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2 Seismic methods
4.2
Seismic methods
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HELGA WIEDERHOLD
VP =
VS =
k + 43
(4.2.1)
(4.2.2)
I2 - I1
I2 + I1
(4.2.3)
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(4.2.4)
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HELGA WIEDERHOLD
x CMP = x S + x G / 2
(4.2.5)
NCMP = NG x G / (2x S )
(4.2.6)
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Seismic source
There are different kinds of seismic sources in
practice; in general we have to decide between
impulsive sources and the vibroseis method. The
main factors to consider when choosing the
source - beside costs, efficiency, convenience and
safety - are spectral characteristics, amount of
energy, and repeatability. Taking local geologic
conditions into account, surface seismic source or
shot holes can be important. E.g., in the pilot
area Cuxhavener Rinne we see data collected
with a surface source and parts with poor data
due to near surface inhomogeneities (Gabriel et
al. 2003, Wiederhold et al. 2005; Fig. 5.5.8
Ldingworth CMP 800900). In these special
parts of the profile a source placed below the
inhomogeneous layers would give better results.
Acquiring high resolution seismic reflection data
requires the use of high frequencies accompanied
by broad bandwidth. The ideal seismic source
signal would produce a spike with a white
frequency spectrum and arbitrarily high
frequencies and thus would give highest
resolution (e.g. trace 1 in Fig. 4.2.6). However, in
practice an ideal spike is impossible to achieve.
The signals always have a limited length or
frequency band. A realistic estimate for the
maximum achievable frequencies in the nearsurface seismic application is 500 Hz, limiting the
wavelength of a several hundred meters per
second velocity P-wave to 2 m (this would be
extremely good!). With shear waves, shorter
wavelengths are achievable due to their low
velocity. But the problem always remains of
bringing these high frequency seismic waves into
the deep ground since high frequencies will be
stronger attenuated than lower frequencies.
Let us return to high resolution (after Knapp and
Steeples 1986b): Wavelet pulse width and
frequency bandwidth are reciprocal and linked by
an uncertainty relation. That means that for a
good resolution of the wave signal, we need a
broad bandwidth source. But it also means that
signals in the frequency band of 10 to 50 Hz
have the same resolving capabilities as the band
160 to 200 Hz. This is demonstrated in Figure
4.2.5. Although the frequencies of Figure 4.2.5b
are higher than those of Figure 4.2.5a, the pulse
width or wavelet length is the same (see red
bracket). The ringiness of the pulse in Figure
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HELGA WIEDERHOLD
38
Seismograph
The seismograph is the instrument for controlling
and recording the data in a seismic survey. The
amount of data within seismic reflection work is
enormous. Imagine a recording time of 1 second
with 1 millisecond sampling interval that is 1000
data samples for the response of one geophone
(that is one data channel or trace). Multiply this
by the number of channels the seismograph can
process (at least 48 but may be more than 100)
and we have the data samples acquired for one
shot. Now imagine we want a seismic section of
one kilometre in length and we need a shot every
10 meters; thus we will have 100 shots
48 channels 1000 samples = 4,800,000 data
values for 1 km of seismic line. With four bytes
needed for writing a data value and 240 bytes
per trace header, we have about 20 megabytes
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HELGA WIEDERHOLD
t direct =
x
V
(4.2.7)
trefracted =
x
2z
+
V2 V2
V2 2
) -1
V1
(4.2.8)
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Fig. 4.2.9: Velocity-depth model and appropriate traveltime-distance model of expected seismic response and
coherent noise. Reflections are marked in the colour of the layer boundary in the velocity-depth model on the left
side. The refraction breaks of the layer boundaries at 10 m and 50 m, with 1600 m/s or 2000 m/s velocities, are
marked by dashed lines (circles in zoom in mark critical offset for refractions). The noise cone is defined by the
wide angle reflection from the 10 m layer boundary (orange colour; 600 m/s) and the air-coupled wave (330 m/s)
and the surface wave or ground roll (220 m/s).
treflected = 1 V x 2 + 4z2
(4.2.9)
treflected = 1 V
x + 4z + 4 xz + sin( )
(4.2.10)
zi
i
Vaverage =
zi v
i
(4.2.11).
i
Vrms =
Vi2 t i
ti
(4.2.12)
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HELGA WIEDERHOLD
Vave fmax
min
= 0 .5
sin
sin
(4.2.13)
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R=
z
T
= 0 .5 V 0
2
f
(4.2.14)
L max 0.25
V
fmax
z2
1+ 4 2
x max
(4.2.15)
L max
0.56 V
fmax
(4.2.16)
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HELGA WIEDERHOLD
Fig. 4.2.12: Typical field record (shot gather); raw data (scaled) on the left side, the data on the right side are
scaled and filtered. (1) Refraction signals, (2) air-coupled wave, (R) reflection signals. The ground roll (3) is, in this
example, spatially aliased, i.e. sampled not properly, as shown by the apparent phase velocity of the ground roll in
a direction opposite to that of first arrivals. With a dominant frequency of 62,5 Hz and an apparent velocity of
220 m/s the resulting wavelength is 3,5 m and thus smaller than the receiver spacing of 5 m. This wave should be
muted in further processing steps.
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HELGA WIEDERHOLD
CMP stacking
After applying the prestack processing described
above, all traces belonging to a CMP are summed
resulting in the stacked seismic section. The
vertical scale of this section is usually arrival time
(two-way time TWT).
Fig. 4.2.14: Velocity analysis to determine dynamic corrections: a) CMP gather, b) semblance analysis, c) CMP
after normal moveout correction, d) stack with 20 neighbouring CMPs.
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Migration
Migration is an inversion operation involving
rearrangement of seismic information elements
so that reflections are plotted at their true
subsurface positions and diffractions collapse
thus increasing spatial resolution and yielding a
seismic image of the subsurface. As we are
dealing with buried valleys and their steeply
dipping rims, migration is an indispensable
process. There will be three effects: (1) the dip
angle of the reflector in the final section is
greater than in the time section; thus migration
steepens reflectors. In Figure 4.2.15 we see that
the dip angle of the reflection segment is
tan() = t/x and after migration the dip angle
is sin() = t/x. And as arc sine of an angle is
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HELGA WIEDERHOLD
Fig. 4.2.16:
Effect of migration (example from Ellerbeker Rinne): Left: stacked section, right: migrated section.
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4.2.7 References
Buness AH, Druivenga G, Wiederhold H (2000):
SISSY eine tragbare und leistungsstarke
seismische Energiequelle. Geol. JB. E52: 63
88.
Gabriel G, Kirsch R, Siemon B, Wiederhold H
(2003): Geophysical investigation of buried
Pleistocene subglacial valleys in Northern
Germany. Journal of Applied Geophysics 53:
159180.
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HELGA WIEDERHOLD
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