort
hr
ough
at
ube wi
t
h smoot
h wal
l
s wi
t
hf
l
ui
d par
t
i
cl
es f
ol
l
owi
ng st
r
ai
ght
l
i
ne pat
hs par
al
l
elt
o channelorwal
l
s.
Cont
r
astwi
t
ht
ur
bul
entf
l
ow.
landslide -Gener
alt
er
mf
orr
el
at
i
vel
yr
api
d massmov
ement
,such assl
ump,r
ocksl
i
de,debr
i
ssl
i
de,
mudf
l
ow,andear
t
hf
l
ow.
lapilli -Py
r
ocl
ast
i
cdebr
i
si
npi
ecesaboutwal
nutsi
ze.
large waves -Ear
t
hquakesur
f
acewaves.
latent heat of fusion -Numberofcal
or
i
esperuni
tv
ol
umet
hatmustbeaddedt
oamat
er
i
alatmel
t
i
ng
poi
ntt
ocompl
et
epr
ocessofmel
t
i
ng.Thesecal
or
i
esdonotr
ai
set
emper
at
ur
e.
lateral moraine -Ri
dgeoft
i
l
lal
ongedgeofv
al
l
eygl
aci
er
.Composedl
ar
gel
yofmat
er
i
alf
al
l
ent
ogl
aci
er
f
r
om v
al
l
eywal
l
s.
laterite -Tr
opi
calsoi
lr
i
ch i
n hy
dr
ox
i
des ofal
umi
num and i
r
on and f
or
med undercondi
t
i
ons ofgood
dr
ai
nage.

43

44

Glossary of Geology

lava -Magmapour
edoutonsur
f
aceofear
t
horr
ocksol
i
di
f
i
edf
r
om suchmagma.

Glossary of Geology

loess -Unconsol
i
dat
ed,unst
r
at
i
f
i
edaggr
egat
i
onofsmal
l
,angul
armi
ner
alf
r
agment
s,usual
l
ybuf
fi
ncol
or
.
Gener
al
l
ybel
i
evedt
obewi
nddeposi
t
ed;char
act
er
i
st
i
cal
l
yabl
et
ost
andonv
er
yst
eept
ov
er
t
i
calsl
opes.

leading edge -Thatmar

gi
nt
hatoccur
sont
hesi
deofacont
i
nentwhi
chi
sr
i
di
ngonapl
at
ei
nmot
i
on
t
owar
danot
herpl
at
e;commonl
yt
hi
smar
gi
ni
sv
er
yact
i
v
et
ect
oni
cal
l
y
.

longitudinal dune -Longr

i
dgeofsand(
dune)or
i
ent
edi
ngener
aldi
r
ect
i
onofwi
ndmovement
.Asmal
lone
i
sl
esst
han3m hi
ghand60m l
ong.Ver
yl
ar
geonesar
ecal
l
edsei
fdunes.

left-lateral fault -St

r
i
kesl
i
pf
aul
twher
egr
oundopposi
t
ey
ouappear
st
ohav
emovedl
ef
twhenyouf
acei
t
.
longitudinal wave -Pushpul
lwav
e.
levee (natural) -Bankofsandandsi
l
tbui
l
tbyr
i
v
erdur
i
ngf
l
oods,wher
esuspendedl
oaddeposi
t
edi
n
gr
eat
estquant
i
t
ycl
oset
or
i
v
er
.Pr
ocessofdev
el
opi
ngnat
ur
all
ev
eest
endst
or
ai
ser
i
verbank
sabovel
ev
el
ofsur
r
oundi
ngf
l
oodpl
ai
ns.Br
eaki
nnat
ur
all
ev
eesomet
i
mescal
l
edcr
ev
asse.

lopolith -Tabul
arconcor
dantpl
ut
onshapedl
i
kespoonbowl
,wi
t
hbot
hr
oofandf
l
oorsaggi
ngdownwar
d.

lignite -Lowgr
adecoal
,wi
t
habout70per
centcar
bonand20per
centox
y
gen.I
nt
er
medi
at
ebet
weenpeat
andbi
t
umi
nouscoal
.
limb -Oneoft
wopar
t
sofant
i
cl
i
neorsy
ncl
i
ne,onei
t
hersi
deofax
i
s.
limestone -Sedi
ment
ar
yr
ockcomposedl
ar
gel
yofmi
ner
alcal
ci
t
e,CaCO3,f
or
medbyei
t
heror
gani
cor
i
nor
gani
cpr
ocesses.Mostl
i
mest
oneshavecl
ast
i
ct
ex
t
ur
e,butnoncl
ast
i
c,par
t
i
cul
ar
l
ycr
y
st
al
l
i
ne,t
ex
t
ur
es
ar
e common.Car
bonat
er
ock
s,l
i
mest
one and dol
omi
t
e,const
i
t
ut
e est
i
mat
ed 12 t
o 22 per
centof
sedi
ment
ar
yr
ock
sex
posedaboveseal
ev
el
.
limonite -I
r
on ox
i
de wi
t
h nof
i
x
edcomposi
t
i
on orat
omi
cst
r
uct
ur
e;a mi
ner
al
oi
d.Al
way
sofsecondar
y
or
i
gi
n,notat
r
uemi
ner
al
.I
sencount
er
edasor
di
nar
yr
ustorcol
or
i
ngmat
er
i
alofy
el
l
owcl
ay
sandsoi
l
s.
liquefaction -Pr
ocess ofchangi
ng soi
land unconsol
i
dat
ed sedi
ment
si
nt
o wat
ermi
x
t
ur
ei
mmedi
at
el
y
f
ol
l
owi
ngear
t
hquake;of
t
enr
esul
t
si
nf
oundat
i
onf
ai
l
ur
e,wi
t
hsl
i
di
ngofgr
oundunderbui
l
di
ngst
r
uct
ur
es.
liquid -St
at
e ofmat
t
ert
hatf
l
ows r
eadi
l
y so t
hatt
he mass assumes f
or
m ofcont
ai
nerbutr
et
ai
ns
i
ndependentv
ol
ume.
lithic sandstone -Seegr
ay
wacke.
lithification -Pr
ocessbywhi
chunconsol
i
dat
edr
ock
f
or
mi
ngmat
er
i
al
sar
econv
er
t
edi
nt
oconsol
i
dat
edor
coher
entst
at
e.
lithosphere -Ri
gi
dout
erl
ayerofear
t
h;i
ncl
udescr
ustandupperpar
tofmant
l
e.Rel
at
i
v
el
yst
r
ongl
ay
eri
n
cont
r
astt
ounder
l
y
i
ngast
henospher
e.

45

magma -Nat
ur
al
l
yoccur
r
i
ngsi
l
i
cat
emel
t
,whi
chmaycont
ai
nsuspendedsi
l
i
cat
ecr
y
st
al
s,di
ssol
v
edgases,
orbot
h.Thesecondi
t
i
onsmaybemeti
ngener
albyami
x
t
ur
econt
ai
ni
ngasmuchas65per
centcr
y
st
al
s
butnomor
et
han11per
centdi
ssol
v
edgases.

46

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

magmatic segregation -Thepr

ocessbywhi
chheavy
,ear
l
ycr
st
al
l
i
zedmi
ner
al
sset
t
l
eoutf
r
om amagma
andbecomeconcent
r
at
ed.

marl -Cal
car
eous cl
ay ori
nt
i
mat
e mi
x
t
ur
e ofcl
ay and par
t
i
cl
es ofcal
ci
t
e ordol
omi
t
e,usual
l
y shel
l
f
r
agment
s.

magnetic declination -Angl

e ofdi
v
er
gence bet
ween geogr
aphi
c mer
i
di
an and magnet
i
c mer
i
di
an.
Measur
edi
ndegr
eeseastandwestofgeogr
aphi
cnor
t
h.

marsh gas -Met

hane,CH4;si
mpl
estpar
af
f
i
nhy
dr
ocar
bon.Pr
edomi
nantcomponentofnat
ur
algas.
mascons -Concent
r
at
i
onsofmassl
ocat
edbeneat
hsur
f
acesofl
unalmar
i
a.

magnetic inclination -Angl

et
hatmagnet
i
c needl
e makes wi
t
h sur
f
ace ofear
t
h.Al
so cal
l
ed di
p of
magnet
i
cneedl
e.
magnetic pole -Nor
t
hmagnet
i
cpol
ei
spoi
ntonear
t
h'
ssur
f
acewher
enor
t
hseeki
ngendofamagnet
i
c
needl
ef
r
eet
omovei
nspacepoi
nt
sdi
r
ect
l
ydown.Atsout
hmagnet
i
cpol
et
hesameneedl
epoi
nt
sdi
r
ect
l
y
up.Thesepol
esar
eal
sok
nownasdi
ppol
es.
magnetic reversal -Shi
f
tof180 i
n ear
t
h'
smagnet
i
cf
i
el
dsucht
hatnor
t
hseeki
ng needl
eofmagnet
i
c
compasswoul
dpoi
ntsout
hr
at
hert
hant
onor
t
hmagnet
i
cpol
e.

mass -Anumbert
hatmeasur
esquant
i
t
yofmat
t
er
.I
ti
sobt
ai
nedonear
t
h'
ssur
f
acebydi
v
i
di
ngwei
ghtofa
bodybyaccel
er
at
i
onduet
ogr
av
i
t
y
.
mass movement -Sur
f
acemov
ementofear
t
hmat
er
i
al
si
nducedbygr
av
i
t
y
.
mass number -Numberofpr
ot
onsandneut
r
onsi
nat
omi
cnucl
eus.
mass unit -Onet
wel
f
t
hmassofcar
bonat
om.Appr
ox
i
mat
el
ymassofhy
dr
ogenat
om.

ack;st
r
ongl
ymagnet
i
c.I
mpor
t
antor
eofi
r
on.
magnetite -Ami
ner
al
;i
r
onox
i
de,Fe3O4.Bl
magnetosphere -Regi
on1,
000t
o64,
000km abov
eear
t
h,wher
emagnet
i
cf
i
el
dt
r
apsel
ect
r
i
cal
l
ychar
ged
par
t
i
cl
esf
r
om sunandspace.Fi
r
stbel
i
ev
edt
oconsi
stoft
wobands,VanAl
l
enbel
t
s.
magnetostratigraphy -Useofmagnet
i
zedr
ock
st
odet
er
mi
nehi
st
or
yofevent
si
nr
ecor
dofchangesi
n
ear
t
h'
smagnet
i
cf
i
el
di
npastgeol
ogi
cages.
magnitude -Measur
eoft
ot
alener
gyr
el
easedbyanear
t
hquake.Cont
r
astwi
t
hi
nt
ensi
t
y
,whi
chi
smeasur
e
ofef
f
ect
sofear
t
hquakewav
esatpar
t
i
cul
arpl
ace.
manganes nodule -A nodul
ef
ound on t
he deep ocean f
l
oor
s and composed l
ar
gel
y ofi
r
on and
manganese,wi
t
hsmal
l
eramount
sofsuchmet
al
sascobal
t
,t
i
t
ani
um,copper
,andni
ckel
.

matter -Any
t
hi
ngt
hatoccupi
esspace.Usual
l
ydef
i
nedbydescr
i
bi
ngi
t
sst
at
esandpr
oper
t
i
es:sol
i
d,l
i
qui
d,
orgas;possessesmass,i
ner
t
i
a,col
or
,densi
t
y
,mel
t
i
ngpoi
nt
,har
dness,cr
y
st
alf
or
m,mechani
calst
r
engt
h,
orchemi
calpr
oper
t
i
es.Composedofat
oms.
meander -(
1)Tur
norshar
pbendi
nst
r
eam'
scour
se.(
2)Tot
ur
n,orbend,shar
pl
y
.Appl
i
edt
ost
r
eam
cour
sesi
ngeol
ogi
calusage.
mechanical weathering -Pr
ocessbywhi
chr
ocki
sbr
okendowni
nt
osmal
l
erandsmal
l
erf
r
agment
sas
r
esul
tofener
gydev
el
opedbyphy
si
cal
f
or
ces.Al
soknownasdi
si
nt
egr
at
i
on.
medial moraine -Ri
dgeoft
i
l
lf
or
medbyj
unct
i
onoft
wol
at
er
almor
ai
neswhent
wov
al
l
eygl
aci
er
sj
oi
nt
o
f
or
m si
ngl
ei
cest
r
eam.
mlange -Het
er
ogenousmi
x
t
ur
eofr
ockmat
er
i
al
s.Mappabl
ebodyofdef
or
medr
ock
st
hatmaybesever
al
k
i
l
omet
er
si
nl
engt
handconsi
st
sofhi
ghl
yshear
edcl
ayeymat
r
i
x
,t
hor
oughl
ymi
xedwi
t
hangul
arnat
i
veand
exot
i
cbl
ock
sofdi
v
er
seor
i
gi
nandgeol
ogi
cage.

mantle -I
nt
er
medi
at
ezoneofear
t
h.Sur
r
oundedbycr
ust
,i
tr
est
soncor
eatdept
hofabout2,
900km.
marble -Met
amor
phi
cr
ockofgr
anul
art
ex
t
ur
e,wi
t
hnor
ockcl
eav
age,andcomposedofcal
ci
t
e,dol
omi
t
e,
orbot
h.

Mercalli intensity scale -Scal

et
oeval
uat
ei
nt
ensi
t
yofear
t
hquakeshaki
ngonbasi
sofef
f
ect
satgi
ven
pl
ace.

maria -Dar
k
t
oned"
seas"ofmoon.Mar
kmoonst
opogr
aphi
cal
l
yl
ow ar
eas.
mesotrophic -I
nl
akeagi
ng,st
agebet
weenol
i
got
r
ophi
candeut
r
ophi
c.

47

48

Glossary of Geology

metal -Subst
ance f
usi
bl
e and opaque,good conduct
orofel
ect
r
i
ci
t
y
,and wi
t
h char
act
er
i
st
i
cl
ust
er
.
Ex
ampl
es:gol
d,si
l
v
er
,al
umi
num.Oft
heel
ement
s77ar
emet
al
s.
metallic bonding -Speci
alk
i
ndofbondi
ngi
nat
omsofmet
al
l
i
cel
ement
swher
ebyout
er
mostel
ect
r
onsar
e
notshar
edorex
changedbutar
ef
r
eet
omov
ear
oundandconnectt
oanyat
omsi
nsol
i
d.Rel
at
i
v
ef
r
eedom
ofmovementofel
ect
r
onsaccount
sf
orhi
ghl
evelofel
ect
r
i
cal
conduct
i
v
i
t
yi
nmet
al
s.

Glossary of Geology

microseism -"
Smal
lshak
i
ng.
"Speci
f
i
cal
l
yl
i
mi
t
edi
nt
echni
calusaget
oear
t
hwavesgener
at
edbysour
ces
ot
hert
hanear
t
hquakesand,mostf
r
equent
l
y
,t
owaveswi
t
hper
i
odsoff
r
om 1t
oabout9s,f
r
om sour
ces
associ
at
edwi
t
hat
mospher
i
cst
or
ms.
mid-Atlantic Ridge -SeeAt
l
ant
i
cRi
dge.
midocean ridge -Cont
i
nuous,sei
smi
cal
l
yact
i
v
e,medi
anmount
ai
nr
angeex
t
endi
ngt
hr
oughNor
t
h and
Sout
hAt
l
ant
i
c,I
ndi
an,andSout
hPaci
f
i
cOceans.

metalloid -El
ementofsomemet
al
l
i
candsomenonmet
al
l
i
cchar
act
er
i
st
i
cs.Ther
ear
eni
nemet
al
l
oi
ds.
metamorphic facies -Assembl
age ofmi
ner
al
st
hatr
eached equi
l
i
br
i
um dur
i
ng met
amor
phi
sm under
speci
f
i
cr
angeoft
emper
at
ur
eandpr
essur
e.
metamorphic rock -"
Changedf
or
mr
ock.
"anyr
ockchangedi
nt
ext
ur
eorcomposi
t
i
onbyheat
,pr
essur
e,
orchemi
cal
l
yact
i
v
ef
l
ui
dsaf
t
eror
i
gi
nal
f
or
mat
i
on.
metamorphic zone -Ar
easubj
ect
edt
omet
amor
phi
sm andchar
act
er
i
zedbycer
t
ai
nmet
amor
phi
cf
aci
es
f
or
meddur
i
ngpr
ocess.

migmatite -Mi
x
edr
ockpr
oducedbyi
nt
i
mat
ei
nt
er
f
i
nger
i
ngofmagmaandi
nv
adedr
ock
.
mineral - Nat
ur
al
l
y occur
r
i
ng sol
i
d el
ementor compound,ex
cl
usi
v
e ofbi
ol
ogi
cal
l
yf
or
med car
bon
component
s.Hasdef
i
ni
t
ecomposi
t
i
on orr
angeofcomposi
t
i
on and or
der
l
yi
nt
er
nalat
omi
car
r
angement
(
cr
y
st
al
l
i
nest
r
uct
ur
e)
,whi
chgi
v
esuni
quephy
si
calandchemi
calpr
oper
t
i
es,i
ncl
udi
ngt
endencyt
oassume
cer
t
ai
ngeomet
r
i
cal
f
or
msknownascr
y
st
al
s.
mineral deposit -Occur
r
enceofoneormor
emi
ner
al
si
nsuchconcent
r
at
i
onandf
or
m ast
omakepossi
bl
e
r
emov
alandpr
ocessi
ngf
oruseatpr
of
i
t
.

metamorphism -A pr
ocess wher
ebyr
ock
sunder
go phy
si
calorchemi
calchanges orbot
ht
o achi
ev
e
equi
l
i
br
i
um wi
t
hcondi
t
i
onsot
hert
hant
hoseunderwhi
cht
heywer
eor
i
gi
nal
l
yf
or
med(
weat
her
i
ngar
bi
t
r
ar
i
l
y
ex
cl
udedf
r
om meani
ng)
.Agent
sofmet
amor
phi
sm ar
eheat
,pr
essur
e,andchemi
cal
l
yact
i
v
ef
l
ui
ds.

mineraloid -Subst
ancet
hatdoesnoty
i
el
ddef
i
ni
t
echemi
calf
or
mul
aandshowsnosi
gnofcr
y
st
al
l
i
ni
t
y
.
Ex
ampl
es:baux
i
t
e,l
i
moni
t
e,andopal
.

metasomatism -Pr
ocesswher
ebyr
ock
sar
eal
t
er
edwhenvol
at
i
l
esex
changei
onswi
t
ht
hem.

miogesyncline -Thatpar
tofageosy
ncl
i
nei
nwhi
chv
ol
cani
sm i
sabsent
,gener
al
l
yl
ocat
ednearcr
at
on.

meteor -Tr
ansi
entcel
est
i
albodyt
hatent
er
sear
t
h'
sat
mospher
ewi
t
hgr
eatspeed,becomi
ngi
ncandescent
f
r
om heatgener
at
edbyai
rr
esi
st
ance.

modulus of elasticity -Sl

opeofgr
aphl
i
ner
el
at
i
ngst
r
esst
ost
r
ai
ni
nel
ast
i
cdef
or
mat
i
on.

meteoric water -Gr

oundwat
erder
i
vedpr
i
mar
i
l
yf
r
om pr
eci
pi
t
at
i
on.

Mohorovicic discontinuity (Moho) -Base ofcr

ustmar
ked byabr
upti
ncr
eases i
nv
el
oci
t
i
es ofear
t
h
waves.

meteorite -St
oneormet
al
l
i
cbodyf
al
l
ent
oear
t
hf
r
om out
erspace.

molecule -Smal
l
estuni
tofcompoundt
hatdi
spl
ay
spr
oper
t
i
esoft
hatcompound.

i
nci
palconsi
t
uentofnat
ur
algas.Somet
i
mes cal
l
ed
methane -Si
mpl
estpar
af
f
i
n hy
dr
ocar
bon,CH4.Pr
mar
shgas.

Monel metal -St

eel
cont
ai
ni
ng68per
centni
ckel
.
monocline -Doubl
ef
l
ex
ur
econnect
i
ngst
r
at
aatonel
evelwi
t
hsamest
r
at
aatanot
herl
ev
el
.

micas -Gr
oupofsi
l
i
cat
emi
ner
al
schar
act
er
i
zedbyper
f
ectsheetorscal
ecl
eav
ager
esul
t
i
ngf
r
om at
omi
c
pat
t
er
n,i
nwhi
chsi
l
i
conoxy
gent
et
r
ahedr
al
i
nkedi
nsheet
s.Bi
ot
i
t
ei
sf
er
r
omagnesi
anbl
ackmi
ca.Muscov
i
t
e
i
spot
assi
cwhi
t
emi
ca.

49

montmorillonite -Cl
aymi
ner
alf
ami
l
y
,hy
dr
ousal
umi
noussi
l
i
cat
ewi
t
hst
r
uct
ur
alsandwi
ch ofonei
oni
c
4heet
s.Sandwi
chespi
l
edoneachot
herwi
t
hwat
er
sheetofal
umi
num andhy
dr
ox
lbet
weent
wo(
Si
4O10) s
bet
ween and wi
t
hnot
hi
ng butweakbondst
ohol
dt
hem t
oget
her
.Asr
esul
t
,addi
t
i
onalwat
ercan ent
er

50

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

l
at
t
i
cer
eadi
l
y
,causi
ng mi
ner
alt
oswel
lappr
eci
abl
yandf
ur
t
herweakeni
ng at
t
r
act
i
on bet
weenst
r
uct
ur
al
sandwi
ches.Consequnt
l
yal
ump ofmont
mor
i
l
l
oni
t
ei
n a bucketofwat
ersl
umps r
api
dl
yi
nt
oal
oose,
i
ncoher
entmass.Compar
ewi
t
hot
hercl
aymi
ner
al
s,kaol
i
ni
t
eandi
l
l
i
t
e.
moon -Anat
ur
al
sat
el
l
i
t
e.

native state -St

at
ei
nwhi
chanel
ementoccur
suncombi
nedi
nnat
ur
e.Usual
l
yappl
i
edt
omet
al
s,asi
n
"
nat
i
v
ecopper
,
""
nat
i
v
egol
d,
"et
c.

moraine -Gener
al
t
er
m appl
i
edt
ocer
t
ai
nl
andf
or
mscomposedoft
i
l
l
.
natural gas -Gaseoushy
dr
ocar
bonst
hatoccuri
nr
ock
s.Domi
nat
edbymet
hane.
mountain -Anypar
tofl
andmasspr
oj
ect
i
ngconspi
cuousl
yabov
ei
t
ssur
r
oundi
ngs.
mountain chain -Ser
i
esofmor
eorl
esspar
al
l
elr
i
dges,al
lofwhi
chf
or
medwi
t
hi
nasi
ngl
egeosy
ncl
i
neor
oni
t
sbor
der
s.

natural remanent magnetism -Magnet

i
sm ofr
ock
.Mayormaynotcoi
nci
dewi
t
hpr
esentmagnet
i
cf
i
el
dof
ear
t
h.Abbr
ev
i
at
i
on,NRM.
natural resources -Ener
gyandmat
er
i
al
smadeavai
l
abl
ebygeol
ogi
cal
pr
ocesses.

mountain structure -St

r
uct
ur
epr
oducedbydef
or
mat
i
onofr
ock
s.
neck cutoff -Br
eakt
hr
oughofar
i
v
eracr
ossnar
r
ow necksepar
at
i
ngt
womeander
s,wher
edownst
r
eam
mi
gr
at
i
onofonehasbeensl
owedandnex
tmeanderupst
r
eam hasov
er
t
akeni
t
.Compar
ewi
t
hchut
ecut
of
f
.

mudcracks -Cr
ack
scausedbyshr
i
nkageofdr
y
i
ngdeposi
tofsi
l
torcl
ayundersur
f
acecondi
t
i
ons.
mudflow -Fl
ow ofwel
l
mi
x
edmassofr
ock
,ear
t
h,andwat
ert
hatbehav
esl
i
keaf
l
ui
dandmovesdown
sl
opeswi
t
hconsi
st
encysi
mi
l
art
ot
hatofnewl
ymi
x
edconcr
et
e.
mudstone -Fi
negr
ai
ned,det
r
i
t
alsedi
ment
ar
yr
ockmadeupofsi
l
t
-andcl
ay
si
zedpar
t
i
cl
es.Di
st
i
ngui
shed
f
r
om shal
ebyl
ackoff
i
ssi
l
i
t
y
.
muscovite -"
Whi
t
emi
ca.
"Nonf
er
r
omagnesi
anr
ock
f
or
mi
ngsi
l
i
cat
emi
ner
alwi
t
ht
et
r
ahedr
aar
r
angedi
n
sheet
s.Somet
i
mescal
l
edpot
assi
cmi
ca.
mylonite -Fi
negr
ai
ned r
ock f
or
med by gr
i
ndi
ng dur
i
ng i
nt
ense f
ol
di
ng orf
aul
t
i
ng associ
at
ed wi
t
h
cat
acl
ast
i
cmet
amor
phi
sm.

negative charge -Condi

t
i
onr
esul
t
i
ngf
r
om sur
pl
usofel
ect
r
ons.
nesosilicate -Mi
ner
alwi
t
h cr
y
st
alst
r
uct
ur
e cont
ai
ni
ng si
l
i
conoxy
gen t
et
r
ahedr
a ar
r
anged as i
sol
at
ed
uni
t
s.
neutron -Pr
ot
on and el
ect
r
on combi
ned and behav
i
ng l
i
ke f
undament
alpar
t
i
cl
e ofmat
t
er
.El
ect
r
i
cal
l
y
neut
r
alwi
t
hmassof1.
00896u.I
fi
sol
at
ed,decay
st
of
or
m pr
ot
onandel
ect
r
on.
nv -Gr
anul
ari
ce f
or
med byr
ecr
y
st
al
l
i
zat
i
on ofsnow.I
nt
er
medi
at
e bet
ween snow and gl
aci
eri
ce.
Somet
i
mescal
l
edf
i
r
n.
Nichrome -St
eelal
l
oywi
t
h35t
o38per
centni
ckel
.
nickel steel -St
eelcont
ai
ni
ng2.
5t
o3.
5per
centni
ckel
.
nodule -I
r
r
egul
ar
,k
nobby
sur
f
acedmi
ner
albodyt
hatdi
f
f
er
si
ncomposi
t
i
onf
r
om r
ocki
nwhi
chf
or
med.
Si
l
i
cai
nf
or
m ofcher
torf
l
i
nti
scommoncomponentofnodul
es.Theyar
ecommonl
yf
oundi
nl
i
mest
oneand
dol
omi
t
e.
nonclastic texture -Appl
i
ed t
o sedi
ment
ar
yr
ock
si
n whi
ch r
ockf
or
mi
ng gr
ai
ns ar
ei
nt
er
l
ocked.Most
sedi
ment
ar
yr
ock
swi
t
hnoncl
ast
i
ct
ex
t
ur
ear
ecr
y
st
al
l
i
ne.

51

52

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

nonconformity - Unconf
or
mi
t
y separ
at
i
ng y
ounger r
ock
s f
r
om di
st
i
nct
l
y di
f
f
er
ent ol
der hi
gh
met
amor
phosedori
gneousr
ock
s.
nondipole magnetic field -Por
t
i
onofear
t
h'
smagnet
i
cf
i
el
dr
emai
ni
ngaf
t
erdi
pol
ef
i
el
dandex
t
er
nalf
i
el
d
ar
er
emoved.
nonferromagnesians -Si
l
i
cat
emi
ner
al
st
hatdonotcont
ai
ni
r
onormagnesi
um.
nonmetal -El
ementt
hatdoesnotex
hi
bi
tmet
al
l
i
cl
ust
er
,conduct
i
vi
t
y
,orot
herf
eat
ur
esofmet
al
.Oft
he
el
ement
s17ar
enonmet
al
s.
normal fault -Faul
ti
nwhi
chhangi
ngwal
lappear
st
ohav
emoveddownwar
dr
el
at
i
v
et
of
oot
wal
l
;opposi
t
e
oft
hr
ustf
aul
t
.Al
socal
l
edgr
av
i
t
yf
aul
t
.
North Atlantic deep water -Seawat
eri
nAr
ct
i
ct
hatsi
nk
si
nNor
t
hAt
l
ant
i
canddr
i
f
t
ssout
hwar
dasf
aras
60 S.
northeast trades -Wi
ndsbl
owi
ngf
r
om t
henor
t
heastt
owar
dt
heequat
ori
nt
henor
t
her
nhemi
spher
e.
NRM -Seenat
ur
al
r
emanentmagnet
i
sm.
nucleus -Pr
ot
onsandneut
r
onsconst
i
t
ut
i
ngcent
r
alpar
tofanat
om.
nue ardente -"
Hotcl
oud.
"Fr
encht
er
m appl
i
edt
ohi
ghl
yheat
edmassofgaschar
gedl
av
aej
ect
edf
r
om
v
entorpocketatv
ol
canosummi
tmor
e orl
esshor
i
zont
al
l
yont
o an out
ersl
ope,down whi
ch i
tmoves
swi
f
t
l
y
,howev
ersl
i
ghtt
hei
ncl
i
ne,becauseofi
t
sex
t
r
ememobi
l
i
t
y
.

obduction -Pr
ocesswher
ebypar
toft
hesubduct
edpl
at
eand/
orassoci
at
edi
gneousr
ock
sanddeepsea
sedi
ment
sar
ebr
okenof
fandpushedupont
ot
heov
er
r
i
di
ngpl
at
e.
oblique slip fault -Faul
twi
t
hcomponent
sofr
el
at
i
vedi
spl
acemental
ongbot
hst
r
i
keanddi
p.
obsidian -Gl
assyequi
v
al
entofgr
ani
t
e.

53

54

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

oil -I
ngeol
ogyr
ef
er
st
opet
r
ol
eum.

outwash -Mat
er
i
alcar
r
i
edf
r
om agl
aci
erbymel
t
wat
erandl
ai
ddowni
nst
r
at
i
f
i
eddeposi
t
s.

oil shale -Shal

econt
ai
ni
ngsuchpr
opor
t
i
onofhy
dr
ocar
bonsast
obecapabl
eofy
i
el
di
ngpet
r
ol
eum on
sl
owdi
st
i
l
l
at
i
on.

outwash plain -Fl

atorgent
l
ysl
opi
ngsur
f
aceunder
l
ai
nbyout
wash.

oligotrophic -I
nl
akeagi
ngper
t
ai
nst
oay
out
hf
ull
akeandi
ndi
cat
eswat
erl
ow i
naccumul
at
ednut
r
i
ent
s
andhi
ghi
ndi
ssol
v
edox
y
gen.

overbank deposits -Sedi

ment
s(
usual
l
y cl
ay
,si
l
t
,and f
i
ne sand)deposi
t
ed on f
l
ood pl
ai
n by r
i
v
er
over
f
l
owi
ngbank
s.
overturned fold -Fol
dwi
t
hatl
eastonel
i
mbr
ot
at
edt
hr
oughmor
et
han90.

olivine -Rockf
or
mi
ngf
er
r
omagnesi
ansi
l
i
cat
emi
ner
alt
hatcr
y
st
al
l
i
zesear
l
yf
r
om magmaandweat
her
s
4ons and posi
t
i
v
ei
ons ofi
r
on,
r
eadi
l
y atear
t
h'
s sur
f
ace.Cr
y
st
alst
r
uct
ur
e based on i
sol
at
ed (
Si
O4) i
O4.
magnesi
um,orbot
h.Gener
al
f
or
mul
a:(
Mg,Fe)
2Si
olites -Spher
oi
dalgr
ai
nsofsandsi
ze,usual
l
ycomposedofcal
ci
um car
bonat
e,CaCO3,andt
houghtt
o
hav
eor
i
gi
nat
edbyi
nor
gani
cper
ci
pi
t
at
i
on.Somel
i
mest
onesl
ar
gel
ymadeupofo l
i
t
es.

oxbow -Abandonedmeanderi
sol
at
edf
r
om mai
nst
r
eam channelbydeposi
t
i
onandf
i
l
l
edwi
t
hwat
er
.
oxide mineral -Mi
ner
alf
or
med bydi
r
ectuni
on ofan el
ementwi
t
h oxy
gen.Exampl
es:i
ce,cor
undum,
hemat
i
t
e,magnet
i
t
e,cassi
t
er
i
t
e.

ooze -Deepsea deposi

tconsi
st
i
ng of30 per
centormor
e by v
ol
ume ofhar
d par
t
s ofv
er
y smal
l
,
somet
i
mesmi
cr
oscopi
c,or
gani
sms.I
fpar
t
i
cul
aror
gani
sm domi
nant
,i
t
snamei
susedasmodi
f
i
er
,asi
n
gl
obi
ger
i
naooze,orr
adi
ol
ar
i
anooze.
opal -Amor
phoussi
l
i
ca,wi
t
hv
ar
y
i
ngamount
sofwat
er
;ami
ner
algel
.
open-pit mining -Sur
f
acemi
ni
ngr
epr
esent
edbysandandgr
av
elpi
t
s,st
onequar
r
i
es,andcoppermi
nes
ofsomewest
er
nst
at
es.
ophitic -Rockt
ex
t
ur
ei
n whi
chl
at
hshapedpl
agi
ocl
asecr
y
st
al
sar
eencl
osed whol
l
yori
npar
ti
nl
at
er
f
or
medaugi
t
e,ascommonl
yoccur
si
ndi
abase.
order of crystallization -Chr
onol
ogi
calsequences i
n whi
ch cr
y
st
al
l
i
zat
i
on ofv
ar
i
ous mi
ner
al
s ofan
assembl
aget
akespl
ace.
ore deposit -Met
al
l
i
cmi
ner
al
si
nconcent
r
at
i
onst
hatcanbewor
kedatpr
of
i
t
.
orogeny -Pr
ocessbywhi
chmount
ai
nst
r
uct
ur
esdevel
op.
.
orthoclase -Fel
dspari
nwhi
chK+i
sdi
agnost
i
cposi
t
i
v
ei
on;K(
Al
Si
3O8)
orthoquartzite -Sandst
onecomposedcompl
et
el
y-oral
mostcompl
et
el
y-ofquar
t
zgr
ai
ns.Quar
t
zose
sandst
onei
ssy
nony
m.

55

56

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

parabolic dune -Dunewi

t
hl
ong,scoopshapedf
or
mt
hat
,when per
f
ect
l
ydev
el
oped,ex
hi
bi
t
spr
abol
i
c
shape i
n pl
an, wi
t
h hor
ns poi
nt
i
ng upwi
nd. Cont
r
ast bar
chan, i
n whi
ch hor
ns poi
nt downwi
nd.
Char
act
er
i
st
i
cal
l
ycov
er
edwi
t
hspar
sev
eget
at
i
on;of
t
enf
oundi
ncoast
albel
t
s.
paternoster lakes -Chai
nofl
akesr
esembl
i
ngst
r
i
ngofbeadsal
onggl
aci
at
edval
l
eywher
ei
cepl
uck
i
ng
andgougi
nghavescoopedoutser
i
esofbasi
ns.
peat -Par
t
i
al
l
yr
educedpl
antorwoodmat
er
i
al
,cont
ai
ni
ngappr
ox
i
mat
el
y60per
centcar
bonand30per
cent
oxy
gen.Ani
nt
er
medi
at
emat
er
i
ali
npr
ocessofcoal
f
or
mat
i
on.
pebble size -Vol
umegr
eat
ert
hant
hatofspher
ewi
t
hdi
amet
erof4mm andl
esst
hant
hatofasper
eof64
mm.
pedalfer -Soi
lchar
act
er
i
zed by accumul
at
i
on ofi
r
on sal
t
s ori
r
on and al
umi
num sal
t
si
n B hor
i
zon.
Var
i
et
i
es ofpedal
f
er
si
ncl
ude r
ed and yel
l
ow soi
l
s ofsout
heast
er
n Uni
t
ed St
at
es and podsol
s of
nor
t
heast
er
nquar
t
erofUni
t
edSt
at
es.
pedocal -Soi
lchar
act
er
i
zed byaccumul
at
i
on ofcal
ci
um car
bonat
ei
ni
t
s pr
of
i
l
e.Char
act
er
i
st
i
c ofl
ow
r
ai
nf
al
l
.Var
i
et
i
esi
ncl
udebl
ackandchest
nutsoi
l
sofnor
t
her
nPl
ai
nsst
at
esandr
edandgr
aydeser
tsoi
l
sof
dr
i
erwest
er
nst
at
es.
pedology -Sci
encet
hatt
r
eat
sofsoi
l
s-or
i
gi
n,char
act
er
,andut
i
l
i
zat
i
on.

P -Sy
mbol
f
orear
t
hquakepr
i
mar
ywaves.
pahoehoe lava -Lavawhosesur
f
acei
ssmoot
handbi
l
l
owy
,f
r
equent
l
ymol
dedi
nt
of
or
msr
esembl
i
nghuge
r
opecoi
l
s.Char
act
er
i
st
i
cofbasi
cl
av
as.

pegmatite -Smal
lpl
ut
onofex
cept
i
onal
l
ycoar
set
ex
t
ur
e,wi
t
hcr
y
st
al
supt
o12m i
nl
engt
h,commonl
y
f
or
med atmar
gi
n ofbat
hol
i
t
h.Near
l
y 90 per
centofal
lpet
mat
i
t
es ar
e si
mpl
e pegmat
i
t
es ofquar
t
z
,
or
t
hocl
ase,anduni
mpor
t
antper
cent
agesofmi
cas;ot
her
sar
eex
t
r
emel
yr
ar
ef
er
r
omagnesi
anpegmat
i
t
es
and compl
ex pegmat
i
t
es.Compl
ex pegmat
i
t
es hav
e as maj
orcomponent
s si
al
i
c mi
ner
al
s ofsi
mpl
e
pegmat
i
t
esbutal
socont
ai
nav
ar
i
et
yofr
ar
emi
ner
al
s.
pelagic deposit -Mat
er
i
al
f
or
medi
ndeepoceananddeposi
t
edt
her
e.Ex
ampl
e:ooze.

paired terraces -Ter

r
acest
hatf
aceeachot
heracr
ossst
r
eam atsameel
ev
at
i
on.

pendulum -I
ner
t
i
amembersosuspendedt
hat
,af
t
erdi
spl
acement
,r
est
or
i
ngf
or
cewi
l
lr
et
ur
ni
tt
ost
ar
t
i
ng
posi
t
i
on.I
fdi
spl
acedandt
henr
el
eased,osci
l
l
at
es,compl
et
i
ngonet
oandf
r
oswi
ngi
nt
i
mecal
l
edper
i
od.

paleomagnetism -St
udyofear
t
h'
smagnet
i
cf
i
el
dashasex
i
st
eddur
i
nggeol
ogi
ct
i
me.
paleosol -Soi
lf
or
medi
npastenv
i
r
onment
;of
t
enbur
i
ed.

Pennsylvanian -Of
,bel
ongi
ngt
o,orbei
ngt
hegeol
ogi
ct
i
me,sy
st
em ofr
ock
s,andsedi
ment
ar
ydeposi
t
sof
t
hesi
x
t
hper
i
odoft
hePal
eozoi
cEr
a,char
act
er
i
zedbyt
hedevel
opmentofcoal
bear
i
ngr
ockf
or
mat
i
ons.

Pangaea -Hy
pot
het
i
calcont
i
nentf
r
om whi
chal
lot
her
sar
epost
ul
at
edt
ohav
eor
i
gi
nat
edt
hr
oughpr
ocess
off
r
agment
at
i
onanddr
i
f
t
i
ng.

57

perched water table -Top ofzone ofsat

ur
at
i
on t
hatbot
t
omson i
mper
meabl
ehor
i
zon above l
evelof
gener
alwat
ert
abl
ei
nar
ea.I
sgener
al
l
ynearsur
f
aceandf
r
equent
l
ysuppl
i
esahi
l
l
si
despr
i
ng.

58

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

peridotite -Coar
segr
ai
ned i
gneous r
ock domi
nat
ed bydar
k
col
or
ed mi
ner
al
s,consi
st
i
ng ofabout75
per
centf
er
r
omagnesi
ansi
l
i
cat
esandbal
ancepl
agi
ocl
asef
el
dspar
s.

piedmont glacier -Gl

aci
erf
or
medbycoal
escenceofv
al
l
eygl
aci
er
sandspr
eadi
ngoverpl
ai
nsatf
ootof
mount
ai
nsf
r
om whi
chval
l
eygl
aci
er
scome.

period -Forosci
l
l
at
i
ngsy
st
ems,l
engt
hoft
i
mer
equi
r
edt
ocompl
et
eonosci
l
l
at
i
on.

pipe -(
1)A v
er
t
i
cal
,cy
l
i
ndr
i
calv
ei
n ofor
e.(
2)An er
upt
i
ve passagewayopeni
ng i
nt
ot
he cr
at
erofa
v
ol
cano.

permeability -Forr
ockorear
t
hmat
er
i
al
,abi
l
i
t
yt
ot
r
ansmi
tf
l
ui
ds.Per
meabi
l
i
t
yequalt
ov
el
oci
t
yoff
l
ow
di
v
i
dedbyhy
dr
aul
i
cgr
adi
ent
.
petroleum -Anoi
l
ymi
x
t
ur
eofhy
dr
ocar
bonsex
t
r
act
edf
r
om subsur
f
aceear
t
hst
r
uct
ur
es.Thoughtt
or
esul
t
f
r
om phy
si
calandchemi
calconver
si
onofr
emai
nsofani
mal
sandpl
ant
s.Af
ueli
nnat
ur
alorr
ef
i
nedst
at
e,
y
i
el
di
ngondi
st
i
l
l
at
i
onsuchpr
oduct
sasgasol
i
ne,ker
osene,napht
ha.

placer -A concent
r
at
i
on ofr
el
at
i
vel
y heav
y and r
esi
st
antmi
ner
al
si
n st
r
eam orbeach deposi
t
s;t
wo
exampl
esar
esomedeposi
t
sofgol
dandofdi
amonds.
planet -Heav
enl
ybodyt
hatchangesposi
t
i
onf
r
om ni
ghtt
oni
ghtwi
t
hr
espectt
obackgr
oundofst
ar
s.
planetology -Or
gani
zedbodyofk
nowl
edgeaboutpl
anet
ar
ysy
st
em.

phaneritic texture -I
ndi
v
i
dualgr
ai
nsl
ar
geenought
obei
dent
i
f
i
edwi
t
houtt
heai
dofami
cr
oscope;al
so
cal
l
edgr
anul
art
ex
t
ur
e.
phase - (
1) Homogenous, phy
si
cal
l
y di
st
i
nct por
t
i
on of mat
t
er i
n phy
si
cal
chemi
calsy
st
em not
homogenous,asi
nt
hr
eephasesofi
ce,wat
er
,andaqueousv
apor
.(
2)Gr
oupofsei
smi
cwavesofonet
y
pe.

plastic deformation -Per

manentchangei
nshapeorv
ol
umenoti
nv
ol
v
i
ngf
ai
l
ur
ebyr
upt
ur
eand,once
st
ar
t
ed,cont
i
nui
ngwi
t
houti
ncr
easei
ndef
or
mi
ngf
or
ce.
plastic solid -Sol
i
dt
hatunder
goes def
or
mat
i
on cont
i
nuousl
yand i
ndef
i
ni
t
el
yaf
t
erst
r
ess appl
i
ed t
oi
t
passesacr
i
t
i
calpoi
nt
.

phenocryst -Acr
y
st
al
si
gni
f
i
cant
l
yl
ar
gert
hancr
y
st
al
sofsur
r
oundi
ngmi
ner
al
s.
phosphate rock -Sedi
ment
ar
yr
ockcont
ai
ni
ngcal
ci
um phosphat
e.

plate -Ear
t
h'
sl
i
t
hospher
e,v
ar
y
i
ngi
nt
hi
cknessf
r
om sev
er
alt
ensofk
i
l
omet
er
st
oasmuchas100km and
i
ncl
udi
ngcr
ustandpar
tofuppermant
l
eaboveast
henospher
e.

photosynthesis -Pr
ocessbywhi
chcar
bohy
dr
at
esar
ecompoundedf
r
om car
bon di
ox
i
de and wat
eri
n
pr
esenceofsunl
i
ghtandchl
or
ophy
l
l
.

plate tectonics -Theor

yofwor
l
dwi
dedy
nami
csi
nv
ol
v
i
ngmov
ementandi
nt
er
act
i
onsoft
hemanyr
i
gi
d
pl
at
esofear
t
h'
sl
i
t
hospher
e.

phyllite -Cl
ayeymet
amor
phi
cr
ockwi
t
hr
ockcl
eavagei
nt
er
medi
at
ebet
weensl
at
eandschi
st
.Commonl
y
f
or
medbyt
her
egi
onalmet
amor
phi
sm ofshal
eort
uf
f
.Mi
caschar
act
er
i
st
i
cal
l
yi
mpar
tapr
onouncedsheen
t
or
ockcl
eavagesur
f
aces.Hasphy
l
l
i
t
i
ccl
eavage.

plateau basalt -Basal

tpour
ed outf
r
om f
i
ssur
esi
nf
l
oodst
hatt
endt
of
or
m gr
eatpl
at
eaus.Somet
i
mes
cal
l
edf
l
oodbasal
t
.
playa -Fl
at
f
l
oor
edcent
erofundr
ai
neddeser
tbasi
n.

phyllitic cleavage -Rockcl

eavagei
nwhi
chf
l
akesar
epr
oducedbar
el
yv
i
si
bl
et
ounai
dedeye.Coar
ser
t
hansl
at
yandf
i
nert
hanschi
st
osecl
eavage.
phyllosilicate -Mi
ner
alwi
t
hcr
y
st
al
st
r
uct
ur
econt
ai
ni
ngsi
l
i
conoxy
gent
et
r
ahedr
aar
r
angedassheet
s.

playa lake -Tempor

ar
yl
akef
or
medi
napl
ay
a.
pleochroic halo -Mi
nut
e,concent
r
i
cspher
i
calzonesofdar
keni
ngorcol
or
i
ngt
hatf
or
m ar
oundi
ncl
usi
ons
ofr
adi
oact
i
v
emi
ner
al
si
nbi
ot
i
t
e,chl
or
i
t
e,andaf
ewot
hermi
ner
al
s.About0.
075mm i
ndi
amet
er
.

physical geology -Br

anchofgeol
ogyt
hatdeal
swi
t
hnat
ur
eandpr
oper
t
i
esofmat
er
i
alcomposi
ngt
he
ear
t
h,di
st
r
i
but
i
onofmat
er
i
al
st
hr
oughoutgl
obe,pr
ocessesbywhi
cht
heyar
ef
or
med,al
t
er
ed,t
r
anspor
t
ed,
anddi
st
or
t
ed,andnat
ur
eanddevel
opmentofl
andscape.

59

plume -Pi
pel
i
keconv
ect
i
oncel
l
st
houghtt
ocar
r
yheatandmant
l
emat
er
i
alf
r
om l
owermant
l
eupt
ocr
ust
,
pr
oduci
nghotspot
satsur
f
ace.

60

Glossary of Geology

plunge -Acut
eangl
et
hatax
i
soff
ol
dedr
ockmassmakeswi
t
hhor
i
zont
alpl
ane.

Glossary of Geology

porphyritic -Tex
t
ur
alt
er
mf
ori
gneousr
ock
si
n whi
chl
ar
gecr
y
st
al
s,cal
l
edphencr
y
st
s,ar
eseti
nf
i
ner
gr
oundmass,whi
chmaybecr
y
st
al
l
i
neorgl
assorbot
h.

pluton -A bodyofi
gneousr
ockf
or
medbeneat
hear
t
hsur
f
acebyconsol
i
dat
i
onf
r
om magma.Somet
i
mes
ex
t
endedt
oi
ncl
udebodi
esf
or
medbeneat
hsur
f
acebymet
asomat
i
cr
epl
acementofol
derr
ock
.
plutonic igneous rock -Rockf
or
medbysl
owcr
y
st
al
l
i
zat
i
on,whi
chy
i
el
dscoar
set
ex
t
ur
e.Oncebel
i
ev
edt
o
bet
y
pi
calofcr
y
st
al
l
i
zat
i
onatgr
eatdept
h,butnotanecessar
ycondi
t
i
on.

porphyry -I
gneousr
ockcont
ai
ni
ngconspi
cuouspheocr
y
st
si
nf
i
negr
ai
nedorgl
assygr
oundmass.
Portland cement -Hy
dr
aul
i
ccementconsi
st
i
ngofcompoundsofsi
l
i
ca,l
i
me,andal
umi
na.
positive charge -Condi
t
i
onr
esul
t
i
ngf
r
om def
i
ci
encyofel
ect
r
ons.

pluvial lake -Lakef

or
meddur
i
ngapl
uv
i
alper
i
od.
potassic feldspar -Or
t
hocl
ase,K(
Al
Si
.
3O8)
pluvial period -Per
i
odofi
ncr
easedr
ai
nf
al
landdecr
easedev
apor
at
i
on;pr
evai
l
edi
nnongl
aci
at
edar
eas
dur
i
ngt
i
meofi
ceandadv
anceel
sewher
e.
podsol -Ashy
gr
ayorgr
ay
br
ownsoi
lofpedal
f
ergr
oup.Hi
ghl
ybl
eachedsoi
l
,l
ow i
ni
r
onandl
i
me,f
or
med
undermoi
standcoolcondi
t
i
ons.
point bars -Accumul
at
i
onsofsandandgr
aveldeposi
t
edi
nsl
ackwat
er
soni
nsi
deofbendsofwi
ndi
ng,or
meander
i
ng,r
i
v
er
.
Poisson's ratio -Rat
i
oofchangeofdi
amet
erperuni
tdi
amet
ert
ochangeofl
engt
hperuni
tl
engt
hi
n
el
ast
i
cst
r
et
chi
ngorcompr
essi
onofcy
l
i
ndr
i
cal
speci
men.
polar compound -Compund,
such as wat
er
,wi
t
h amol
ecul
et
hatbehavesl
i
kesmal
lbarmagnetwi
t
h
posi
t
i
v
echar
geononeendnegat
i
v
echar
geonot
her
.
polarity epoch -I
nt
er
v
aloft
i
medur
i
ngwhi
chear
t
h'
smagnet
i
cf
i
el
dhasbeenor
i
ent
eddomi
nant
l
yi
nei
t
her
nor
malorr
ever
sedi
r
ect
i
on.Maybemar
kedbyshor
t
eri
nt
er
v
al
sofopposi
t
esi
gn,cal
l
edpol
ar
i
t
yevent
s.
polarity event -Seepol
ar
i
t
yepoch.

potential energy -St

or
edener
gywai
t
i
ngt
obeused.Ener
gyt
hatapi
eceofmat
t
erpossessesbecauseof
posi
t
i
onorbecauseofar
r
angementofpar
t
s.
prairie soils -Tr
ansi
t
i
onal
soi
l
sbet
weenpedal
f
er
sandpedocal
s.
Pratt hypothesis -Ex
pl
ai
nsi
sost
asybyassumi
ngal
lpor
t
i
onsoft
hecr
usthavesamet
ot
almassabove
cer
t
ai
nel
evat
i
on,cal
l
edl
evelofcompensat
i
on.Hi
ghersect
i
onswoul
dhav
epr
opor
t
i
onat
el
yl
owerdensi
t
y
.
precipitation -Di
schar
geofwat
er
,i
nr
ai
n,snow,hai
l
,sl
eet
,f
og,ordew,onl
andorwat
ersur
f
ace.Al
so,
pr
ocessofsepar
at
i
ngmi
ner
alconst
i
t
uent
sf
r
om sol
ut
i
onbyev
apor
at
i
on(
hal
i
t
e,anhy
dr
i
t
e)orf
r
om magma
t
of
or
mi
gneousr
ock
s.
precursor -Rel
at
i
ngt
o ear
t
hquakes,r
ef
er
st
oevent
si
mmedi
at
el
ypr
ecedi
ng act
ualshaki
ng ofgr
ound.
I
ncl
udeschangesi
nsei
smi
cv
el
oci
t
i
es,gr
oundwat
erl
ev
el
s,andt
i
l
tofgr
oundsur
f
ace.
pressure -For
ceperuni
tar
ea.
prevailing westerlies -Wi
ndsbl
owi
ngf
r
om t
hewestandchar
act
er
i
st
i
coft
hemi
ddl
el
at
i
t
udesbot
hnor
t
h
andsout
hoft
heequat
or
.

polar wandering, or migration -Mov

ementofposi
t
i
onofmagnet
i
cpol
edur
i
ngpastt
i
mei
nr
el
at
i
ont
o
pr
esentposi
t
i
on.

primary wave -Ear

t
hquakebodywavet
hatt
r
avel
sf
ast
estandadv
ancesbypushpul
lmechani
sm.Al
so
k
nownasl
ongi
t
udi
nal
,compr
essi
onal
,orPwave.

polymorphism -Ex
i
st
enceofsev
er
aldi
f
f
er
entmor
phol
ogi
ck
i
ndsoccur
r
i
ngspeci
esormi
ner
al
.
porosity -Per
cent
age ofopen space ori
nt
er
st
i
ces i
nr
ock orot
herear
t
h mat
er
i
al
.Compar
e wi
t
h
per
meabi
l
i
t
y
.

61

proton -Fundament
alpar
t
i
cl
e ofmat
t
erwi
t
h posi
t
i
v
e el
ect
r
i
calchar
ge of1 uni
t(
equali
n amount
,but
opposi
t
ei
nef
f
ect
,t
ot
hechar
geofel
ect
r
on)andmassof1.
00758u.

62

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

proton-proton fusion -Rapi

dl
ymov
i
ngpr
ot
onsi
nhoti
nt
er
i
orofst
ar
scol
l
i
deandf
uset
of
or
m at
omsof
hel
i
um f
r
om at
omsofhy
dr
ogeni
ncont
i
nuousbui
l
dupofhi
gherel
ement
s.
pumice -Pi
ecesofmagmaupt
osev
er
alcent
i
met
er
sacr
osst
hathavet
r
appedbubbl
esofst
eam orot
her
gasesast
heywer
et
hr
ownouti
ner
upt
i
on.Somet
i
mest
heyhavesuf
f
i
ci
entbuoyancyt
of
l
oatonwat
er
.
push-pull wave -Wav
et
hatadvances by al
t
er
nat
e compr
essi
on and r
ar
ef
act
i
on ofmedi
um,causi
ng
par
t
i
cl
esi
npat
ht
omovef
or
war
dandbackwar
dal
ongdi
r
ect
i
onofwav
e'
sadv
ance.I
nconnect
i
onwi
t
hear
t
h
waves,al
soknownaspr
i
mar
ywave,compr
essi
onalwav
e,l
ongi
t
udi
nalwave,orPwave.
pyrite -Asul
f
i
demi
ner
al
,i
r
onsul
f
i
de,FeS2.
pyroclastic debris -Fr
agment
sbl
ownoutbyex
pl
osi
v
ev
ol
cani
cer
upt
i
onsandsubsequent
l
ydeposi
t
edon
gr
ound.I
ncl
udeash,ci
nder
s,l
api
l
l
i
,bl
ock
s,bombs,andpumi
ce.

quartz -Asi
l
i
cat
emi
ner
al
,Si
O2,composedex
cl
usi
vel
yofsi
l
i
conoxygent
et
r
ahedr
a,wi
t
hal
lox
y
gensj
oi
ned
i
nat
hr
eedi
mensi
onalnet
wor
k
.Cr
y
st
alf
or
mi
ssi
x
si
dedpr
i
sm t
aper
i
ngatend,wi
t
hpr
i
sm f
acesst
r
i
at
ed
t
r
ansv
er
sel
y
.Ani
mpor
t
antr
ock
f
or
mi
ngmi
ner
al
.
quartzite -Met
amor
phi
cr
ockcommonl
yf
or
medbymet
amor
phi
sm ofsandst
oneandcomposedofquar
t
z
.
Nor
ockcl
eav
age.Br
eakst
hr
oughsandgr
ai
nsi
ncont
r
astt
osandst
one,whi
chbr
eak
sar
oundgr
ai
ns.
Quaternary -Of
,bel
ongi
ngt
o,ordesi
gnat
i
ngt
hegeol
ogi
ct
i
me,sy
st
em ofr
ock
s,andsedi
ment
ar
ydeposi
t
s
oft
he second per
i
od oft
he Cenozoi
c Er
a,f
r
om t
he end oft
he Ter
t
i
ar
y Per
i
od t
hr
ough t
he pr
esent
,
char
act
er
i
zedbyt
heappear
anceanddevel
opmentofhumanbei
ngsandi
ncl
udi
ngt
hePl
ei
st
oceneEpoch
andt
heHol
oceneEpoch.

pyroxene group -Fer

r
omagnesi
an si
l
i
cat
es wi
t
h asi
ngl
echai
n ofsi
l
i
conoxy
gen t
et
r
ahedr
a.Common
exampl
e:augi
t
e.Compar
e wi
t
h amphi
bol
e gr
oup (
exampl
e:hor
nbl
ende)
,whi
ch has a doubl
e chai
n of
t
et
r
ahedr
a.
pyrrhotite -A mi
ner
al
,i
r
onsul
f
i
de.Socommonl
yassoci
at
ed wi
t
h ni
ckelmi
ner
al
st
hathasbeen cal
l
ed
"
wor
l
d'
sgr
eat
estni
ckelor
e.
"

63

64

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

reaction series -SeeBowen'

sr
eact
i
onser
i
es.
recessional moraine -Ri
dge orbel
toft
i
l
lmar
ki
ng per
i
od ofmor
ai
ne f
or
mat
i
on,pr
obabl
yi
n per
i
od of
t
empor
ar
yst
abi
l
i
t
yorsl
i
ghtr
eadvance,dur
i
nggener
alwast
ageofagl
aci
erandr
ecessi
onofi
t
sf
r
ont
.
recorder -Par
tofasei
smogr
apht
hatmakesr
ecor
dofgr
oundmot
i
on.
rectangular pattern -Ar
r
angementofst
r
eam cour
sesi
nwhi
cht
r
i
but
ar
i
esf
l
owi
nt
ol
ar
gerst
r
eamsatangl
es
appr
oachi
ng90.
recumbent fold -Fol
dwi
t
hax
i
alpl
anemor
eorl
esshor
i
zont
al
.
reflection seismic prospecting -Usesr
ef
l
ect
ed waves and pl
acessei
smogr
aphs atdi
st
ances onl
ya
f
r
act
i
onofdept
hsi
nv
est
i
gat
ed.
refraction seismic prospecting -Usest
r
avelt
i
mesofr
ef
r
act
edwavesandspr
eadssei
smogr
aphsover
l
i
nesr
oughl
yf
ourt
i
mesdept
hbei
ngi
nvest
i
gat
ed.
radar -Ul
t
r
ahi
ghf
r
equencyel
ect
r
omagnet
i
cr
adi
at
i
on.
refractory -Mi
ner
alorcompoundt
hatr
esi
st
sact
i
onofheatandchemi
calagent
s.
radial drainage -Ar
r
angementofst
r
eam cour
sesi
nwhi
chst
r
eamsr
adi
at
eout
war
di
nal
ldi
r
ect
i
onsf
r
om
cent
r
alzone.
radiant energy -El
ect
r
omagnet
i
cwav
est
r
av
el
l
i
ngaswav
emot
i
on.

regional metamorphism -Met

amor
phi
sm occur
r
i
ngov
ert
ensorscor
esofki
l
omet
er
s.
rejuvenation -Changei
ncondi
t
i
onsofer
osi
ont
hatcausesast
r
eam t
obegi
nmor
eact
i
v
eer
osi
onanda
newcy
cl
e.

radioactivity -Spont
aneousbr
eakdownofat
omi
cnucl
eus,wi
t
hemi
ssi
onofr
adi
antener
gy
.
rain wash -Wat
erf
r
om r
ai
n af
t
eri
thas f
al
l
en on gr
ound and bef
or
e concent
r
at
ed i
n def
i
ni
t
e st
r
eam
channel
s.

relative time -Dat

i
ngofevent
sbypl
acei
nchr
onol
ogi
cor
derofoccur
r
encer
at
hert
hani
ny
ear
s.Compar
e
wi
t
habsol
ut
et
i
me.
relief -Thedi
f
f
er
encei
nel
ev
at
i
onofanar
eabet
weent
opsofhi
l
l
sandbot
t
omsofv
al
l
ey
s.

range -El
ongat
ed ser
i
es ofmount
ai
n peak
s consi
der
ed t
o be a par
tofone connect
ed uni
t
,such as
Appal
achi
anRangeorSi
er
r
aNev
adaRange.
rank -Ter
m usedt
odesi
gnat
eex
t
entt
owhi
chmet
amor
phi
sm hasadv
anced.Compar
ewi
t
hgr
ade.Ranki
s
mor
ecommonl
yempl
oy
edi
ndesi
gnat
i
ngst
ageofmet
amor
phi
sm ofcoal
.
ray craters -Lunarcr
at
er
smar
kedbyr
ay
s.Youngonl
unart
i
mescal
e.

reverse fault -Faul

ti
nwhi
chhangi
ngwal
lappear
st
ohavemov
edupwar
dr
el
at
i
v
et
of
oot
wal
l
;cont
r
astwi
t
h
nor
mal
,orgr
av
i
t
yf
aul
t
.Al
socal
l
edt
hr
ustf
aul
t
.
rhyolite -Fi
negr
ai
nedi
gneousr
ockwi
t
hcomposi
t
i
onofgr
ani
t
e.
rift zone -Sy
st
em off
r
act
ur
esi
near
t
h'
scr
ust
.Of
t
enassoci
at
edwi
t
hl
av
aex
t
r
usi
on.

rays -Li
ght
t
onedst
r
eakst
hatspr
eadout
war
df
r
om suchl
unarcr
at
er
sasTy
cho,Kepl
er
,andCoper
ni
cus.

65

66

Glossary of Geology

right-lateral fault -St

r
i
kesl
i
pf
aul
ti
nwhi
chgr
oundopposi
t
ey
ouappear
st
ohavemov
edr
i
ghtwheny
ou
f
acei
t
.

Glossary of Geology

Rossi-Forel scale -Scal

ef
orr
at
i
ngear
t
hquakei
nt
ensi
t
i
es,dev
i
sedi
n1878.
runoff -Wat
ert
hatf
l
owsof
fl
and.

rigidity -Resi
st
ancet
oel
ast
i
cshear
.
rupture -Br
eaki
ngapar
torst
at
eofbei
ngbr
okenapar
t
.
rill -Mi
ni
at
ur
est
r
eam channelwhi
chf
or
msal
ongax
i
sofbr
oad,shal
l
ow t
r
oughcar
r
y
i
ngsheetwash,or
sheetf
l
ow.
rilles -Tr
enchl
i
kedepr
essi
onsonmoon'
ssur
f
ace.Somear
est
r
ai
ghtwal
l
ed,ot
her
ssi
nuous.
ring dike -Ar
cuat
e(
r
ar
el
yci
r
cul
ar
)di
kewi
t
hst
eepdi
p.
ripple marks -Smal
lwavespr
oducedi
nunconsol
i
dat
edmat
er
i
albywi
ndorwat
er
.Seer
i
ppl
emar
k
sof
osci
l
l
at
i
on.
ripple marks of oscillation -Ri
ppl
emar
k
sf
or
medbyosci
l
l
at
i
ngmov
ementofwat
ersuchasmaybef
ound
al
ongseacoastout
si
desur
fzone.Sy
mmet
r
i
cal
,wi
t
hshar
porsl
i
ght
l
yr
oundedr
i
dgessepar
at
edbymor
e
gent
l
yr
oundedt
r
oughs.
rock -Aggr
egat
eofmi
ner
al
sofoneormor
ek
i
ndsi
nv
ar
y
i
ngpr
opor
t
i
ons.
rock cycle -Conceptofsequencest
hr
oughwhi
chear
t
hmat
er
i
al
smaypasswhensubj
ect
edt
ogeol
ogi
cal
pr
ocesses.
rock flour -Fi
nel
ydi
v
i
dedr
ockmat
er
i
alpul
v
er
i
zedbygl
aci
erandcar
r
i
edbyst
r
eamsf
edbymel
t
i
ngi
ce.
rock-forming silicate minerals -Mi
ner
al
sbui
l
tar
oundf
r
amewor
kofsi
l
i
conoxy
gen t
et
r
ahedr
a:ol
i
v
i
ne,
augi
t
e,hor
nbl
ende,bi
ot
i
t
e,muscov
i
t
e,or
t
hocl
ase,al
bi
t
e,anor
t
hi
t
e,quar
t
z
.
rock glacier -Tongueofr
ockwast
ef
oundi
nv
al
l
ey
sofcer
t
ai
nmount
ai
nousr
egi
ons.Char
act
er
i
st
i
cal
l
y
l
obat
eandmar
kedbyser
i
esofar
cuat
e,r
oundedr
i
dgest
hatgi
v
ei
taspectofhav
i
ngf
l
owed asv
i
scous
mass.
rock melt -Li
qui
dsol
ut
i
onofr
ock
f
or
mi
ngmi
ner
ali
ons.
rock salt -Hal
i
t
e,orcommonsal
t
,NaCl
.
rock slide -Suddenandr
api
dsl
i
deofbedr
ockal
ongpl
anesofweakness.

67

68

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

sand size -Vol

umegr
eat
ert
hant
hatofaspher
ewi
t
hdi
amet
erof0.
0625mm andl
esst
hant
hatofa
spher
ewi
t
hdi
amet
erof2mm.
sandstone -Det
r
i
t
alsedi
ment
ar
yr
ock f
or
med by cement
at
i
on ofi
ndi
v
i
dualgr
ai
ns ofsand si
ze and
commonl
ycomposedofmi
ner
alquar
t
z
.Sandst
onesconst
i
t
ut
eest
i
mat
ed12t
o28per
centofsedi
ment
ar
y
r
ock
s.
sapropel -Aquat
i
coozeorsl
udger
i
chi
nor
gani
cmat
t
er
.Bel
i
evedt
obesour
cemat
er
i
alf
orpet
r
ol
eum and
nat
ur
algas.
satellite crater -Cr
at
erf
or
medbyi
mpactofaf
r
agmentej
ect
eddur
i
ngcr
eat
i
onofapr
i
mar
ycr
at
er
.Al
so
cal
l
edsecondar
ycr
at
er
.
scale -Ther
at
i
oonamapoft
hedi
st
ancebet
weent
wopoi
nt
sont
hegr
oundandt
hesamet
wopoi
nt
son
t
hemap.I
tmaybeex
pr
essedi
nt
hr
eeway
s:
Fractional scale -I
ft
wo poi
nt
s ar
e 1 km apar
ti
nt
he f
i
el
d,t
hey maybe r
epr
esent
ed on t
he map as
separ
at
edbysomef
r
act
i
onoft
hatdi
st
ance,say
,1cm.I
nt
hi
si
nst
ance,t
hescal
ei
s1cm t
ot
heki
l
omet
er
.
Ther
ear
e100,
000cm i
n1km;sot
hi
sscal
ecanbeex
pr
essedast
hef
r
act
i
on,orr
at
i
o,1:
100,
000.Many
t
opogr
aphi
cmapsoft
heUni
t
edSt
at
esGeol
ogi
calSur
v
eyhaveascal
eof1:
62,
500;andmanyr
ecentmaps
hav
eascal
eof1:
31,
250,andot
her
sof1:
24,
000.
Graphic scale -Thi
sscal
ei
sal
i
nepr
i
nt
edont
hemapanddi
v
i
dedi
nt
ouni
t
st
hatar
eequi
val
entt
osome
di
st
ance,suchas1km or1mi
.

S -Sy
mbol
f
orsecondar
ywav
e.
salt -I
ngeol
ogyt
hi
st
er
m usual
l
yr
ef
er
st
ohal
i
t
e,orr
ocksal
t
,NaCl
,par
t
i
cul
ar
l
yi
nsuchcombi
nat
i
onsas
sal
twat
erandsal
tdome.

Verbal scale -Thi

si
sanex
pr
essi
oni
ncommonspeech,suchas"
f
ourcent
i
met
er
st
ot
heki
l
omet
er
,
""
an
i
ncht
oami
l
e,
"or"
t
womi
l
est
ot
hei
nch.
"

saltation -Mechani
sm bywhi
chapar
t
i
cl
emov
esbyj
umpi
ngf
r
om onepoi
ntt
oanot
her
.
salt dome -MassofNaClgener
al
l
yofr
oughl
ycy
l
i
ndr
i
calshapeandwi
t
hdi
amet
erofabout2km neart
op.
Suchmasshasbeenpushedt
hr
oughsur
r
oundi
ngsedi
ment
si
nt
opr
esentposi
t
i
on.Reser
voi
rr
ock
sabov
e
andal
ongsi
desal
tdomest
r
apoi
landgas.
saltwater wedge -Bodyofwat
er
,f
oundi
nsomeest
uar
i
es,whi
ch t
hi
nst
owar
dhead ofest
uar
yandi
s
over
r
i
ddenbyf
r
eshwat
erf
r
om l
and.
sand -Cl
ast
i
cpar
t
i
cl
esofsandsi
ze,commonl
ybutnotal
way
scomposedofmi
ner
alquar
t
z
.

69

schist -Met
amor
phi
cr
ockdomi
nat
edbyf
i
br
ousorpl
at
ymi
ner
al
s.Hasschi
st
osecl
eavageandi
spr
oduct
ofr
egi
onalmet
amor
phi
sm.
schistose cleavage -Rockcl
eavagewi
t
hgr
ai
nsandf
l
akescl
ear
l
yv
i
si
bl
eandcl
eav
agesur
f
acesr
ougher
t
hani
nsl
at
yorphy
l
l
i
t
i
ccl
eavage.
sea-floor spreading -Pr
ocessbywhi
choceanf
l
oor
sspr
eadl
at
er
al
l
yf
r
om cr
est
sofmai
noceanr
i
dges.As
mat
er
i
almov
esl
at
er
al
l
yf
r
om r
i
dge,new mat
er
i
al
i
st
houghtt
or
epl
acei
tal
ongr
i
dgecr
estbywel
l
i
ngupwar
d
f
r
om mant
l
e.

70

Glossary of Geology

seamount -I
sol
at
ed,st
eepsl
oped peakr
i
si
ngf
r
om deep ocean f
l
oorbutsubmer
ged beneat
h sur
f
ace.
Mosthaveshar
ppeak
s,butsomehavef
l
att
opsandar
ecal
l
edguy
ot
s,ort
abl
emount
s.Seamount
sar
e
pr
obabl
yv
ol
cani
ci
nor
i
gi
n.

Glossary of Geology

senile -Wor
nawaynear
l
yt
ot
hebasel
ev
el
,asatt
heendofaner
osi
oncy
cl
e.
series -A gr
oup ofr
ockf
or
mat
i
onscl
osel
yr
el
at
edi
nt
i
meofor
i
gi
n anddi
st
i
nctasagr
oupf
r
om ot
her
f
or
mat
i
ons.

secondary crater -Seesat

el
l
i
t
ecr
at
er
.
serpentine -Si
l
i
cat
eofmagnesi
um commonamongmet
amor
phi
cmi
ner
al
s.Occur
si
nt
wocr
y
st
alhabi
t
s:
pl
at
y
,known asant
i
gor
i
t
e;f
i
br
ous,known aschr
y
sot
i
l
e,an asbest
os."
Ser
pent
i
ne"comesf
r
om mot
t
l
ed
shadesofgr
eenonmassi
v
ev
ar
i
et
i
es,suggest
i
v
eofsnakemar
k
i
ngs.

secondary wave -Ear

t
hquakebodywav
esl
owert
hanpr
i
mar
ywav
e.Shear
,shake,orSwav
e.
secular variation of magnetic field -Changei
ni
ncl
i
nat
i
on,decl
i
nat
i
on,ori
nt
ensi
t
yofear
t
h'
smagnet
i
c
f
i
el
d.Det
ect
abl
eonl
yf
r
om l
onghi
st
or
i
calr
ecor
ds.
sedimentary -Oforr
el
at
i
ngt
or
ock
sf
or
medbyt
hedeposi
t
i
onofsedi
ment
.

S.G. -Sy
mbolf
orspeci
f
i
cgr
av
i
t
y
.
shake wave -Wav
et
hatadv
ancesbycausi
ngpar
t
i
cl
esi
npat
ht
omovef
r
om si
det
osi
deorupanddown
atr
i
ghtangl
est
odi
r
ect
i
onofwave'
sadv
ance,ashakemot
i
on.Al
socal
l
edshearwav
e,orsecondar
ywav
e.

sedimentary facies -Accumul

at
i
onofdeposi
t
st
hatex
hi
bi
t
sspeci
f
i
cchar
act
er
i
st
i
csandgr
adesl
at
er
al
l
y
i
nt
oot
hersedi
ment
ar
yaccumul
at
i
onst
hatwer
ef
or
medatsamet
i
mebutex
hi
bi
tdi
f
f
er
entchar
act
er
i
st
i
cs.
sedimentary rock -Rockf
or
medf
r
om accumul
at
i
onsofsedi
ment
,whi
chmayconsi
stofr
ockf
r
agment
sof
v
ar
i
oussi
zes,r
emai
nsorpr
oduct
sofani
mal
sorpl
ant
s,pr
oduct
sofchemi
calact
i
onorofevapor
at
i
on,or
mi
x
t
ur
es oft
hese.St
r
at
i
f
i
cat
i
on i
ssi
ngl
e mostchar
act
er
i
st
i
cf
eat
ur
e ofsedi
ment
ar
yr
ock
s,whi
ch cov
er
about75per
centofl
andar
ea.

shale -Fi
negr
ai
ned,det
r
i
t
alsedi
ment
ar
yr
ockmade up ofsi
l
t
-and cl
ay
si
zed par
t
i
cl
es.Cont
ai
nscl
ay
mi
ner
al
saswel
laspar
t
i
cl
esofquar
t
z
,f
el
dspar
,cal
ci
t
e,dol
omi
t
e,andot
hermi
ner
al
s.Di
st
i
ngui
shedf
r
om
mudst
onebypr
esenceoff
i
ssi
l
i
t
y
.
shear -Changeofshapewi
t
houtchangeofv
ol
ume.
shear wave -Wav
et
hatadv
ancesbyshear
i
ng di
spl
acement
s(
whi
ch changeshape wi
t
houtchangi
ng
v
ol
ume)ofmedi
um.Thi
scausespar
t
i
cl
esi
npat
ht
omov
ef
r
om si
det
osi
deorupanddownatr
i
ghtangl
es
t
odi
r
ect
i
onofwav
e'
sadvance.Al
socal
l
edshakewav
e,orsecondar
ywav
e.

sedimentation -Pr
ocessbywhi
chmi
ner
alandor
gani
cmat
t
er
sar
el
ai
ddown.
seif dune -Ver
yl
ar
gel
ongi
t
udi
nal
dune.Ashi
ghas100m andasl
ongas100km.

sheet -Abr
oad,r
el
at
i
v
el
yt
hi
ndeposi
torl
ay
erofi
gneousorsedi
ment
ar
yr
ock
.
seismic prospecting -Met
hodofdet
er
mi
ni
ngnat
ur
eandst
r
uct
ur
eofbur
i
edr
ockf
or
mat
i
onsbygener
at
i
ng
wavesi
ngr
ound(
commonl
ybysmal
lex
pl
osi
v
echar
ges)andmeasur
i
ngl
engt
hoft
i
met
hesewavesr
equi
r
e
t
ot
r
av
eldi
f
f
er
entpat
hs.
seismic sea wave -Lar
gewav
ei
noceangener
at
edatt
i
meofear
t
hquake.Popul
ar
l
ybuti
ncor
r
ect
l
yk
nown
ast
i
dalwave.Somet
i
mescal
l
edt
sunami
.
seismogram -Recor
dobt
ai
nedonasei
smogr
aph.

sheet flow -Seesheetwash.

sheeting -Joi
nt
sessent
i
al
l
ypar
al
l
elt
ogr
oundsur
f
ace.Mor
ecl
osel
yspacednearsur
f
aceandbecome
pr
egr
essi
v
el
yf
ar
t
herapar
twi
t
hdept
h.Par
t
i
cul
ar
l
ywel
ldevel
opedi
ngr
ani
t
i
cr
ock
s,butsomet
i
mesi
not
her
massi
v
er
ock
saswel
l
.
sheet wash -Wat
eraccumul
at
i
ngonasl
opei
nt
hi
nsheetofwat
er
.Maybegi
nt
oconcent
r
at
ei
nr
i
l
l
s.Al
so
cal
l
edsheetf
l
ow.

seismograph -I
nst
r
umentf
orr
ecor
di
ngv
i
br
at
i
ons,mostcommonl
yempl
oyedf
orr
ecor
di
ngear
t
hv
i
br
at
i
ons
dur
i
ngear
t
hquakes.

shield -Nucl
eusofPr
ecambr
i
anr
ock
sar
oundwhi
chacont
i
nenthasgr
own.

seismology -Sci
ent
i
f
i
cst
udyofear
t
hquakesandot
herear
t
hv
i
br
at
i
ons.

shift -Faul
t
.

71

72

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

shield volcano -Vol

canobui
l
tupal
mostent
i
r
el
yofl
av
a,wi
t
hsl
opessel
dom asgr
eatas10 atsummi
tand
2 atbase.Ex
ampl
es:f
i
v
ev
ol
canoesoni
sl
andofHawai
i
.

simatic rock -I
gneous r
ock composed per
domi
nant
l
y off
er
r
omagnesi
an mi
ner
al
s.Aver
age speci
f
i
c
gr
av
i
t
y
,3.
0t
o3.
3.

sial -A t
er
m coi
ned f
r
om chemi
calsy
mbol
sf
orsi
l
i
con and al
umi
num.Desi
gnat
escomposi
t
e ofr
ock
s
domi
nat
edbygr
ani
t
es,gr
anodi
or
i
t
es,andt
hei
ral
l
i
esandder
i
v
at
i
v
es,whi
chunder
l
i
econt
i
nent
alar
easof
gl
obe.Speci
f
i
cgr
av
i
t
yconsi
der
edt
obeabout2.
7.

sink -Seesi
nkhol
e.
sinkhole -Depr
essi
oni
nsur
f
aceofgr
oundcausedbycol
l
apseofr
oofoversol
ut
i
oncaver
n.

sialic rock -I
gneous r
ock composed pr
edomi
nant
l
y ofsi
l
i
con and al
umi
num,f
r
om whose chemi
cal
sy
mbol
st
er
mi
sconst
r
uct
ed.Av
er
agespeci
f
i
cgr
av
i
t
y
,about2.
7.

sinter -Achemi
calsedi
mentorcr
ust
,asofpor
oussi
l
i
ca,deposi
t
edbyami
ner
al
spr
i
ng.

eofi
r
on.
siderite -Ami
ner
al
;i
r
oncar
bonat
e,FeCO3.Anor

slate -Fi
negr
ai
nedmet
amor
phi
cr
ockwi
t
hwel
l
devel
opedsl
at
ycl
eav
age.f
or
medbyl
owgr
ader
egi
onal
met
amor
phi
sm ofshal
e.

silicate minerals -Mi

ner
al
swi
t
hcr
y
st
al
st
r
uct
ur
econt
ai
ni
ngsi
l
i
conox
y
gent
et
r
ahedr
aar
r
angedasi
sol
at
ed
uni
t
s(
nesosi
l
i
cat
es)
,si
ngl
e ordoubl
echai
ns(
i
nosi
l
i
cat
es)
,sheet
s(
phy
l
l
osi
l
i
cat
es)
,ort
hr
eedi
mensi
onal
f
r
amewor
k
s(
t
ect
osi
l
i
cat
es)
.

slaty cleavage -Rockcl

eavagei
nwhi
cheaseofbr
eaki
ngoccur
sal
ongpl
anessepar
at
edbymi
cr
oscopi
c
di
st
ances.

silicon-oxygen tetrahedron -Compl

exi
on composed ofsi
l
i
con i
on sur
r
ounded byf
ouroxy
gen i
ons.
4agnost
i
cuni
tofsi
l
i
cat
emi
ner
al
s,and
Negat
i
vechar
geof4uni
t
s,andr
epr
esent
edbysy
mbol(
Si
O4).Di
makesupcent
r
albui
l
di
nguni
tofnear
l
y90per
centofmat
er
i
al
sofear
t
h'
scr
ust
.

slip -(
1) A smoot
hcr
ackatwhi
chr
ockst
r
at
ahavemoved on each ot
her
.(
2) A smal
lf
aul
t
.(
3) The
r
el
at
i
v
edi
spl
acementoff
or
mer
l
yadj
acentpoi
nt
sonopposi
t
esi
desofaf
aul
t
.
slip face -St
eepf
aceonl
eesi
deofadune.

sill -Anappr
ox
i
mat
el
yhor
i
zont
al
sheetofi
gneousr
ocki
nt
r
udedbet
weenol
derr
ockbeds.
slope failure -Seesl
ump.
sillimanite -Asi
l
i
cat
emi
ner
al
,Al
i
O5,char
act
er
i
st
i
cofhi
ghestmet
amor
phi
ct
emper
at
ur
esandpr
essur
es.
2S
Occur
si
nl
ong sl
ender cr
y
st
al
s,br
own,gr
een,whi
t
e.Cr
y
st
al
l
i
ne st
r
uct
ur
e based on i
ndependent
t
et
r
ahedr
a.Cont
r
astwi
t
hky
ani
t
eandandal
usi
t
e,whi
chhav
esamecomposi
t
i
onbutdi
f
f
er
entcr
y
st
alhabi
t
s
andf
or
m atl
owert
emper
at
ur
es.
silt size -Vol
umegr
eat
ert
hant
hatofaspher
ewi
t
hdi
amet
erof0.
0039mm andl
esst
hant
hatofaspher
e
wi
t
hdi
amet
erof0.
0625mm.

slump -Downwar
dandout
war
dmovementofr
ockorunconsol
i
dat
edmat
er
i
alasuni
torasser
i
esofuni
t
s.
Al
socal
l
edsl
opef
ai
l
ur
e.
snowfield -St
r
et
chofper
enni
alsnow ex
i
st
i
ngi
nar
eawher
ewi
nt
ersnowf
al
lex
ceedsamountofsnow t
hat
mel
t
sawaydur
i
ngsummer
.
snow line -Lowerl
i
mi
tofper
enni
al
snow.

Silurian -Of
,bel
ongi
ngt
o,orbei
ngt
hegeol
ogi
ct
i
me,sy
st
em ofr
ock
s,orsedi
ment
ar
ydeposi
t
soft
het
hi
r
d
per
i
odoft
hePal
eozoi
cEr
a,char
act
er
i
zedbyt
hedev
el
opmentofear
l
yi
nv
er
t
ebr
at
el
andani
mal
sandl
and
pl
ant
s.
sima -Ter
m coi
nedf
r
om si
l
i
conandmagnesi
um.Desi
gnat
eswor
l
dwi
deshel
lofdar
k
,heav
yr
ock
s.Si
ma
bel
i
evedt
obeout
er
mostr
ockl
ay
erunderdeep,per
manentoceanbasi
ns,suchasPaci
f
i
c.Or
i
gi
nal
l
ysi
ma
consi
der
edbasal
t
i
ci
ncomposi
t
i
on,wi
t
hspeci
f
i
cgr
av
i
t
yofabout3.
0.I
thasbeensuggest
edal
so,however
,
t
hati
tmaybeper
i
dot
i
t
i
ci
ncomposi
t
i
on,wi
t
hspeci
f
i
cgr
av
i
t
yofabout3.
3.

73

soapstone -Seet
al
c.
sodic feldspar -Al
bi
t
e,Na(
Al
Si
.
3O8)
soil -Super
f
i
ci
almat
er
i
alt
hatf
or
msatear
t
h'
ssur
f
aceasr
esul
tofor
gani
candi
nor
gani
cpr
ocesses.Soi
l
v
ar
i
eswi
t
hcl
i
mat
e,pl
antandani
mall
i
f
e,t
i
me,sl
opeofl
and,andpar
entmat
er
i
al
.

74

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

soil horizon -Lay

erofsoi
lappr
ox
i
mat
el
ypar
al
l
elt
ol
andsur
f
acewi
t
hobser
v
abl
echar
act
er
i
st
i
cspr
oduced
t
hr
oughoper
at
i
onofsoi
l
bui
l
di
ngpr
ocesses.

spheroidal weathering -Spal

l
i
ngof
fofconcent
r
i
cshel
l
sf
r
om r
ockmassesofv
ar
i
oussi
zesasr
esul
tof
pr
essur
esbui
l
tupdur
i
ngchemi
calweat
her
i
ng.

solar constant -Av

er
ager
at
eatwhi
chr
adi
antener
gyr
ecei
v
edbyear
t
hf
r
om sun.Equalt
ol
i
t
t
l
el
esst
han
2
mi
nonpl
aneper
pendi
cul
art
osun'
sr
ay
satout
eredgeofat
mospher
e,whenear
t
hi
satmean
2cal
/
cm di
st
ancef
r
om sun.

spit -Sandybarbui
l
tbycur
r
ent
si
nt
oabayf
r
om apr
omont
or
y
.
spring -Pl
ace wher
e wat
ert
abl
e cr
ops outatgr
ound sur
f
ace and wat
erf
l
ows outmor
e orl
ess
cont
i
nuousl
y
.

solar system -Sunwi

t
hgr
oupofcel
est
i
albodi
eshel
dbyi
t
sgr
av
i
t
at
i
onalat
t
r
act
i
onandr
ev
ol
v
i
ngar
oundi
t
.
sole mark -Castofsedi
ment
ar
yst
r
uct
ur
essuchascr
ack
s,t
r
ack
s,orgr
oov
esf
or
medonl
owersur
f
aceor
under
si
deofsandst
onebed,commonl
yr
eveal
edaf
t
eror
i
gi
nalunder
l
y
i
ngsedi
ment
ar
yl
ayerhasweat
her
ed
away
.
solid -Mat
t
erwi
t
hdef
i
ni
t
eshapeandv
ol
umeandsomef
undament
alst
r
engt
h.Maybecr
y
st
al
l
i
ne,gl
assy
,
oramor
phous.
solid solution -Si
ngl
ecr
y
st
al
l
i
nephaset
hatmayvar
yi
ncomposi
t
i
onwi
t
hi
nspeci
f
i
cl
i
mi
t
s.

stack -Smal
li
sl
andt
hatst
andsasi
sol
at
ed,st
eepsi
dedr
ockmassj
ustof
fendofpr
omont
or
y
.Hasbeen
i
sol
at
edf
r
om l
andbyer
osi
onandweat
her
i
ngconcent
r
at
edbehi
ndendofaheadl
and.
stage -A subdi
v
i
si
oni
nt
hecl
assi
f
i
cat
i
onofst
r
at
i
f
i
edr
ock
s,r
ank
i
ngj
ustbel
ow aser
i
esandr
epr
esent
i
ng
r
ockf
or
meddur
i
ngachr
onol
ogi
calage.
stalactite -I
ci
cl
eshapedaccumul
at
i
onofdr
i
pst
onehangi
ngf
r
om cav
er
oof
.
stalagmite -Postofdr
i
pst
onegr
owi
ngupwar
df
r
om cavef
l
oor
.

solifluction -Massmovementofsoi
laf
f
ect
edbyal
t
er
nat
ef
r
eez
i
ngandt
hawi
ng.Char
act
er
i
st
i
cofsat
ur
at
ed
soi
l
si
nhi
ghl
at
i
t
udes.
sorosilicates -Mi
ner
alwi
t
hcr
y
st
al
st
r
uct
ur
econt
ai
ni
ngsi
l
i
conoxy
gent
et
r
ahedr
aar
r
angedasdoubl
euni
t
s.

star -Aheav
enl
ybodyt
hatseemst
ost
ayi
nsameposi
t
i
onr
el
at
i
vet
oot
herheav
enl
ybodi
es.
staurolite -Si
l
i
cat
emi
ner
alchar
act
er
i
st
i
cofmi
ddl
egr
ademet
amor
phi
sm.Cr
y
st
al
l
i
nest
r
uct
ur
ebasedon
i
ndependentt
et
r
ahedr
awi
t
hi
r
onandal
umi
num.Hasuni
quecr
y
st
alhabi
tt
hatmakesi
tst
r
i
ki
ngandeasyt
o
r
ecogni
ze;si
x
si
dedpr
i
smsi
nt
er
sect
i
ngat90 t
of
or
m cr
ossorat60 t
of
or
m anXshape.

southeast trades -Wi

ndsbl
owi
ngf
r
om t
hesout
heastt
owar
dt
heequat
ori
nt
hesout
her
nhemi
spher
e.
space lattice -I
ncr
y
st
al
l
i
nest
r
uct
ur
eofmi
ner
al
,t
hr
eedi
mensi
onalar
r
ayofpoi
nt
sr
epr
esent
i
ngpat
t
er
nof
l
ocat
i
onsofi
dent
i
calat
omsorgr
oupsofat
omsconst
i
t
ut
i
ng ami
ner
al
'
suni
tcel
l
.Ther
ear
e230pat
t
er
n
t
y
pes.
specific gravity -Rat
i
obet
weenwei
ghtofgi
v
env
ol
umeofmat
er
i
alandwei
ghtofequalv
ol
umeofwat
erat
4 C.

steady-state theory -Theor

yt
hatuni
ver
sei
sdevel
opi
ngbycont
i
nuouscr
eat
i
onofmat
t
erasnewl
yf
or
med
gal
ax
i
esr
epl
acet
hoseex
pandi
ngoutofsi
ght
,t
huskeepi
ngmassdensi
t
yofuni
v
er
seconst
ant
.Compar
e
wi
t
hbi
gbant
heor
y
.
stock -Di
scor
dantpl
ut
ont
hati
ncr
easesi
nsi
zedownwar
d,hasnodet
er
mi
nabl
ef
l
oor
,andshowsar
eaof
2
ewi
t
hbat
hol
i
t
h.
sur
f
aceex
posur
el
esst
han100km .Compar
stoping -Mechani
sm bywhi
chbat
hol
i
t
hshavemovedi
nt
ocr
ustbybr
eak
i
ngof
fandf
ounder
i
ngofbl
ock
sof
r
ocksur
r
oundi
ngmagmachamber
.

specific heat -Amountofheatnecessar

yt
or
ai
set
emper
at
ur
eof1gofanymat
er
i
al1 C.
sphalerite -Ami
ner
al
;zi
ncsul
f
i
de,ZnS.Near
l
yal
way
scont
ai
nsi
r
on,(
Zn,Fe)
S.Pr
i
nci
palor
eofzi
nc.(
Al
so
k
nownasz
i
ncbl
endeorbl
ack
j
ack
.
)

75

strain -Changeofdi
mensi
onsofmat
t
eri
nr
esponset
ost
r
ess:Commonl
y
,uni
tst
r
ai
n,suchaschangei
n
l
engt
hperuni
tl
engt
h(
t
ot
all
engt
heni
ngdi
v
i
dedbyor
i
gi
nall
engt
h)
,changei
nwi
dt
hperuni
twi
dt
h,change
i
nv
ol
umeperuni
tvol
ume.

76

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

straticulate -Hav
i
ngt
hi
nl
ayer
s.

structural relief -Di

f
f
er
encei
nel
ev
at
i
onofpar
t
sofdef
or
medst
r
at
i
gr
aphi
chor
i
zon.

stratification -St
r
uct
ur
epr
oducedbydeposi
t
i
onofsedi
ment
si
nl
ayer
sorbeds.

structure -At
t
i
t
udesofdef
or
medmassesofr
ock
.

stratigraphic trap -St

r
uct
ur
et
hatt
r
apspet
r
ol
eum ornat
ur
algasbecauseofv
ar
i
at
i
oni
nper
meabi
l
i
t
yof
r
eser
v
oi
rr
ockort
er
mi
nat
i
onofi
ncl
i
nedr
eser
voi
rf
or
mat
i
ononupdi
psi
de.

subduction -Act
oofonet
ect
oni
cuni
t
'
sdescendi
ngunderanot
her(
commonl
ysl
abofl
i
t
hospher
e)
.
subduction zone -El
ongat
er
egi
onal
ongwhi
chl
i
t
hospher
i
cbl
ockdescendsr
el
at
i
v
et
oanot
herl
i
t
hospher
i
c
bl
ock
.

stratum -Abedorl
ay
erofsedi
ment
ar
yr
ockhav
i
ngappr
ox
i
mat
el
yt
hesamecomposi
t
i
ont
hr
oughout
.
streak -Col
oroff
i
nepowderofmi
ner
al
;maybedi
f
f
er
entf
r
om col
orofhandspeci
men.Usual
l
ydet
er
mi
ned
byr
ubbi
ngmi
ner
alonpi
eceofungl
azedpor
cel
ai
n(
har
dnessabout7)knownasa"
st
r
eakpl
at
e,
"whi
chi
s,
ofcour
se,usel
essf
ormi
ner
al
sofgr
eat
erhar
dness.
stream order -Hi
er
ar
chyi
nwhi
chsegment
sofast
r
eam sy
st
em ar
ear
r
anged.
stream terrace -Sur
f
ace r
epr
esent
i
ng r
emnant
s ofst
r
eam'
schannelorf
l
ood pl
ai
n when st
r
eam was
f
l
owi
ngathi
gherl
evel
.Subsequentdownwar
dcut
t
i
ngbyst
r
eam l
eavesr
emnant
sofol
dchannelorf
l
ood
pl
ai
nst
andi
ngast
er
r
aceabov
epr
esentst
r
eam l
ev
el
.

sublimation -Pr
ocessbywhi
chsol
i
dmat
er
i
al
passesi
nt
ogaseousst
at
ewi
t
houtf
i
r
stbecomi
ngl
i
qui
d.
subsequent stream -Tr
i
but
ar
yst
r
eam f
l
owi
ngal
ongbedsofl
esser
osi
onalr
esi
st
anceandpar
al
l
elt
obeds
ofgr
eat
err
esi
st
ance.Cour
se det
er
mi
ned subsequentt
o upl
i
f
tt
hatbr
oughtmor
er
esi
st
antbeds wi
t
hi
n
spher
eofer
osi
on.
subsurface water -Wat
erbel
ow gr
oundsur
f
ace.Al
sor
ef
er
r
edt
oasunder
gr
oundwat
erandsubt
er
r
anean
wat
er
.

strength -St
r
essatwhi
chr
upt
ur
eoccur
sorpl
ast
i
cdef
or
mat
i
onbegi
ns.

subterranean water -Wat

erbel
ow gr
oundsur
f
ace.Al
sor
ef
er
r
edt
oasunder
gr
oundwat
erandsubsur
f
ace
wat
er
.

stress -For
ceappl
i
edt
omat
er
i
alt
hatt
endst
ochangedi
mensi
ons:commonl
y
,uni
tst
r
essort
ot
alf
or
ce
di
v
i
dedbyt
hear
eaoverwhi
chappl
i
ed.Cont
r
astwi
t
hst
r
ai
n.

subtropical high pressure zones -Zonesofat

mospher
i
chi
ghpr
essur
el
ocat
edabout30 nor
t
hand30
sout
hoft
heequat
or
.

striations -(
1)Scr
at
ches,orsmal
lchannel
s,gougedbygl
aci
alact
i
on.Bedr
ock
,pebbl
es,andboul
der
s
mayshow st
r
i
at
i
onspr
oduced whenr
ock
st
r
apped byi
cewer
egr
ound agai
nstbedr
ockorot
herr
ock
s.
St
r
i
at
i
onsal
ongbedr
ocksur
f
acear
eor
i
ent
edi
ndi
r
ect
i
onofi
cef
l
ow acr
osst
hatsur
f
ace.(
2)I
nmi
ner
al
s,
par
al
l
el
,t
hr
eadl
i
kel
i
nes,ornar
r
owbands,onf
aceofmi
ner
al
.Ref
l
ecti
nt
er
nalat
omi
car
r
angement
.

t
h posi
t
i
v
ei
on.Common
sulfate mineral -Mi
ner
alf
or
med by combi
nat
i
on ofcompl
ex i
on (
SO4)-wi
exampl
e:gy
psum,CaSO42H2O.

strike -Di
r
ect
i
onofl
i
nef
or
medbyi
nt
er
sect
i
onofar
ocksur
f
acewi
t
hahor
i
zont
alpl
ane.St
r
i
kei
sal
way
s
per
pendi
cul
art
odi
r
ect
i
onofdi
p.

sulfide mineral -Mi

ner
alf
or
medbydi
r
ectuni
onofel
ementwi
t
hsul
f
ur
.Ex
ampl
es:ar
gent
i
t
e,chal
coci
t
e,
gal
ena,sphal
er
i
t
e,py
r
i
t
e,andci
nnabar
.
superposition -Law bywhi
ch,i
fser
i
esofsedi
ment
ar
yr
ock
shasnotbeenov
er
t
ur
ned,t
opmostl
ay
eri
s
al
way
sy
oungestandl
ower
mostal
way
sol
dest
.

strike-slip fault -Faul

ti
nwhi
chmov
ementi
sal
mosti
ndi
r
ect
i
onoff
aul
t
'
sst
r
i
ke.
strip mining -Sur
f
acemi
ni
ngi
nwhi
chsoi
landr
ockcover
i
ngsought
f
orcommodi
t
yar
emovedt
oonesi
de.
Somecoalmi
ni
ngi
spur
suedi
nt
hi
smanner
.

surface wave -Wav

et
hatt
r
avel
sal
ongf
r
eesur
f
aceofmedi
um.Ear
t
hquakesur
f
acewav
essomet
i
mes
r
epr
esent
edbysy
mbolL.
surge -Appl
i
edt
ogl
aci
er
s;r
api
dandsomet
i
mescat
ast
r
ophi
cadv
anceofi
ce.

structural -Oforr
el
at
i
ngt
ot
hest
r
uct
ur
eofr
ock
sandot
heraspect
soft
heear
t
h'
scr
ust
.

77

78

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

suspended water -Under

gr
oundwat
erhel
di
nzoneofaer
at
i
onbymol
ecul
arat
t
r
act
i
onexer
t
edonwat
er
byr
ockandear
t
hmat
er
i
al
sandbyat
t
r
act
i
onexer
t
edbywat
erpar
t
i
cl
esononeanot
her
.
tablemount -Seeguy
ot
.
suspension -Pr
ocessbywhi
chmat
er
i
ali
sbuoyedupi
nai
rorwat
erandmovedaboutwi
t
houtmaki
ng
cont
actwi
t
hsur
f
acewhi
l
ei
nt
r
ansi
t
.Cont
r
ast
swi
t
ht
r
act
i
on.
symmetrical fold -Fol
di
nwhi
chax
i
alpl
anei
sessent
i
al
l
yv
er
t
i
cal
.Li
mbsdi
patsi
mi
l
arangl
es.
syncline -A conf
i
gur
at
i
onoff
ol
ded,st
r
at
i
f
i
edr
ock
si
nwhi
chr
ock
sdi
pdownwar
df
r
om opposi
t
edi
r
ect
i
ons
t
ocomet
oget
heri
nat
r
ough.Rev
er
seofant
i
cl
i
ne.

tabular -(
1)Shapewi
t
hl
ar
gear
ear
el
at
i
vet
ot
hi
ckness.(
2)Tendi
ngt
ospl
i
ti
nt
ot
hi
nf
l
atpi
eces.
taconite -Unl
eachedi
r
onf
or
mat
i
onofLakeSuper
i
orDi
st
r
i
ct
.Consi
st
sofcher
twi
t
hhemat
i
t
e,magnet
i
t
e,
si
der
i
t
e,andhy
dr
ousi
r
onsi
l
i
cat
es.Or
eofi
r
on,av
er
agi
ng25per
centi
r
on,butnat
ur
all
eachi
ngt
ur
nsi
ti
nt
o
or
ewi
t
h50t
o60per
centi
r
on.
talc -Si
l
i
cat
e ofmagnesi
um common among met
amor
phi
c mi
ner
al
s.Cr
y
st
al
l
i
ne st
r
uct
ur
e based on
t
et
r
ahedr
aar
r
angedi
nsheet
s;gr
easyandex
t
r
emel
ysof
t
.Somet
i
mesk
nownassoapst
one.

synclinal -Rel
at
i
ngt
o,f
or
medby
,orf
or
mi
ngasy
ncl
i
ne

talus -Sl
opeest
abl
i
shedbyaccumul
at
i
onofr
ockf
r
agment
satf
ootofcl
i
f
forr
i
dge.Rockf
r
agment
st
hat
f
or
mt
al
usmayber
ockwast
e,sl
i
der
ock
,orpi
ecesbr
okenbyf
r
ostact
i
on.Act
ual
l
y
,t
er
m"
t
al
us"wi
del
yused
t
omeanr
ockdebr
i
si
t
sel
f
.
tarn -Lakef
or
medi
nbot
t
om ofci
r
queaf
t
ergl
aci
eri
cehasdi
sappear
ed.
tectonic -Rel
at
i
ngt
o,causi
ng,orr
esul
t
i
ngf
r
om st
r
uct
ur
aldef
or
mat
i
onoft
heear
t
h'
scr
ust
.
tectonic change of sea level -Changei
nseal
evelpr
oducedbyl
andmov
ement
.
tectonism -(
1)Thest
r
uct
ur
albehav
i
orofanel
ementoft
heear
t
h'
scr
ust
.(
2)Cr
ust
ali
nst
abi
l
i
t
y
.
tectosilicate -Mi
ner
alwi
t
h cr
y
st
alst
r
uct
ur
e cont
ai
ni
ng si
l
i
conox
y
gen t
et
r
ahedr
a ar
r
anged i
nt
hr
eedi
mensi
onal
f
r
amewor
k
s.
temporary base level -Nonper
manentbasel
evel
,suchast
hatf
or
medbyl
ake.
tension -St
r
et
chi
ngst
r
esst
hatt
endst
oi
ncr
easev
ol
umeofamat
er
i
al
.
terminal moraine -Ri
dge orbel
toft
i
l
lmar
k
i
ng f
ar
t
hestadv
ance ofa gl
aci
er
.Somet
i
mes cal
l
ed end
mor
ai
ne.
terminal velocity -Const
antr
at
eoff
al
levent
ual
l
yat
t
ai
nedbygr
ai
norbodywhenaccel
er
at
i
oncausedby
i
nf
l
uenceofgr
av
i
t
yi
sbal
ancedbyr
esi
st
anceoff
l
ui
dt
hr
oughwhi
chgr
ai
nf
al
l
sorai
rt
hr
oughwhi
chbody
f
al
l
s.

79

80

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

terrace -Near
l
yl
evelsur
f
ace,r
el
at
i
v
el
ynar
r
ow,bor
der
i
ngast
r
eam orbodyofwat
erandt
er
mi
nat
i
oni
na
st
eepbank
.Commonl
yt
er
mi
smodi
f
i
edt
oi
ndi
cat
eor
i
gi
n,asi
nst
r
eam t
er
r
aceandwavecutt
er
r
ace.

thrust fault -Faul

ti
nwhi
chhangi
nwal
lappear
st
ohav
emovedupwar
dr
el
at
i
v
et
of
oot
wal
l
;opposi
t
eof
gr
av
i
t
y
,ornor
mal
,f
aul
t
.Al
socal
l
edr
ever
sef
aul
t
.

terrae -Li
ght
t
onedhi
ghl
andsofmoon.

tidal current -Wat

ercur
r
entgener
at
edbyt
i
depr
oduci
ngf
or
cesofsunandmoon.

terrigenous -Der
i
v
edf
r
om t
hel
and,especi
al
l
ybyer
osi
veact
i
on.Usedpr
i
mar
i
l
yofsedi
ment
s.

tidal inlet -Wat

er
wayf
r
om openwat
eri
nt
oal
agoon.

terrigenous deposit -Mat

er
i
alder
i
v
ed f
r
om abov
e sea l
ev
eland deposi
t
ed i
n deep ocean.Ex
ampl
e:
v
ol
cani
cash.

tidal wave -Popul

arbuti
ncor
r
ectdesi
gnat
i
onf
ort
sunami
.

Tertiary -Of
,bel
ongi
ngt
o,orbei
ngt
hegeol
ogi
ct
i
me,sy
st
em ofr
ock
s,andsedi
ment
ar
ydeposi
t
soft
he
f
i
r
stper
i
od oft
he Cenozoi
c Er
a,ex
t
endi
ng f
r
om t
he Cr
et
aceous Per
i
od oft
he Mesozoi
c Er
at
ot
he
Quat
er
nar
yPer
i
odoft
heCenozoi
cEr
a,char
act
er
i
zedbyt
heappear
anceofmoder
nf
l
or
aandofapesand
ot
herl
ar
gemammal
s.
tetrahedron -Af
our
si
dedsol
i
d.Usedcommonl
yi
ndescr
i
bi
ngsi
l
i
cat
emi
ner
al
sasshor
t
enedr
ef
er
encet
o
si
l
i
conoxy
gent
et
r
ahedr
on.

tide -Al
t
er
nat
er
i
si
ngandf
al
l
i
ngofsur
f
aceofcoean,ot
herbodi
esofwat
er
,orear
t
hi
t
sel
fi
nr
esponset
o
f
or
cesr
esul
t
i
ngf
r
om mot
i
onofear
t
h,moon,andsunr
el
at
i
v
et
oeachot
her
.
till -Unst
r
at
i
f
i
ed,unsor
t
edgl
aci
aldr
i
f
tdeposi
t
eddi
r
ect
l
ybygl
aci
eri
ce.
tillite -Rockf
or
medbyl
i
t
hi
f
i
cat
i
onoft
i
l
l
.
time-distance graph -Gr
aphoft
r
av
elt
i
meagai
nstdi
st
ance.

texture -Gener
alphy
si
calappear
anceofr
ock
,asshownbysi
ze,shape,andar
r
angementofpar
t
i
cl
est
hat
makei
tup.
thermal gradient -I
near
ch,r
at
eatwhi
cht
emper
at
ur
ei
ncr
easeswi
t
hdept
hbel
owsur
f
ace.

tombolo -Sandbarconnect
i
ngani
sl
andt
omai
nl
andorj
oi
ni
ngt
woi
sl
ands.
topographic deserts -Deser
t
sdef
i
ci
enti
nr
ai
nf
al
lbecauset
heyar
eei
t
herl
ocat
edf
arf
r
om oceanst
owar
d
cent
erofcont
i
nent
sorcutof
ff
r
om r
ai
nbear
i
ngwi
ndsbyhi
ghmount
ai
ns.

thermal pollution -I
ncr
easei
nnor
malt
emper
at
ur
esofnat
ur
alwat
er
scausedbyi
nt
er
v
ent
i
onofhuman
act
i
v
i
t
i
es.

topography -Shapeandphy
si
cal
f
eat
ur
esofl
and.

thermal spring -Spr

i
ngt
hatbr
i
ngswar
m orhotwat
ert
osur
f
ace.Temper
at
ur
eusual
l
y6.
5 C ormor
e
abovemeanai
rt
emper
at
ur
e.Somet
i
mescal
l
edwar
m spr
i
ng,orhotspr
i
ng.

topset bed -Lay

erofsedi
mentconst
i
t
ut
i
ngsur
f
aceofdel
t
a.Usual
l
ynear
l
yhor
i
zont
alandcov
er
sedgesof
i
ncl
i
nedf
or
esetbeds.

thermoremanent magnetism -Magnet

i
sm acqui
r
edbyi
gneousr
ockasi
tcool
sbel
ow Cur
i
et
emper
at
ur
e
ofmagnet
i
cmi
ner
al
si
ni
t
.Abbr
ev
i
at
i
on,TRM.

tourmaline -Si
l
i
cat
e mi
ner
alofbor
on and al
umi
num wi
t
h sodi
um,cal
ci
um,f
l
uor
i
ne,i
r
on,l
i
t
hi
um,or
magnesi
um.For
med athi
gh t
emper
at
ur
es and pr
essur
es t
hr
ough agencyoff
l
ui
dscar
r
y
i
ng bor
on and
f
l
uor
i
ne.Par
t
i
cul
ar
l
yassoci
at
edwi
t
hpegmat
i
t
es.

thin section -Sl

i
ceofr
ockgr
oundsot
hi
nast
obet
r
ansl
ucent
.
,py
r
ox
ene,andi
r
on
tholeiite -Gr
oupofbasal
t
spr
i
mar
i
l
ycomposedofpl
agi
ocl
ase(
appr
ox
i
mat
el
yAn50)
ox
i
desasphenocr
y
st
si
ngl
assygr
oundmassofquar
t
zandal
kal
if
el
dspar
;l
i
t
t
l
eornool
i
v
i
nepr
esent
.

township and range -Mostoft

hear
eaoft
heUni
t
edSt
at
eshasbeensubdi
v
i
dedbyasy
st
em ofl
and
sur
v
eyi
nwhi
chasquar
e6mionasi
dei
st
hebasi
cuni
t
,cal
l
edat
ownshi
pwhenmeasur
ednor
t
handsout
h
ofagi
v
enbasel
i
ne,andcal
l
edar
angewhenmeasur
edeastandwestofagi
v
enpr
i
nci
palmer
i
di
an.
traction -Pr
ocessofcar
r
y
i
ngmat
er
i
alal
ongbot
t
om ofast
r
eam.Tr
act
i
oni
ncl
udesmovementbysal
t
at
i
on,
r
ol
l
i
ng,orsl
i
di
ng.

throw -Theamountofver
t
i
caldi
spl
acementofaf
aul
t
.

81

82

Glossary of Geology

trailing edge -The mar

gi
n ofacont
i
nentt
hatoccur
s ont
hesi
de opposi
t
et
he mar
gi
n mov
i
ng t
owar
d
anot
hercont
i
nent
aloroceani
cpl
at
e(
l
eadi
ng edge)
;commonl
yi
sl
essact
i
v
et
ect
oni
cal
l
y
,behav
i
ngi
na
passi
v
emanner
.Themar
gi
nofacont
i
nentmov
i
ngawayf
r
om t
hel
ocusofspr
eadi
ngal
ongami
doceani
c
r
i
dgeas,f
orexampl
e,t
heeast
er
ncoast
sofNor
t
handSout
hAmer
i
ca.
transcurrent fault -Seest
r
i
kesl
i
pf
aul
t
.

Glossary of Geology

tropical deserts -Deser

t
sl
y
i
ngbet
ween5 t
o30 nor
t
handsout
hofequat
or
.
truncated spur -Bevel
edendofdi
v
i
debet
weent
wot
r
i
but
ar
yv
al
l
ey
swher
et
heyj
oi
namai
nv
al
l
eyt
hathas
beengl
aci
at
ed.Gl
aci
erofmai
nv
al
l
eyhaswor
nof
fendofdi
v
i
de.
tsunami -Lar
gewavei
noceangener
at
edatt
i
meofear
t
hquake.Popul
ar
l
ybuti
ncor
r
ect
l
yknownast
i
dal
wave.Somet
i
mescal
l
edsei
smi
cseawave.

transducer -Dev
i
cet
hatpi
ck
supr
el
at
i
v
emot
i
onbet
weenmassofsei
smogr
aphandgr
oundandconv
er
t
s
t
hi
si
nt
of
or
mt
hatcanber
ecor
ded.
transform fault -Poi
ntatwhi
chst
r
i
kesl
i
pdi
spl
acement
sst
opandanot
herst
r
uct
ur
alf
eat
ur
e,suchasa
r
i
dge,devel
ops.

tufa -Cal
ci
um car
bonat
e,CaCO3,f
or
medi
nst
al
act
i
t
es,st
al
agmi
t
es,andot
herdeposi
t
si
nl
i
mest
onecav
es,
as i
ncr
ust
at
i
ons ar
ound mout
hs ofhotand col
d cal
car
eous spr
i
ngs,oral
ong st
r
eams car
r
y
i
ng l
ar
ge
amount
sofcal
ci
um car
bonat
ei
nsol
ut
i
on.Somet
i
mesknownast
r
aver
t
i
neordr
i
pst
one.
tuff -Rockconsol
i
dat
edf
r
om v
ol
cani
cash.

transition element -El

ementi
nser
i
esi
nwhi
chi
nnershel
li
sbei
ngf
i
l
l
edwi
t
hel
ect
r
onsaf
t
erout
ershel
lhas
beenst
ar
t
ed.Al
l
t
r
ansi
t
i
onel
ement
smet
al
l
i
ci
nf
r
eest
at
e.

tundra -St
r
et
chofAr
ct
i
cswampl
anddev
el
opedont
opofper
manent
l
yf
r
ozengr
ound.Ex
t
ensi
v
et
undr
a
r
egi
onshavedev
el
opedi
npar
t
sofNor
t
hAmer
i
ca,Eur
ope,andAsi
a.

transpiration -Pr
ocessbywhi
chwat
erv
aporescapesf
r
om al
i
v
i
ngpl
antandent
er
sat
mospher
e.
transverse dune -Dunef
or
medi
nar
easofscant
yv
eget
at
i
onandi
nwhi
chsandhasmovedi
nr
i
dgeat
r
i
ghtangl
est
owi
nd.Ex
hi
bi
t
sgent
l
ewi
ndwar
dsl
opeandst
eepl
eewar
dsl
opechar
act
er
i
st
i
cofot
herdunes.

turbidites -Sedi
ment
ar
ydeposi
t
sset
t
l
edoutoft
ur
bi
dwat
ercar
r
y
i
ngpar
t
i
cl
esofwi
del
yv
ar
y
i
nggr
adesi
ze.
Char
act
er
i
st
i
cal
l
ydi
spl
aygr
adedbeddi
ng.
turbidity current -Cur
r
enti
nwhi
chl
i
mi
t
edv
ol
umeoft
ur
bi
dormuddywat
ermov
esr
el
at
i
vet
osur
r
oundi
ng
wat
erbecauseofcur
r
ent
'
sgr
eat
erdensi
t
y
.

transverse wave -Seeshear

,orshake,wave.
trap rock -Popul
arsy
nony
mf
orbasal
t
.

turbulent flow -Mechani

sm bywhi
chf
l
ui
d(
suchaswat
er
)movesoverorpastar
oughsur
f
ace.Fl
ui
dnoti
n
cont
actwi
t
hi
r
r
egul
arboundar
y out
r
uns t
hatsl
owed by f
r
i
ct
i
on ordef
l
ect
ed by unev
en sur
f
ace.Fl
ui
d
par
t
i
cl
esmov
ei
nser
i
esofeddi
esorwhi
r
l
s.Mostst
r
eam f
l
owi
st
ur
bul
ent
;t
ur
bul
entf
l
owi
si
mpor
t
anti
nbot
h
er
osi
onandt
r
anspor
t
at
i
on.Cont
r
astwi
t
hl
ami
narf
l
ow.

travel time -Tot

alel
apsedt
i
mef
orwavet
ot
r
av
elf
r
om sour
cet
odesi
gnat
edpoi
nt
.
chf
or
msst
al
act
i
t
es,st
al
agmi
t
es,andot
herdeposi
t
si
n
travertine -For
m ofcal
ci
um car
bonat
e,CaCO3,whi
l
i
mest
onecav
esori
ncr
ust
at
i
onsar
oundmout
hsofhotandcol
dcal
car
eousspr
i
ngs.Somet
i
mesk
nownas
t
uf
a,ordr
i
pst
one.

type locality -Thepl

aceorr
egi
oni
nwhi
char
ock
,ser
i
esofr
ock
,orf
or
mat
i
oni
st
y
pi
cal
l
yex
posed.

trellis pattern -Roughl

yr
ect
i
l
i
nearar
r
angementofst
r
eam cour
sesi
npat
t
er
nr
emi
ni
scentofgar
dent
r
el
l
i
s,
dev
el
opedi
nr
egi
onwher
er
ock
sofdi
f
f
er
i
ngr
esi
st
ancet
oer
osi
onhav
ebeenf
ol
ded,bev
el
ed,andupl
i
f
t
ed.
trenches -Seei
sl
andar
cdeeps.
TRM -Seet
her
mor
emanentmagnet
i
sm.

83

84

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

upthrow -Anupwar
ddi
spl
acementofr
ockononesi
deofaf
aul
t
.
upper -Of
,r
el
at
i
ngt
o,orbei
ngal
at
erdi
v
i
si
onoft
heper
i
odnamed.
ultimate base level -Seal
evel
,l
owestpossi
bl
ebasel
evel
f
orast
r
eam.

Upper Carboniferous -Pennsy

l
v
ani
an.

ultrabasic -Cont
ai
ni
ngmagnesi
um andi
r
onandonl
yav
er
ysmal
lamountofsi
l
i
ca.Usedofi
gneousr
ock
.
ultramatic -Ul
t
r
abasi
c.
unconformity -Bur
i
ed er
osi
onsur
f
acesepar
at
i
ng t
wor
ockmasses,ol
derex
posedt
o er
osi
onf
orl
ong
i
nt
er
v
aloft
i
mebef
or
edeposi
t
i
onofy
ounger
.I
fol
derr
ock
swer
edef
or
medandnothor
i
zont
alatt
i
meof
subsequentdeposi
t
i
on,sur
f
aceofsepar
at
i
oni
sangul
arunconf
or
mi
t
y
.I
fol
derr
ock
sr
emai
nedessent
i
al
l
y
hor
i
zont
al dur
i
ng er
osi
on, sur
f
ace separ
at
i
ng t
hem f
r
om y
ounger r
ock
si
s cal
l
ed di
sconf
or
mi
t
y
.
Unconf
or
mi
t
yt
hatdevel
opsbet
weenmassi
v
ei
gneousormet
amor
phi
cr
ock
sex
posedt
oer
osi
onandt
hen
cov
er
edbysedi
ment
ar
yr
ock
si
scal
l
ednonconf
or
mi
t
y
.

valley glacier -Gl

aci
erconf
i
ned t
ost
r
eam v
al
l
ey
.Usual
l
yf
ed f
r
om aci
r
que.Somet
i
mescal
l
ed Al
pi
ne
gl
aci
erormount
ai
ngl
aci
er
.

unconformable -Showi
ngunconf
or
mi
t
y
.
valley train -Gent
l
ysl
opi
ngpl
ai
nunder
l
ai
nbygl
aci
alout
washandconf
i
nedbyv
al
l
eywal
l
s.
underground water -Wat
erbel
ow gr
oundsur
f
ace.Al
sor
ef
er
r
edt
oassubsur
f
acewat
erandsubt
er
r
anean
wat
er
.

varve -Pai
roft
hi
n sedi
ment
ar
y beds,one coar
se,one f
i
ne.Thi
s coupl
ethas been i
nt
er
pr
et
ed as
r
epr
esent
i
ngacy
cl
eof1yearori
nt
er
v
aloft
hawf
ol
l
owedbyi
nt
er
v
aloff
r
eezi
ngi
nl
akesf
r
i
ngi
ngagl
aci
er
.

uneven fracture -Mi

ner
alhabi
tofbr
eaki
ngal
ongr
ough,i
r
r
egul
arsur
f
aces.
vein -Ar
egul
ar
l
yshapedandl
engt
hyoccur
r
enceofanor
e;al
ode.
uniformitarianism -Conceptt
hatpr
esenti
skeyt
opast
.Thi
smeanst
hatpr
ocessesnow oper
at
i
ngt
o
modi
f
year
t
h'
ssur
f
acehaveal
sooper
at
edi
ngeol
ogi
cpast
,t
hatt
her
ei
suni
f
or
mi
t
yofpr
ocessespastand
pr
esent
.
unit cell -I
ncr
y
st
al
l
i
nest
r
uct
ur
eofmi
ner
al
,t
hr
eedi
mensi
onalgr
oupi
ngofat
omsar
bi
t
r
ar
i
l
ysel
ect
edsot
hat
mi
ner
al
'
sst
r
ucut
r
er
epr
esent
edbyper
i
odi
cr
epet
i
t
i
onoft
hi
suni
ti
nspacel
at
t
i
ce.
unpaired terrace -A t
er
r
acef
or
medwhenaner
odi
ngst
r
eam,swi
ngi
ngbackandf
or
t
hacr
ossav
al
l
ey
,
encount
er
sr
esi
st
antr
ockbeneat
hunconsol
i
dat
edal
l
uv
i
um andi
sdef
l
ect
ed,l
eav
i
ngbehi
ndsi
ngl
et
er
r
ace
wi
t
hnocor
r
espondi
ngt
er
r
aceonot
hersi
deofst
r
eam.

ventifact -Pebbl
e,cobbl
e,orboul
dert
hathashadi
t
sshapeorsur
f
acemodi
f
i
edbywi
nddr
i
v
ensand.
vesicle -Smal
lcav
i
t
yi
naphani
t
i
corgl
assyi
gneousr
ock
,f
or
medbyex
pansi
onofbubbl
eofgasorst
eam
dur
i
ngsol
i
di
f
i
cat
i
onofr
ock
.
virtual geomagnetic pole -Pol
econsi
st
entwi
t
hmagnet
i
cf
i
el
dasmeasur
edatanyonel
ocal
i
t
y
.Ref
er
st
o
magnet
i
cf
i
el
ddi
r
ect
i
onofsi
ngl
epoi
nt
,i
ncont
r
astt
ogeomagnet
i
cpol
e,whi
chr
ef
er
st
obestf
i
tofgeocent
r
i
c
di
pol
ef
orent
i
r
eear
t
h'
sf
i
el
d.Mostpal
eomagnet
i
cr
eadi
ngsex
pr
essedasv
i
r
t
ualgeomagnet
i
cpol
es.
viscocity -Ani
nt
er
nalpr
oper
t
yofr
ockt
hatof
f
er
sr
esi
st
ancet
of
l
ow.Rat
i
oofdef
or
mi
ngf
or
cet
or
at
eat
whi
chchangesi
nshapear
epr
oduced.

upheaval -Ar
ai
si
ngofapar
toft
heear
t
h'
scr
ust
.
uplift -Anupheaval
.

85

86

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

volatile components -Mat

er
i
al
si
nmagma,suchaswat
er
,car
bondi
ox
i
de,andcer
t
ai
naci
ds,whosev
apor
pr
essur
esar
ehi
ghenought
ocauset
hem t
obecomeconcent
r
at
edi
nanygaseousphaset
hatf
or
ms.
volcanic ash -Dust
si
zedpy
r
ocl
ast
i
cpar
t
i
cl
e:v
ol
umeequalt
o,orl
esst
han,t
hatofspher
ewi
t
hdi
amet
erof
0.
06mm.
volcanic block -Angul
armassofnewl
ycongeal
edmagmabl
ownouti
ner
upt
i
on.Cont
r
astwi
t
hv
ol
cani
c
bomb.
volcanic bomb -Roundedmassofnewl
ycongeal
edmagmabl
ownouti
ner
upt
i
on.Cont
r
astwi
t
hv
ol
cani
c
bl
ock
.
volcanic breccia -Rockf
or
medf
r
om r
el
at
i
vel
yl
ar
gebl
ock
sofcongeal
edl
av
aembeddedi
nmassofash.
volcanic dust -Py
r
ocl
ast
i
cdet
r
i
t
usconsi
st
i
ngofpar
t
i
cl
esofdustsi
ze.
volcanic earthquakes -Ear
t
hquakescaused bymov
ement
s ofmagma orex
pl
osi
ons ofgases dur
i
ng
v
ol
cani
cact
i
v
i
t
y
.
volcanic eruption -Ex
pl
osi
v
eorqui
etemi
ssi
onofl
av
a,py
r
ocl
ast
i
cs,orv
ol
cani
cgasesatear
t
h'
ssur
f
ace,
usual
l
yf
r
om v
ol
canobutr
ar
el
yf
r
om f
i
ssur
es.
volcanic mountains -Mount
ai
nsbui
l
tupf
r
om ex
t
r
usi
onofl
av
aandpy
r
ocl
ast
i
cdebr
i
s.
volcanic neck -Sol
i
di
f
i
edmat
er
i
alf
i
l
l
i
ngv
ent
,orpi
pe,ofdeadv
ol
cano.
volcanic tremor -Cont
i
nuousshak
i
ngofgr
oundassoci
at
edwi
t
hcer
t
ai
nphaseofv
ol
cani
cer
upt
i
on.
volcano -Landf
or
m devel
opedbyaccumul
at
i
onofmagmat
i
cpr
oduct
snearcent
r
alv
ent
.
vug -Smal
lunf
i
l
l
ed cav
i
t
yi
nr
ock,usual
l
yl
i
ned wi
t
h cr
y
st
al
l
i
ne l
ay
erofdi
f
f
er
entcomposi
t
i
on f
r
om
sur
r
oundi
ngr
ock
.

87

88

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

wadi -Seear
r
oyo.
warm glacier -Gl
aci
erwhi
chr
eachesmel
t
i
ngt
emper
at
ur
et
hr
oughoutt
hi
ck
nessdur
i
ngsummerseason.
warm spring -Ther
malspr
i
ngt
hatbr
i
ngswar
m wat
ert
osur
f
ace.Temper
at
ur
eusual
l
y6.
5 C ormor
e
abovemeanai
rt
emper
at
ur
e.
warp -Lar
gesect
i
onofcont
i
nentcomposedofhor
i
zont
al
st
r
at
agent
l
ybentupwar
dordownwar
d.
wash -Seear
r
oyo.
water gap -Gapcutt
hr
oughr
esi
st
antr
i
dgebysuper
i
mposedorant
ecedentst
r
eam.
water table -Uppersur
f
aceofzoneofsat
ur
at
i
onf
orunder
gr
oundwat
er
.Ani
r
r
egul
arsur
f
acewi
t
hsl
opeor
shape det
er
mi
ned by quant
i
t
y ofgr
oundwat
erand per
meabi
l
i
t
y ofear
t
h mat
er
i
al
s.I
n gener
al
,hi
ghest
beneat
hhi
l
l
sandl
owestbeneat
hv
al
l
ey
s.

xenolith -Rockf
r
agmentf
or
ei
gnt
oi
gneousr
ocki
nwhi
chi
toccur
s.Commonl
yi
ncl
usi
onofcount
r
yr
ock
i
nt
r
udedbyi
gneousr
ock

wave -Conf
i
gur
at
i
onofmat
t
ert
hatt
r
ansmi
t
sener
gyf
r
om onepoi
ntt
oanot
her
.
weathering -Responseofmat
er
i
al
soncei
nequi
l
i
br
i
um wi
t
hi
near
t
h'
scr
ustt
onew condi
t
i
onsatornear
cont
actwi
t
hwat
er
,ai
r
,orl
i
v
i
ngmat
t
er
.Seeal
sochemi
calweat
her
i
ngandmechani
calweat
her
i
ng.
wrinkle ridges -Ri
dgesf
oundonsur
f
acesofl
unarmar
i
aandf
l
oodedcr
at
er
s.Maybecausedbyupl
i
f
tdue
t
ov
ol
cani
sm ort
ocompr
essi
on.

89

90

Glossary of Geology

Glossary of Geology

yazoo-type river -Tr

i
but
ar
yunabl
et
oent
ermai
nst
r
eam becauseofnat
ur
all
eveesal
ongmai
nst
r
eam.
Fl
owsal
ongback
swampzonepar
al
l
elt
omai
nst
r
eam.
yield point -Max
i
mum st
r
esst
hatsol
i
dcanwi
t
hst
andwi
t
houtunder
goi
ngper
manentdef
or
mat
i
on,ei
t
her
by
pl
ast
i
c
f
l
ow
or
by
r
upt
ur
e.

91

92

Glossary of Geology

zone of aeration -Zonei

mmedi
at
el
ybel
ow gr
oundsur
f
ace,i
nwhi
chopeni
ngspar
t
i
al
l
yf
i
l
l
edwi
t
hai
rand
par
t
i
al
l
y wi
t
h wat
er t
r
apped by mol
ecul
ar at
t
r
act
i
on.Subdi
v
i
ded i
nt
o(
1) bel
tofsoi
lmoi
st
ur
e.(
2)
i
nt
er
medi
at
ebel
t
,and(
3)capi
l
l
ar
yf
r
i
nge.
zone of saturation -Under
gr
ound r
egi
on wi
t
hi
n whi
ch al
lopeni
ngs f
i
l
l
ed wi
t
h wat
er
.Top ofzone of
sat
ur
at
i
oni
scal
l
edwat
ert
abl
e.Wat
ercont
ai
nedwi
t
hi
nzoneofsat
ur
at
i
oni
scal
l
edgr
oundwat
er
.
zones of regional metamorphism Hi
ghgr
ade,above700 C;mi
ddl
egr
ade,400t
o700 C;l
owgr
ade,
150
t
o
400
C.

93