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MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY REPORT

HSEYN KASIRGA
030040323
GROUP

Instructor: Prof. Dr. Ahmet ARAN

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
I.

Introduction
1. Hardness
2. Hardness Methods
a. Brinell Hardness
b. Rockwell Hardness
c. Vickers Hardness

II.

Experimental Procedure
1. Objective
2. Examination
a. Brinell Hardness Test
i. Equipments
ii. Experiment
b. Rockwell Hardness Test
i. Equipments
ii. Experiment
c. Vickers Hardness Test
i. Equipments
ii. Experiment

III.

Data Analysis
1. Brinell Hardness Test
a. Principle & Formula
b. Designation of Brinell Hardness Number
2. Rockwell Hardness Test
a. Principle & Formula
b. Designation of Rockwell Hardness Number
3. Vickers Hardness Test
a. Principle & Formula
b. Designation of Vickers Hardness Number

IV.

Results
1. Brinell Hardness Test Results
2. Rockwell Hardness Test Results
3. Vickers Hardness Test Results

V.

Discussion
1. Brinell and Rockwell Tests
2. Limitation on Thickness
3. Limitations for Distances
4. Surface Conditions
5. Yield Stress & Mean Pressure
6. Advantages of Vickers Test to Brinell Test

VI.

Conclusion

VII.

References

VIII. Appendix

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I. INTRODUCTION
1. HARDNESS
Simply stated, hardness is the resistance of a material to permanent indentation. It
is important to recognize that hardness is an empirical test and therefore hardness is not a
material property. This is because there are several different hardness tests that will each
determine a different hardness value for the same piece of material. Therefore, hardness is test
method dependent and every test result has to have a label identifying the test method used.
Hardness is, however, used extensively to characterize materials and to determine
if they are suitable for their intended use. All of the hardness tests involve the use of a
specifically shaped indenter, significantly harder than the test sample, that is pressed into the
surface of the sample using a specific force. Either the depth or size of the indent is measured
to determine a hardness value.
The most common uses for hardness tests is to verify the heat treatment of a part
and to determine if a material has the properties necessary for its intended use. Establishing a
correlation between the hardness result and the desired material property allows this, making
hardness tests very useful in industrial applications.
2. HARDNESS METHODS
There are three general types of hardness measurements depending on the manner
in which the test is conducted. These are:

scratch hardness
indentation hardness, and
rebound, or dynamic, hardness.

Scratch hardness is of primary interest to mineralogists. With this measure of

hardness, various minerals and other materials are rated on their ability to scratch one another.
Scratch hardness is measured according to the Mohs scale. This consists of 10 standard
minerals arranged in the order of their ability lo be scratched. The softest mineral in this scale
is talc (scratch hardness 1), while diamond has a hardness of 10. The Mohs scale is not well
suited for metals since the intervals are not widely spaced in the high-hardness range. Most
hard metals fall in the Mohs hardness range of 4 to 8.
In dynamic-hardness measurements the indenter is usually dropped onto the metal
surface, and the hardness is expressed as the energy of impact. The Shore seleroscope, which
is the commonest example of a dynamic-hardness tester, measures the hardness in terms of
the height of rebound of the indenter.
Only indentation hardness is of major engineering interest for metals. There are
five major indentation hardness scales:

Brinell - HB
Knoop - HK
Rockwell - HR
Shore - HS
Vickers - HV

Brinell, Rockwell, and Vickers test are the most common three methods among
them, and in this report these methods will be explained.

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a. BRINELL HARDNESS

The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a 10
mm diameter hardened steel or carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg. For softer
materials the load can be reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg to avoid excessive indentation. The
full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds in the case of iron and steel and for at least
30 seconds in the case of other metals. The diameter of the indentation left in the test material
is measured with a low powered microscope. The Brinell hardness number is calculated by
dividing the load applied by the surface area of the indentation (See Figure I.1).
The diameter of the impression is the average of two readings at right angles and
the use of a Brinell hardness number table can simplify the determination of the Brinell
hardness. A well structured Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions, and looks like
this, "75 HB 10/500/30" which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained using a
10mm diameter hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied for a period of 30 seconds.
On tests of extremely hard metals a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball.
Compared to the other hardness test methods, the Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest
indentation, so the test averages the hardness over a wider amount of material, which will
more accurately account for multiple grain structures and any irregularities in the uniformity
of the material. This method is the best for achieving the bulk or macro-hardness of a
material, particularly those materials with heterogeneous structures.

Figure I.1 Brinell Hardness Measurement

b. ROCKWELL HARDNESS

The most widely used hardness test is the Rockwell hardness test. Its general
acceptance is due to its speed, freedom from personal error, ability to distinguish small
hardness differences in hardened steel, and the small size of the indentation, so that finished
heat-treated parts can be tested without damage.
This test utilizes the depth of indentation, under constant load, as a measure of
hardness. A minor load of 10 kg is first applied to seat the specimen. This minimizes the
amount of surface preparation needed and reduces the tendency for ridging or sinking in by
the indenter. The major load is then applied, and the depth of indentation is automatically
recorded on a dial gage in terms of arbitrary hardness numbers. (See Figure I.2)
The dial contains 100 divisions, each division representing a penetration of
0.00008 in (0.002 mm). The dial is reversed so that a high hardness, which corresponds to a
small penetration, results in a high hardness number. This is in agreement with the other

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hardness numbers, but unlike the Brinell and Vickers hardness designations, which have units
of kgf/mm; the Rockwell hardness numbers are purely arbitrary.

Figure I.2 Principle of Rockwell Hardness Test

Major loads of 60, 100, and 150 kg are used. Since the Rockwell hardness is
dependent on the load and indenter, it is necessary to specify the combination which is used.
This is done by prefixing the hardness, number with a letter indicating the particular
combination of load and indenter for the hardness scale employed. A Rockwell hardness
number without the letter prefix is meaningless. Hardened steel is tested on the C scale with
the diamond indenter and a 150-kg major load. The useful range for this scale is from about
RC 20 to RC 70. Softer materials are usually tested on the B scale with a 1/16-in-diameter
steel ball and a 100-kg major load. The range of this scale is from RB 0 to RB 100. The A
scale (diamond indenter, 60-kg major load) provides the most extended Rockwell hardness
scale, which is usable for materials from annealed brass to cemented carbides. Many other
scales are available for special purposes:

HRA : Cemented carbides, thin steel and shallow case hardened steel
HRB : Copper alloys, soft steels, aluminum alloys, malleable iron, etc.
HRC : Steel, hard cast irons, pearlitic malleable iron, titanium, deep case hardened
steel and other materials harder than B 100
HRD : Thin steel and medium case hardened steel and pearlitic malleable iron
HRE : Cast iron, aluminum and magnesium alloys, bearing metals
HRF : Annealed copper alloys, thin soft sheet metals
HRG : Phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, malleable irons
HRH : Aluminum, zinc, lead
HRK, L, M, P, R, S, V : Bearing metals and other very soft or thin materials,
including plastics.
c. VICKERS HARDNESS

The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a
square-base diamond pyramid indenter with an angle of 136 degrees between opposite faces
subjected to a load of 1 to 120 kgf. (See Figure I.3). The full load is normally applied for 10 to
15 seconds. Because of the shape of the indenter, this is frequently called the diamondpyramid hardness test. The diamond-pyramid hardness number (DPH), or Vickers hardness
number (VHN, or VPH), is defined as the load divided by the surface area of the indentation.
In practice, this area is calculated from microscopic measurements of the lengths of the
diagonals of the impression. (Formulas for calculations is given in the Data Analysis section)

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To perform the Vickers test, the specimen is placed on an anvil that has a screw
threaded base. The anvil is turned raising it by the screw threads until it is close to the point of
the indenter. With start lever activated, the load is slowly applied to the indenter. The load is
released and the anvil with the specimen is lowered. The operation of applying and removing
the load is controlled automatically. Several loadings give practically identical hardness
numbers on uniform material, which is much better than the arbitrary changing of scale with
the other hardness machines.
The advantages of the Vickers hardness test are that extremely accurate readings
can be taken, and just one type of indenter is used for all types of metals and surface
treatments. Although thoroughly adaptable and very precise for testing the softest and hardest
of materials, under varying loads, the Vickers machine is a floor standing unit that is rather
more expensive than the Brinell or Rockwell machines.

Figure I.3 Indenter of the Vickers Hardness Test

II. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. OBJECTIVE
To examine the principles, limitations and significances of different indentation
hardness testing methods.
2. EXAMINATION
a. BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

i. Equipments:
In this experiment a Brinell hardness tester carrying a scale illustrating the
magnitude of applied load is used. The tester operates according to the principle of the
transmission of force by the mechanism of a valve and piston. It is controlled manually. A 10
mm diameter hardened steel ball is used as indenter obeying the standards of Brinell hardness
test. A low-power microscope and a portable light are employed for the measurement of the
diameter of indentation.

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ii. Experiment:
First, the indenter, a 10 mm diameter hardened steel ball, is attached to the tester.
After the surface of the specimen to be tested is examined whether it is flat, clean, and free
from any oxide and dirt, a suitable point is designated for penetration. Determining this point,
some limitations for distance from specimen edge to the point and the distance from any
existing indentations must be considered. The spacing between the indentations should be
minimum 2.5 times the diameter of the indentation, and the point should be distant to the
edges of the specimen as possible. After a suitable point is determined the specimen is placed
on the plate of the tester, and raised up by rotating a handle until the specimen touches to the
indenter ball. Then the valve is turned off to let oil go into piston and let load to be applied.
The load is applied on the specimen by moving the handle of the piston in horizontal plane up
and down. Following the scale on the tester, this is continued until the applied load reaches to
a magnitude of 3000 kgf which is calculated keeping the ratio of load P to the square of
diameter of the ball D constant (P=A x D where A is equal to 30 for steels and cast irons).
After waited for about 15-20 seconds due to the principle of elastic springback in metals, the
load is cut off by turning the valve on, and then the specimen is taken away for measurement.

b. ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

i. Equipments:
In the experiment, a Rockwell hardness tester is used. A diamond cone and a hard
steel ball are employed as indenter. Diamond cone is used to test the hard specimen and it has
a cone angle of 120. To test the softer specimen, the hard steel ball of size 1.6 mm (1/6) is
used.
ii. Experiment:
First, the test is started with the scale C of Rockwell. Because C scale requires a
diamond cone as indenter and 150 kgf major load, the diamond cone is attached to the tester,
and the major load is adjusted by adding the black weight to the tester. After the surface of the
specimen is examined to determine a suitable point for the test, the specimen is placed on the
plate of the tester. The plate is raised up until the specimen gets in touch with the diamond
cone. Then the minor load is applied on the specimen by compressing it between the rising
plate and the diamond cone until the small indicator in the dial comes on the red point on the
scale. The purpose of applying a minor load is to establish a reference position which
minimizes the amount of the surface preparation needed and reduces the tendency for ridging
or sinking in by the indenter.
Then the scale is adjusted to a reference value and the major load is applied for
about 20 seconds by turning the valve off. After waited for a while, the minor load is unloaded
by turning the valve on. Then the hardness of the specimen is read on the outer black scale as
2 RHC. However, because the useful range for this scale is from 20 to 70 HRC, this
determined value, 2 HRC, is not considered. Therefore, the experiment is continued with a
softer scale, B. To achieve this, the indenter is replaced with a 1.6 mm diameter hard steel
ball, and the major load is reduced to 100 kgf by removing the black weight from the system.
Then the same steps are followed for this scale. Unlike the C scale here the calibrated scale is
adjusted to a standard reference point in the inner red scale SET 30.

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This procedure is applied for two different specimens several times. Specimen-1 is
tested once with C scale. Specimen-2 is tested four times: once with C scale and three times
with B scale.
c. VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

i. Equipments:
In this test, a micro hardness (Vickers) tester is used. A square-bas e diamond
pyramid with an angle of 136 between the opposite faces of the pyramid is employed as
indenter. This angle was chosen because it approximates the most desirable ratio of
indentation diameter. Because of the geometry of the indenter, this test is called as diamondpyramid hardness (DPH) test in some sources.
ii. Experiment:
Unlike other indentation hardness tests, Vickers test requires a prepared specimen
having a grinded, polished and carburized surface for examination in order to obtain
reproducible results. After the prepared specimen placed on the plate of the tester, contrast
adjustments are made by the aid of the optical microscope, and then a suitable point is
selected for the test. Then the tester is turned on and when the load is started to be applied, the
left lamp on the tester turns on. After this point, the load is applied on the on the specimen for
20-30 seconds. Then it is unloaded and examined with the optical microscope. This procedure
is applied several times with 0.2 mm intervals approaching to the center of specimen.

III. DATA ANALYSIS

1. BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
a. Principle & Formulas:
For the measurements of the diameters of the indentation a low power microscope
is used. A portable lamp is employed to improve the image of the indentation. Two diameter
measurements of the indentation are done by using the ruler on the microscope. Calculating
the average diameter of the indentation d, the Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) is obtained by
dividing the applied force P, by the curved surface area of the indentation, which is actually a
segment of a sphere (See Figure III.1). Thus, the hardness of the specimen can be determined
according to the following formula.

HB: Brinell Hardness Number (kgf/mm)

F: applied force (kgf)
D: diameter of indenter ball (mm)
d: average diameter of indentation (mm)

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Figure III.1 Measurements of Brinell Hardness Test

b. Designation of Brinell Hardness Number:
calculated number

### BHN

D P t

diameter of ball (mm)

time (s)

applied load (kgf)

2. ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

a. Principle & Formula:
Differing from other indentation hardness tests, Rockwell test utilizes the depth of
indentation under constant load as a measure of hardness directly by the aid of a comparator
existing on the tester. After minor load is unloaded, the depth of additional penetration (E-e)
due to the applied major load (See Figure III.2 ) is automatically measured and recorded on a
dial gage in terms of arbitrary hardness numbers. The dial contains 100 divisions, each
division representing a specified amount of penetration. The calibrated dial is reversed so that
a high hardness corresponding to a small penetration results in a high hardness number.
Working on B scale, the inner red scale in the dial is regarded as hardness number
measurement, whereas the outer black scale corresponds to C scale. Unlike the Brinell and
Vickers hardness designations, which have units of kilograms per square millimeter (kg/mm),
the Rockwell hardness numbers are dimensionless.

Figure III.2 Measurements of Rockwell Hardness Test

b. Designation of Rockwell Hardness Number:

The Rockwell Hardness Numbers are designated as HRX, where X indicates the
scale used (i.e. C or B) which declares the geometry of the indenter and the magnitude of the

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load applied. Therefore, a Rockwell hardness number is meaningless if the scale is not
specified.

hardness
number

### HRX

scale

3. VICKERS HARDNESS NUMBER

a. Principle & Formula
Because the indenter is a square-base pyramid diamond, the geometry of the
indentations a square, too, and therefore, diagonal measurements are done in this test for data
analysis. Performing the test several times from the outer sections to inner sections of the
specimen, different values of diagonals (d) corresponding increasing distances from surface
(carburizing depth) are measured and recorded in a chart. Then these data are used to plot a
Vickers hardness numbers (VHN) versus distance from surface (X) curve of the carburized
specimen in order to obtain effective carburizing depths corresponding to different VHNs.
The Vickers hardness number (VHN) is defined as the load (P) divided by the surface area of
indentation. The VHN can be determined using the following equation.

VHN = 1.844 (P / d)

VHN: Vickers hardness number (kgf/mm)

P: load (kgf)
d: average diameter of diagonals
d=(d1 + d2)/2

Figure III.3 Measurements of Vickers Test

b. Designation of Vickers Hardness Number:

The Vickers hardness number is designated with the calculated hardness number
followed by VHN.

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hardness
number

hardness test
method

### VHN
IV. RESULTS
1. BRINELL HARDNESS TEST RESULTS

P = 3000 kgf

BHN=174.4 kg/mm

D = 10 mm
174 BHN

d1= 4.5 mm

10 3000 15

d2= 4.6 mm

2. ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST RESULTS

Specimen-1: HR= 35

Specimen-2: HR=2
HR=42
HR=50
HR=45

on C scale

35 HRC

on C (not considered)
on B scale

46 HRB

3. VICKERS HARDNESS TEST RESULTS

Determined from the graph (See Graph IV.1) effective carburizing depth to 400
VHN is 950 m.

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VHN
(kg/mm)

(m)

Graph IV.1 VHN versus Distance from Surface

V. DISCUSSION
1. BRINELL and ROCKWELL TESTS

This issue is explained and discussed in the previous sections clearly.

2. LIMITATION ON THE THICKNESS

The thickness of the specimen should be considered. To obtain reproducible

results, bottom resistance to the penetration must be provided such that a mark or bulge is not
produced on the reverse side of the specimen. It is recommended that the thickness of the
specimen should be at least 10 times the depth of the indentation (See Figure V.1). Test should
be made on only a single thickness of material.

Figure V.1 Limitation on Thickness of the Specimen

3. LIMITATIONS FOR DISTANCES

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Because of the strain hardening mechanism resulted from the cold forming process
of hardness tests, there should be some limitations for distance between the indentations. The
spacing between indentations should be minimum 2.5 times the diameter of the existing
indentation (See Figure V.2).
Another limitation is for the distance from specimen edge to the indentation. To
provide enough resistance to penetration during the test, the distance between the indentation
and the edges of the specimen should be distant as possible (See Figure V.3)

Figure V.2 Limitation for the Distance Between Indentations

Figure V.3 Limitation for the distance to the Edges

4. SURFACE CONDITIONS

The surface to be tested should be clean and dry, smooth, and free from any oxide
and dirt. Although a rough-ground surface is usually adequate for the Rockwell test, Vickers
test requires a grinded and polished surface. In all test methods, the surface should be flat and
perpendicular to the indenter. Tests on cylindrical surfaces will give low readings, the error
depending on the curvature, load, indenter, and hardness of the material. This effect requires
theoretical and empirical corrections.
5. YIELD STRESS AND MEAN PRESSURE

Because indentation hardness tests are destructive tests forcing an indenter to

penetrate the material, the indentation mechanisms work according to the principle of elastic
and plastic deformation. Hardness deformations are made by measuring the size or depth of
the indentation, therefore there must be some permanent deformation on the material, and this
is achieved by exceeding the elastic limit, yield stress, of the material. This is why the mean
pressure under the indenter is greater than the yield stress. However, applying much stress

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over the elastic limit produces high amount of elastic springback, difference between the
mean pressure and the yield stress should not be too much.
6. ADVANTAGES OF VICKERS TEST TO BRINELL TEST

Load: The load ordinarily used with Vickers test range from 2 to 120 kgf. It is also
possible in Vickers scale to performing micro hardness testing by applying force between
5 grf and 2 kgf.

Indenter: In the Vickers test a square-base pyramid diamond is used as indenter, whereas
in Brinell test a hardened steel or carbide ball in different diameters according to the
hardness of the material is used.

Indentation: In Vickers test the size of the indentation is very small, measured in
microns. Therefore it enables the operator to perform lots of tests on a microscopic area.

Applications: Vickers test can be performed on very brittle, hard, and thin materials, such
as ceramics, glasses, and thin sheets, whereas Brinell tests are performed on steels, cast
irons, soft metals and alloys.

Examination and Measurements: Sensitive measurements are made in Vickers test, such
as cementation depth and carburization depth. In addition, hardness of grain boundaries
and any phase included in material can be examined and measured in Vickers.

VI. CONCLUSION
Examining the principles, limitations, and significance of different hardness
methods, engineering and design properties of the materials can be optimized for their
intended use.

VII. REFERANCES
[1] Dieter G. E., Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill, 3rd Edition, 1986
[2] Instron, retrieved from http://www.instron.com.tr, on November 16, 2006
[3] Key to Steel, Steel Database, retrieved from http://www.key-to-steel.com/,
On November 16, 2006
[4] Gordon England, retrieved from http://www.gordonengland.co.uk/, on November 16, 2006
[5] D.R. Askeland, The Science and Engineering Materials, P.P Phule Thomson Pub., 5th
edition, 2006.
[6] Engineering Fundamentals, http://www.efunda.com/units/hardness/show_hardness.cfm,
On November 16, 2006
[7] Materials Evaluation and Engineering, Inc, retrieved from
http://www.mee-inc.com/rockhar.html, on November 17, 2006
[8] Key to Metals, Metals Database, retrieved from http://www.key-to-metals.com/, on
November 18, 2006

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[9] The UKs National Measurements Laboratory, retrieved from

http://www.npl.co.uk/force/guidance/hardness/rockwell.html, on November 17, 2006
[10] University of Maryland, retrieved from http://www.calce.umd.edu/, November 17, 2006
[11] Aran, A., Manufacturing Properties Of Materials, ITU, 2006.
[12] Aran, A., Malzeme Bilgisi Ders Notlar, Makina Fakltesi, T.
[13] Material Testing Laboratory Manual, ITU, 2006.