Review of Related Literature

This part presents the literatures that have bearing on the concerns of the study. A number of
pieces of literature, documents, pamphlets,handouts, unpublished theses were perused and
analyzed to provide thenecessary framework of this study. Ideas, insights, theories,
conclusionsand recommendations advanced by these papers were cited as authorities of the
study.
Related Studies
The study of Hickerson, Benjamin D. and Beggs, Brent A. (1992),about
Leisure time boredom: issues concerning college students
, examinedthe impact of boredom on leisure of college students in relation to gender,level of
education, and activity choice. Subjects at a Midwestern universitycompleted the Leisure
Boredom Scale and a modified version of theLeisure Activities Blank. No significant differences
were found betweenoverall levels of leisure boredom and the three independent
variables.However, examinations of individual Leisure Boredom Scale itemsindicated specific
differences. Hultsman, 1993).For many young adults, thecollege years are a period of
expanding freedoms and focusing interests(Gitelson & Thomason, 1992).
11
College is seen as the last stage of formal education for most peopleand it is also one of the
last structured opportunities for individuals to formleisure time behavior patterns before they
move into the workforce (Chenget al., 2004). The college environment has a unique influence
on leisure behavior, including different patterns of free time availability and theacquisition of
new activities. Leisure participation in college students haslong-term ramifications as it molds
attitudes and behaviors leading tocontinued recreation participation in later life (Gordon &
Catalbiano,1996). Students who do not have leisure skills, cannot manage leisure time,or are
not aware that leisure can be psychologically rewarding are morelikely to be bored during
leisure (Hickerson, et al., 2007).The study of American Journal of Health Studies Publisher
(2000)investigated the interrelationship among academic stress, anxiety, timemanagement,
and leisure satisfaction among 249 university
undergraduates by age and gender. Time management behaviors had a greater bufferingeffect
on academic stress than leisure satisfaction activities. Freshmen andsophomore students had
higher reactions to stress than juniors and seniors.Anxiety, time management, and leisure
satisfaction were all predictors of academic stress in the multivariate analysis. Anxiety
reduction and time
12
management in conjunction with leisure activities may be an effectivestrategy for reducing
academic stress in college students.A disturbing trend in college student health is the reported
increasein student stress nationwide (Sax, 1997). Stressors affecting students can
becategorized as academic, financial, time or health related, and self-imposed(Goodman,
1993; LeRoy, 1988). Academic stressors include the student's perception of the
extensive knowledge base required and the perception of an inadequate time to develop it
(Carveth, Gesse, & Moss, 1996). Studentsreport experiencing academic stress at predictable
times each semester withthe greatest sources of academic stress resulting from taking and
studyingfor exams, grade competition, and the large amount of content to master ina small
amount of time (Abouserie, 1994; Archer &Lamnin, 1985; Britton&Tesser, 1991; Kohn & Frazer,
1986).When stress is perceived negatively or becomes excessive, studentsexperience physical
and psychological impairment (Murphy & Archer,1996). Methods to reduce stress by students

often include effective timemanagement, social support, positive reappraisal, and engagement
inleisure pursuits (Blake &Vandiver, 1988; Mattlin, Wethington, & Kessler,1990). Leisure
satisfaction is defined as the positive feeling of contentment
17
developing countries, school generally occupies a relatively small amount
of young peoples time. In much of Asia, however, the combination of a
longer school day, an expansive network of non-school academicenrichment programmes
(many geared towards test preparation), and more
time dedicated to homework means that up to half of young peoples time
is spent in academic pursuits. In developed countries, frustration witheducational reform
efforts and continued pressure for academicachievement has resulted in an explosion of
academic after-school programmes (World Youth Report, 2003).At the heart of this
international phenomenon is an important fact:
young peoples learning need not
and does not

stop at the end of theschool day. Their leisure time provides a rich opportunity for learning
anda particularly rich climate in which to facilitate the development of lifelong
learners. Pushing for more time on task, many programmes simply
replicate the teaching practices used during the school day and extend theminto youn
g peoples leisure time, despite growing evidence that more of the same is both
unproductive
and developmentally dangerous (WorldYouth Report, 2003).Research supervised by Deborah
Vandell(2003) shows that young people in Thailand who were involved in highyield arts and cultural
18
activities that had reading, writing and mathematics as the hiddencurriculum rather than
the lead curriculum not only performed better on
State tests than those enrolled in strict content-drill programmes, but werealso emotionally
healthier. This study speaks to a tension that isdeveloping, at least in the United States,
challenging the belief thatacademic outcomes are best bolstered by the application of formal
school-derived practices during out-of-school hours (Vandell, 2003).Based on research findings
such as these, there is growingrecognition that learning during leisure hours cannot appear
identical tothat inside of schools and, equally important, an increased willingness todescribe
learning as a primary goal for leisure-time activities. The ideas of
serious leisure and leisure education put forward by World Leisure in
its Charter for Leisure and other documents imply a set of
principles, professional standards, practices and pedagogical orientations that aredistinct from
but complementary to what goes on in formal educationsettings (World Youth Report,
2003).The model of learning put forward by J. Falk and L. Dierking goesfurther in specifying the
contextual, personal and social factors in placewhen young people participate in learning that
is volitional, recreational,and engaged in as a form of self-fulfillment
. Falks and Dierkings
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framework for freechoice learning, developed through investigationfocusing largely on
museums, is one of a number of research-and-practiceefforts to underscore the unique nature
of learning that happens duringleisure. Other efforts push even further in defining the specific
features of

environments that support young peoples leisur

e-time learning anddevelopment (World Youth Report, 2003).
International documents including Programming for adolescent
health and development: report of the WHO/UNFPA/UNICEF Study
Group on Programming for Adolescent Health and Adolescence: A Time
That Matters, published by UNICEF, and country documents such as the
New Zealand Ministry of Youth Affairs Youth Development Strategy
Aeteatoa, published in 2002, present a set of common features of
environments that support young peoples development. Research and
synthesis by M. McLaughlin, by J.P. Connell, M.A. Gambone and T.J.Smith, by the Forum for
Youth Investment, and, most recently, by the National Research Council
confirms that there are core principles relevantto learning that goes on during leisure time

principles applicable toschools as well but not consistently present within them (World
YouthReport, 2003)
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This set of central principles

in reality, conditions for effectivelearning and engagement

includes, inter alia, the presence of caringrelationships, challenge and relevance, choice and
voice, high expectations,
physical and emotional safety, and experiences of mattering and
contribution. This research and practice goes far in validating andclarifying the significance of
leisure-based learning. Research resultsindicate that community-based leisure-time settings
may actually be moreeffective than schools in engaging students in learning (World
YouthReport, 2003).A study by R. Larson (2002) indicates that young people are
onlycognitively and emotionally engaged a small amount of the time, eventhough such
engagement is a critical precondition to learning. Importantly,this combination of cognitive and
emotional engagement is far more likelyto happen in structured, voluntary leisure-time
settings than during school.Apparently, the blend of principles that make leisure-based
learningwhat it is offers a powerful model for engagement and achievement. Basedon these
findings, stating that leisure time provides an opportunity for learning represents a richer and
more promising claim than the argumentthat students should spend more time doing what
they do in school. As
indicated by the research just described, the how (pedagogy) of learning
21
during leisure is significantly different. The what of learning
theappropriate content for learning that goes on outside school hours

is alsodifferent (Larson, 2002).As both the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the
Dakar Youth Empowerment Strategy acknowledge, leisure time is critically aspace in which
young people express themselves creatively, take part inarts and cultural activities, and
develop as individuals. Culture, creativity,and identity are central, defining features of the
content of learning duringleisure time. Research confirms that leisure time is important in
helpingyoung people achieve a broad range of positive outcomes, as follows:social/emotional
development, engagement, vocational development,engagement, civic development,
engagement, physical development, andengagement (World Youth Report,

2003).Social/emotional development and engagement: the ability

torespond to and cope with both positive and adverse situations, reflect on
ones emotions and surroundings, engage in leisure and fun, and sustain
caring friendships and relationships with others.Vocational development and engagement:
acquiring the functionaland organizational skills necessary for employment, including
anunderstanding of careers and options and the pathways to follow to reach
22
these goals.Physical development and engagement: biological maturation andthe evolving
ability to act in ways that best ensure current and future physical health for oneself and
others.Cognitive development and engagement: the ability to gain basicknowledge, to learn in
school and other settings, to use critical thinking, problemsolving, and creative and expressive skills, and to conductindependent study.Civic
development and engagement: the growing recognition of
ones impact on ones surroundings and responsibility to others, as well as
the ability and opportunity to work collaboratively towards a common goal.Leisure is a
developmental opportunity and an imperative. Larsonargues that adolescence, including
leisure time during this period,
should be defined and understood as a time of preparation for family life,employment, good
citizenship, lifelong learning and personal fulfilment.Italso provides an opportunity for the
development of communities andsocieties (World Youth Report, 2003).Young people are more
likely to engage fully in learning if thelearning environment incorporates structured leisure
time activities.Research shows that leisure time has a number of positive outcomes for
23
individuals involved-including the ability to:react and solve diverse problems

which include emotional and environmental reflection, activerelaxation; maintaining friendship

or relationship with others;acquireneeded functional and employment skills; growth and
physically healthy;acquire basic knowledge through education-this includes the developmentof
critical thinking and problem solving skills;be socially raised andinvolved / participate fully in
civil upbringing (World Youth Report,2003).Leisure time, therefore, provides an opportunity for
personal
growth.Larson and Verma (1999) points out that the period of adolescence needs to
be understood as a preparation stage for employment
,family and civil life , lifelong learning ,personal development , and futureachievements . Other
studies agree that :young people who regularly
take part in community programmes achieve better academic and socialendeavors ;young
people who do not spend time in extra-corricular activities have 57% more chance of dropping
out of school(Eccles etal.,1999,cited in World Youth Report, 2003) (Livazovic, 2011).The study
of how leisure improves health and boost mood whichappears in the journal
Psychosomatic Medicine: Journal of Biobehavioral
24
Medicine
. For the study, 1,400 adults reported how often they participatedin a variety of leisure
activities, including spending time unwinding,visiting friends or family, going on vacation,
going to clubs or religiousactivities or playing sports. Adults with higher scores

indicating themost time spent in different leisure activities

had lower blood pressure,waist circumference, body mass index and cortisol measurements,
allmarkers of good health.People who spent more time doing diverse leisure activities
alsoreported stronger and more diverse social networks, more feelings of satisfaction and
engagement in their lives and lower levels of depression.Those who logged the most leisure
time also slept better and exercisedmore consistently, the authors say.Other studies have
examined the link between specific activities,such as exercise, and improved physical and
psychological health, but thisis the first to show that the accumulation of multiple sources of
enjoyableactivity benefits health, Matthews said. The study outcomes add to what weknow
about the connection between body and mind, said Kathy Richards,Ph.D., a registered nurse
and professor of health promotion at theUniversity Of Pennsylvania School Of Nursing in
Philadelphia (Sutton,2009).
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Another study of Schooler C,Mulatu MS(1999) of Section on Socio-Environmental Studies,
National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda,Maryland USA by using data from a
representative longitudinal survey,the authors provide strong evidence that complex leisure
time activitiesincrease intellectual functioning for workers and nonworkers. Although theeffects
were relatively moderate, both the present article and
its predecessor on the effects of paid work (C. Schooler.Mulatu,& Oates.1999) showed that,
even in old age, carrying out complex tasks has a positive effect on intellectual processes.
In both cases, initially high levelsof intellectual functioning led to high levels of environmental
complexity,which in turn raised levels of intellectual functioning, thus providing a pathway
contributing to the high correlation of intellectual functioning over a 20-year period in middle
and late adulthood. The present findingsindicate that even in old age carrying out
substantively complex
tasks builds the capacity to deal with the intellectual challenges such complexenvironments
provide. (Mulatu, 1999)Leisure activities feel like rain shower during scorching heat. Leisureis
the time to be together with your friends and family and to have fun.Devoting some time for
leisure helps in staying healthy and achieving
a peace of mind. Leisure activities serve as a way of relaxing and as
26
researches have shown recreation on a daily basis reduces stress,
sharpenskills improves mental and physical health and improves the quality of life(Jade, 2012)