ME2143

Sensors and Actuators

Part I

Peter Chen
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National University of Singapore

Sensors

Environment

Review of
Circuits
Analysis and
Concept of
Frequency
Response

Mechatronic System
Input Signal
conditioning

Control
Architecture

Actuators

Output Signal
Conditioning

Acknowledgement: All figures and images used (with consent from McGraw-Hill) in this set of slides are from the recommended textbook Introduction to Mechatronics
and Measurement Systems by D.G. Alciatore, and M.B. Histand, 4th ed., International Edition, 2012, unless indicated otherwise.

Review: Circuit Analysis

Peter Chen, 2015

Kirchhoffs voltage law and current law

Resistors in series and in parallel
Principle of superposition
Thevenin equivalent circuit

Concept of frequency response

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

Basic Components

Resistor:

V
R=
I
Capacitor:

q = CV
dq(t)
i(t) =
dt
Inductor:
V (t) = L
1
i(t) =
L

Peter Chen, 2015

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

di(t)
dt
t

V ( )d + i(0)

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

Sum of voltage around a loop is 0

Assume a direction as indicated

Positive voltage:
When moving from - terminal to
+ terminal of an element
Negative voltage:
When moving from + terminal
to - terminal of an element

N
X
i=1

Peter Chen, 2015

Vi = 0

V1 + V2 V3 + VN = 0
ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

Sum of voltage around a loop is 0

Find IR

Solution:
Assume direction as indicated

Then Vs is positive and VR is

negative
So
Ohms law:

VR = IR R

Peter Chen, 2015

VS VR = 0
VS IR R = 0

=
=

10=1000
0:01 mA

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

IR = Vs =R

Kirchhoffs Current Law

Sum of currents entering and leaving a node is 0

Assume current direction

Positive current:
Entering the node

Negative current:
Leaving the node
N
X
i=1

Peter Chen, 2015

Ii = 0

I1 + I2 I3 = 0

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

Review: Circuit Analysis

Peter Chen, 2015

Kirchhoffs voltage law and current law

Resistors in series and in parallel
Principle of superposition
Thevenin equivalent circuit

Concept of frequency response

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

Resistors in Series

Find current I

Req = R1 + R2

Solution:
Assume a direction as indicated
Then Vs is positive and VR1 and
VR2 are negative
So

In general, for N resistors in series:

Req =

N
X
i=1

Peter Chen, 2015

Ri

)
)
)

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

VS VR1 VR2 = 0

VS IR1 IR2 = 0
Vs
I=
R1 + R2
Vs
I=
Req
8

Resistors in Parallel

Sum of currents entering and leaving a node is 0

Find current I

Req =

R1 R2
R1 + R2

Solution:
Assume current directions as
indicated. Pick node at A and
apply Kirchhoffs current law
Then I is positive and I1 and I2
are negative

I I1 I2 = 0
Vs
Vs
) I=
+
R1
R2

R1 R2
) I = Vs
R1 + R2

So
In general, for N resistors in parallel:
N

X 1
1
=
Req
Ri
i=1
Peter Chen, 2015

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

Circuit Analysis: An Example

Determine Iout and Vout

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ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

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Circuit Analysis: An Example

Determine Iout and Vout

Solution approach:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Peter Chen, 2015

Combine R2, R3, and R4

Combine R5 and R6
Apply KVL to left loop
Apply KVL to right loop

4
2

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Circuit Analysis: An Example

Determine Iout and Vout

Solution approach:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Combine R2, R3, and R4

Combine R5 and R6
Apply KVL to left loop
Apply KVL to right loop

R2 and R4 in series:

R24 = R2 + R4 = 6 k-

R24 and R3 in parallel:

R234

Peter Chen, 2015

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

(R2 + R4 )R3
(R2 + R4 ) + R3
= 2 k=

12

Circuit Analysis: An Example

Determine Iout and Vout

Solution approach:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Combine R1, R2, and R3

Combine R5 and R6
Apply KVL to left loop
Apply KVL to right loop
R5 and R6 in parallel:

R56
2

Peter Chen, 2015

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

R5 R6
=
R5 + R6
= 2:73 k-

13

Circuit Analysis: An Example

Peter Chen, 2015

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Circuit Analysis: An Example

Determine Iout and Vout

Solution approach:
1.
2.
3.
4.

3
1 k

V1 Iout R1 = 0
10 volt

=
=

Peter Chen, 2015

Combine R2, R3, and R4

Combine R5 and R6
Apply KVL to left loop
Apply KVL to right loop

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

V1
Iout =
R1
10
Iout =
1000
0:01 amp

15

Circuit Analysis: An Example

Solution approach:

Determine Iout and Vout

1.
2.
3.
4.

V56

10 volt

Combine R2, R3, and R4

Combine R5 and R6
Apply KVL to left loop
Apply KVL to right loop

Vout = V1 V234

20 volt

V1 V234 V56 V2 = 0
) 10 i234 R234 i234 R56 20 = 0
10
10
) i234 =
=
= 2:11 amp
R234 + R56
2 + 2:73

Vout = V1 V234 = 10 i234R234 = 10 (2:11) 2 = 14:2 volt

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Review: Circuit Analysis

Peter Chen, 2015

Kirchhoffs voltage law and current law

Resistors in series and in parallel
Principle of superposition
Thevenin equivalent circuit

Concept of frequency response

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

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Principle of Superposition

Total response of a circuit is the sum of the responses

to each of the independent sources acting individually

Example:

Find voltage vT
across resistor R2

vT = v1 + v2
Due to voltage source vs
Peter Chen, 2015

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

Due to current source is

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Principle of Superposition

Total response of a circuit is the sum of the responses

to each of the independent sources acting individually

vT = v1 + v2

Voltage across R2
when current
source is replaced
by open circuit

Peter Chen, 2015

Voltage across R2
when voltage
source is replaced
by short circuit

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

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Principle of Superposition

Total response of a circuit is the sum of the responses

to each of the independent sources acting individually

vT = v1 + v2
Voltage across R2
when current
source is replaced
by open circuit

Applying KVL around loop:

vs R1 ir R2 ir = 0
vs
15
ir =
=
1A
R1 + R2
10 + 5
v1 = ir R2 = 1 5 = 5 volt
Peter Chen, 2015

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

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Principle of Superposition

Total response of a circuit is the sum of the responses

to each of the independent sources acting individually

vT = v1 + v2
Voltage across R2 when
voltage source is replaced
by short circuit
Resistors are now in parallel:

Req
v2

1
1
=
1=R1 + 1=R2
1=10 + 1=5
= 3:33 = is Req = 2 3:33 = 6:66 volt
=

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Principle of Superposition

Total response of a circuit is the sum of the responses

to each of the independent sources acting individually
Example:

Find voltage vT
across resistor R2

vT = v1 + v2 = 5 + 6:66 = 11:66 volt

Due to voltage source vs
Peter Chen, 2015

Due to current source is

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

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Review: Circuit Analysis

Peter Chen, 2015

Kirchhoffs voltage law and current law

Resistors in series and in parallel
Principle of superposition
Thevenin equivalent circuits

Concept of frequency response

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

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Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

An independent
voltage (current)
source is one that
provides constant
voltage (current)

Thevenin
equivalent

A resistor network (with

independent voltage
and/or current sources)
can be replaced by a
single voltage source VOC
and a single resistor RTH
Peter Chen, 2015

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

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Thevenin Equivalent Circuit: How to find VOC and RTH

VOC

VOC is the open circuit voltage

across the terminals

VRj iRj: Voltage & current across Rj

VOC

= VR2

iR1

= iR2
VOC
=
R2

iR2
Peter Chen, 2015

Applying KVL in left loop:

Vs VR1 VR2 = 0
) Vs iR1 R1 iR2 R2 = 0

) Vs iR2 (R1 + R2 ) = 0
VOC
) Vs
(R1 + R2 ) = 0
R2

R2
) VOC =
Vs
R1 + R2
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Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

RTH is the equivalent resistance across the terminals when voltage

sources are shorted and current sources are replaced by an open circuit
The resistors are now in
parallel relative to terminals

1
1
1
=
+
RTH
R1
R2
R1 R2
) RTH =
R1 + R2
Peter Chen, 2015

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Thevenin Equivalent Circuit: Example

RTH is the equivalent resistance across the terminals when voltage

sources are shorted and current sources are replaced by an open circuit
VOC is the open circuit voltage across the terminals

Peter Chen, 2015

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

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Thevenin Equivalent Circuit: Example

RTH is the equivalent resistance across the terminals when voltage

sources are shorted and current sources are replaced by an open circuit

1
RTH

RTH

RTH

Peter Chen, 2015

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

1
1
+
R1
R2
R1 R2
R1 + R2

5 20
=
= 45 + 20

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Thevenin Equivalent Circuit: Example

VOC : open circuit voltage across terminals

A

is

Applying KVL in left loop:

vs 5i1 20i2 = 0
) 20 5i1 20(i1 + 2) = 0
20
) i1 =
= 0:8 amp
25

VOC = v

Applying KCL at A:
(4 )

i2
VOC

= is + i1
= 2 0:8 = 1:2 amp
= v = v2 = i2 R2

= 1:2 20 = 24 volt
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Review: Circuit Analysis

Peter Chen, 2015

Kirchhoffs voltage law and current law

Resistors in series and in parallel
Principle of superposition
Thevenin equivalent circuits

Concept of frequency response

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

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From EG1108

Concept of Frequency Response

Sinusoidal input Sinusoidal output

Any physical system,
not just circuit

Amplitude of output depends

on frequency of input

Output amplitude
depends on

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Frequency Response: Basic Concept

= out sin(!t + ')

= in sin !t

Transient response

Steady-state response
http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/ResponseOfLowPassRCFilterToPeriodicWaveforms/

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Why it is important to study frequency response of physical systems

On November 7, 1940, Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapsed

after sustained oscillation due to high wind conditions

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Frequency Response: Basic Concept

Fundamental property
of dynamical system
When system is excited by a
periodic input with amplitude
in and frequency , its
output (at steady-state) is
also periodic at the same
frequency , but the
amplitude of the output out
is in general not the same as
in. For physical systems,
when , out 0.

RC low pass filter

= in sin !t

= out sin(!t + ')

In animation,
change in time
scale reflects
change in
frequency

Gain (a function of ):

out (!)
A(!) =
in
Transient response

Steady-state response

http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/ResponseOfLowPassRCFilterToPeriodicWaveforms/

Peter Chen, 2015

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Frequency Response: Bode magnitude plot

At each value of , measure Aout ()

Calculate A():

out (!)
A(!) =
in
Plot 20log10 A() vs

A()

20log10 A()

20 log10 A()

Decreasing amplitude

Increasing frequency

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Frequency Response: Bandwidth

20 log10 A()

3dB

Calculations presented here are

with respect to this given Bode
magnitude plot as an example.

Bandwidth

= in sin !t

= out sin !t

Bandwidth
The range of
frequencies
within which the
gain of the
system does not
drop by more
than 3 dB.

20 log10 A = 0
out
A=
=1
in

20 log10 A = 3
3
out
A=
= 10 20
in

out = in

out = 70% in

Drop in gain reduces amplitude of output

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Frequency Response: Approximation and Break (aka cut-off, corner) Frequency

Asymptotes

20 log10 A()

Approximation

Break frequency

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How to Read a Bode Magnitude Plot

40

Given: Amplitude of input signal is 2

Determine:

20

1. Amplitude of output at 10Hz

dB

2. Amplitude of output at 105Hz

-20
102

104

106

Solution: At 10Hz, gain = 30dB

20 log10

out (!)
in

= 30

30
out (!)
= 10 20

in !=10

out (!)j!=10 = 10
Peter Chen, 2015

30
20

2 = 63:25

At 105 Hz,
gain = 10dB

out (!)
20 log10
= 10
in

10
out (!)
= 10 20

in !=105

out (!)j!=105 = 10

ME2143 Sensors and Actuators

10
20

2 = 0:63
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Introduction to Linear Circuits Lab

Video

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