Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 7, No.

I , February 1992

222

VOLTAGE CONTROL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH CAPACITOR AND

TRANSFORMER TAP OPTIMIZATION
R. D'Aquila
GE Industrial 8i Power Systems
Power Systems Engineering Department
Schenectady, New York 12345

C.J. Bridenbaugh
D.A. DiMascio
Ohio Edison Company
Advanced Engineering & Planning Department
Akron, Ohio 44308-1890

Abstract - A PCB substation capacitorreplacement program provides

an opportunity to review a system's overall reactive compensation
requirements. These requirements can be coordinated with other
voltage control elements, such as transformertap settings, in order to
improve overall transmission operating conditions. A voltage
improvement and var allocation study utilizing an Optimal Power
Flow program provides an effective means of coordinating these
voltage control elements. The control movement required to improve
voltage control is minimized while active and reactive system losses
and reactive imports are reduced.
Keywords - Optimal Power Flow, Voltage Control, Reactive
Allocation, Transformer Tap Optimization.

transformers, most of which are fixed tap, and over 100 sites for new
or additional capacitor bank installations. The intent of this work was
to determine the transformer tap settings and reactive allocation to
provide the best possible voltage profile for all foreseeable system
conditions while minimizing losses and reactive iniports. Due to the
large number of voltage control devices being studied, an optimal
power flow (OPF) was used for most of the analysis. The use of an
OPF eliminated a significant amount of the trial and error work
normally associated with this type of study. This study demonstrates
the benefit of an OPF for transmission planning studies in addition to
previously demonstrated system operation benefits.

ANALYTICAL APPROACH

INTRODUCTION
Ohio Edison (OE) is completing a program which eliminates all
PCB substation capacitors on the transmission and subtransmission
system. One approach to implementing such a program would be to
replace existing PCB capacitor banks on a one-for-one basis with new
non-PCB banks.[l] A potentid disadvantage in this approach is that it
presupposes that all the existing banks are still required in the
locations and at the MVAr ratings that were determined under different
system conditions than exist today. The early planning for the
replacement program recognized an opportunity to review and more
optimally locate and size the reactive compensation needs of the
system. This planning also recognized that capacitive correction
should be coordinated with other voltage control elements, such as
transformer tap settings,in order to improve the overall operation of
the transmission system.
The primary objectives of this study were to improve the voltage
regulation between light load and on-peak load periods and minimize
losses while determining an appropriate level of reactive
compensation. The voltage regulation problem generally consists of
limiting high voltages during light load periods and low voltages
during on-peak periods. Voltage variation between light load and onpeak periods should be minimized. On-peak and light load system
models were established as the basis for the studies. Considerable
attention was placed on verifying that these base models were realistic
representationsof system performance.
A voltage control evaluation can be accomplished using a
conventional power flow program. However, for a major system
evaluation this method requires the running of numerous trial and
error cases and engineering judgment to find the "optimal" solution.
This type of evaluation can be performed more efficiently and
effectively with the use of an Optimal Power Flow (OPF) program.
An OPF will help determine the minimum amount of control
movement and capital cost necessary to optimize power system
quantitiesby optimizing specified control variables.
The work described in this paper involved the study of all existing
and currently planned voltage control devices on the OE transmission
and subtransmission system. These devices included 104
9 1 SM 4 3 6 - 6 PWRS
A paper recommended and approved
by the IEEE Power System Engineering
Committee
of the IEEE Power Engineering Society for presentation at the IEEE/PES 1991 Summer Meeting, San Diego,
California, July 28 - August 1, 1991. Manuscript
submitted January 3 0 , 1991; made available for
printing May 29, 1991.

A.

Optimal Power Flow

A conventional power flow solves a set of equations representing

the elements of the power system and yields the voltage magnitude
and angle at each node in the system.[2] From the voltage and angle,
other system conditions such as power flows and reactive generation
can be calculated. The starting point is a set of data representing the
physical values of the transmission system, generation system and the
customer demand. The system of equations are solved for one
specific set of equipment settings.
If the solution does not yield acceptable results, the equipment
settings must be adjusted and the equationsre-solved. For example, if
the solution shows an unacceptablevoltage at a bus, transformer taps
or shunt compensation can be adjusted to relieve the problem.
Through experience and skill, the power flow can be an effective tool
in determining equipment settings for localized control. However,
when a large number of control adjustments must be made to satisfy
several desirable system wide criteria this becomes an enormous trial
and error process.
This is where the value of an OPF can be realized. An OPF is a
power flow program which not only solves the power flow equations
but optimally adjusts system control variables to achieve desired
results. Its input data requirements are essentially the same as for a
conventional power flow. The same generation, transmission and
load data are used. Additional data is required to specify an
optimization objective, controls which can be adjusted, equipment
limits and system constraints. The OPF will adjust the available
control devices to minimize the objective function and satisfy the
system constraints.
The optimization objective is a function which the OPF minimizes.
It can include active or reactive power losses, fuel costs and added
reactive compensation. It can be calculated for the entire modeled
system or, more commonly, for a portion of the modeled system
representing a utility's operating region.
The control variables are transformer tap positions, phase shifter
angles, allocation of reactive compensation, generator terminal
voltages and power generation. Depending on the optimization
objective and the user's intent, any of these control variables can be
fixed (not available for adjustment). The available controls are then
adjusted to minimize the objective function and satisfy all limits.
Equipment limits such as generator reactive limits and transformer
tap ranges are actual physical constraints and are strictly enforced
during the optimizationprocess. System limits can include upper and
lower bus voltage limits, line flow limits, and area interchangelimits.
In cases where the system limits cannot be satisfied with the available
controls the OPF will find the solution which minimizes the
violations. In this instance, minimizing the violations will drive the
control adjustment and the optimization objectivewill force a solution
as close to optimal as feasible.

0885-8950/92$03.0001992 IEEE

223

Many of the power system control variables are discrete devices.

For example, there are a limited number of discrete tap positions
available for a transformer. Similarly, a capacitor bank must be
switched in or out as one unit. To represent this discrete operation
with an optimal power flow, control variables are first optimized as if
they were continuous elements. When the optimal solution is found
the discrete elements are reset to their nearest actual setting and the
remaining continuous controls are re-optimized. The results from
both the continuous and discrete portions of the optimization can be
reported by the OPF.
This discretization of transformer tap settings and capacitor bank
sizes can result in a suboptimal solution with the established voltage
constraints being violated. To avoid this problem, both the discrete
and continuoussolution should be carefully reviewed. If the specified
voltage constraints are violated through the discretization process,
more restrictive voltage constraintsshould be established to ensure the
required voltage constraints are met.
An OPF, like a conventional power flow, solves the system
equations for a single set of conditions. The user must simulate
various system conditions and determine the final control settings
based on all results. Nevertheless, the engineering time is
economized.
For a description of the OPF package and methodology used for
this study. refer to [3], 141 and [SI.

B. Constraints
Two key constraints were utilized in defining the optimization
function for this study. These constraints were the upper and lower
bus voltage limits and the relative capacitor installation cost ratios.
The original specified voltage constraints were a maximum of
1.05p.u. for 345 kV, 138 kV, 69 kV and 34.5 kV networks and
1.07P.U. for 23 kV networks. The minimum voltage level specified
was 0.95 p.u. for all voltage classes. The upper voltage level
corresponds to the maximum steady-state design voltage currently
considered for each voltage class. The lower voltage was chosen to
limit the variation in voltage on the transmiSsion and subtransmission
systems between light load and peak loading periods. Some specific
bus voltage limits were specified during the study to avoid extensive
voltage control adjustments for an isolated area.
Voltage limits had the single largest impact on the results of both
the transformer tap and capacitoroptimization. An increase of as little
as 0.01 p.u. in the low voltage limit would cause a substantial increase
in the required capacitor additions. Correspondingly, a decrease of
0.01 p.u. for the upper voltage limit on the 23 kV system required
transformer tap setting adjustments which caused a substantial
increase in the requiredcapacitive additions.
When bus voltages could not be held within the specified
constraints for the given system conditions and available voltage
control elements, the magnitude of all voltage violations was
minimized
General comparative inslallation and replacement costs were
specified for capacitoradditions. The relative costs used reflect higher
installation costs at higher voltage classes. The cost for replacement
installations representsinstallingnew capacitors at sites where existing
banks will be removed. This cost was set to 75% of the cost for new
installations to account for utilization of existing controls, structural
steel, and switching devices. Capacitor bank increment additions for
the various voltage classes were also defined. The size of the
increment additions were larger for the higher voltage classes. These
relative cost ratios and increment addition sizes are indicated in
Table 1.
Table 1
General Installation Sizes and Costs

size WVArS)

Relative Cost (P.u.)

BusIkylM&&uLnBlpEkmIiszhma

138
69
34.5
23

84

80
45

12.6
8.4
8.0
4.5

2.0
1.0

1.0
1.0

1S O
.75
.75
.75

Data was also input to reflect limitations and cost differences at

specific stations. For example, some stations were excluded from
capacitoradditions due to site specific limitations.

Generator voltage schedules were specified as fixed for the

purpose of this study. These schedulesrepresent the current operating
practice for each generator base on unit and system loading. A
separate study is currently in progress to verify the active and reactive
power capabilities of each generator in the system. Therefore, it was
decided to defer detailed study of generator voltage schedules to a
future date. Since most of the native generating capacity is remote
from the transmission system load centers, it was concluded that the
impact of deferring optimization of these voltage schedules would
have a minimal impact on the transformer tap setting and capacitor
recommendations necessary to meet the primary objective of improved
voltage control.

C. Study Procedure
All existing and planned substation capacitors are switched either
by automatic voltage control or by operator control voltage ovemde
via SCADA. They are switched on and off as system requirements
change. However, most of the transformers on the system are fmed
tap. Although some fned taps are changed seasonally, the desired
operation is to set the taps at a position which would be acceptable
year round while using capacitors for daily and seasonal voltage
control. To achieve this desired mode of voltage control the
transformertaps were frst optimized to satisfy voltage constraints for
the light load system conditions. The new tap settings were then
incorporated in the peak load case, where the capacitor optimization
was performed.
The light load system case represents the maximum expected
voltage levels on the system while the peak load case represents the
minimum expected voltage levels. For light load conditions it is
assumed that the generators will be at their current light load operating
level and that all shunt capacitors will be switched off. Therefore,
transformer tap setting changes are the most economic and effective
means for reducing the light load voltage levels. For peak load
conditions the generators are assumed to be at their current peak load
operating level and all shunt capacitor banks are available for voltage
control. The transformer tap settings are also assumed available for
voltage control for the peak load case, but are limited by the maximum
setting permitted to ensure voltage constraints are met for the light load
system case.
The transformer and capacitor optimizationswere performed in an
iterative process, requiring passes between the peak and light load
cases. An iterative process was required to ensure a practical
implementation of the transformer tap and capacitor optimization
results. If extensive transformer tap setting changes or capacitive
additions were required to correct isolated voltage violations, the
voltage constraints at these buses were modified. Figure 1 shows a
flow chart of the study process.
The first step is to prepare the on-peak and light load data sets.
T h i s involves specifying the initial load and generation schedules and
initial voltage constraintsfor both load levels. Major system additions
currently planned are also included in the study data sets.
Transformer tap settings are optimized for light load conditions.
The objective of each optimization is to determine tap settings for all
fned tap transformers which keep bus voltages within their limits and
minimize system losses. Bus voltages are reviewed after each
optimization. If the results are not acceptable or practical, voltage
limits can be changed and the process repeated. For each transformer
tap optimization run a preliminary capacitoroptimization is p e r f o d
for the on-peak load case. This ensures the feasibility of the
transformer tap recommendationsfor on-peak capacitor optimization.
This process continues until all tap settings are determined and
acceptable voltages are achieved. These tap settings are then set in the
on-peak case.
When a tentative transforiner tap schedule has been established,
the optimum substation capacitor bank allocation is determined using
the on-peak load model. All existing PCB capacitor banks are
removed from the data base and the associated buses are identified as
possible replacement locations. All non-PCB capacitor banks
normally used for voltage control under peak load conditions are left
on. Existing non-PCB capacitors used for contingency voltage
suppor~are assumed available at a zero installation cost. All Company
substations are initially designated as candidate buses for either new or
additional capacitors. At each candidate bus the maximum bank size,
switching block size and relative cost per installed MVAr are specified
as input to the OPF.

224

Initial Data
Set Preparation

1
Set Voltage Limits
Light Load

Optimize Taps

peak load. The actual generator operating levels for light load
conditions were used and all shunt reactive compensation was
assumed off. The reactive load was varied to model the actual
maximum voltage levels which had been experienced for light load
system conditions.
During these projected light load conditions some bus voltages
exceeded 1.05 P.U. on the subtransmission system. Voltages on the
345 kV and 138 kV transmission system were within the specified
acceptable range. The main objective of the fixed tap transformer
optimization was to bring the subtransmission voltages below the
maximum acceptable voltage level of 1.05 p.u. (1.07 p.u. for the
23 kV system) while minimizing the voltage reduction on the 138 kV
transmission system.
A total of 104 transmission and subtransmission transformers
were included in the optimization. The number, voltage rating and
type of tap changing were:
18 345-138 kV transformers
48 138-69 kV transformers
11 138-34.5 kV transformers
2 138-23kVtransformers
104 Total

Set Voltage Limits

and Cap Data Peak Load

Optimize Caps

Figure 1 . Flow chart of study process.

The objective of each optimization is to find the minimum added
compensation required to satisfy the voltage constraints while
minimizing active power losses. The OPF recommended capacitor
additions and resulting area voltage profiles are reviewed to evaluate
the feasibility of implementing the recommendations. If the results are
found to be unacceptable, changes can be made to modify the
solution. Depending on the required changes, iterations between the
light load and on-peak load case may be necessary.
For example, if a capacitor is assigned by the OPF to a bus which
physically can not accommodate the bank, that bus is removed from
the candidate bus list and the capacitor optimization was repeated.
Other problems include proposed tap changes from the light load case
which cause too large a voltage reduction in the peak load case. This
would cause a significant increase in the amount of compensation
' required in the affected area solely for voltage control (minimal impact
on losses). In these instances, the proposed tap changes addressed
isolated bus voltage violations. Therefore, a compromise tap setting
was specified and the capacitor optimization repeated.
This process is repeated until the voltage criteria is satisfied for
both the on-peak and light load cases with a reasonable amount of
added compensation and transformer tap changes.

RESULTS
A. Transformer Tap Optimization
The transformer tap optimization was performed for a light load
system case. The active system load was 1,740 MW, or 42% of the

no LTC's
no LTC's
all LTC's
lLTC

Most of the 138-69kV and 138-23 kV transformen were already

set at their highest tap positionin the base case (all taps are on the high
side). Therefore, the most effective way to reduce the
subtransmissionvoltages was to adjust the 345-138 kV transformers.
Since all 138-34.5 kV transformers are equipped with LTC's, the
34.5 kV bus voltages were not affected.
In the first iteration through the transfmer tap optimization all the
345-138 kV taps were adjusted to their highest settings. While these
changes brought the subtransmission voltages to within their upper
limits,they also lowered the 138 kV bus voltages to levels just above
their lower limits. Although this was acceptable for the light load
condition, it was anticipatedthat it would require significantcapacitor
additions for on-peak load conditions. The first iteration through the
capacitor optimization confimKd this. A large number of capacitor
additions were required to bring the 138 kV voltages within their
lower limits.
After several iterations between the transformer and capacitor
optimization a final tap schedule was selected. The resulting tap
settingsprovided reduced voltages for the light load system case while
limiting the amount of added compensation required for the on-peak
load case. This schedule included adjusting several 345-138 kV
transformer tap settings up one tap position to reduce the 138 kV
system voltage. Some 138-23 kV and 138-69 kV transformers were
also adjusted to correct local area high voltage concems. While this
did not reduce the high voltage problems during light load conditions
to the extent of the first iteration (a two step adjustment on the 345 138 kV transformers), it kept most subtransmission voltages below
the upper limits for the light load case without requiring excessive
capacitor bank additions to raise voltages for the on-peak case. A total
of 25 transformer taps were changed, with only three taps adjusted to
increase s u h s m i s s i o n voltages.
Examples of the voltage reduction achieved through transformer
tap optimization for the light load case are shown in Figures 2 , 3 and
4. These are graphical comparisons for the light load case showing
the original transformer settingscompared with the new settings.
Figure 2 is a ranked voltage profile for 69 kV buses in one
operating division. This type of plot provides a statistical picture of
the bus voltages. For each curve, bus voltages were sorted in
descending order, with each case being sorted independently. The top
solid curve labeled "ORIG TAPS" represents the bus voltages
associated with the original transformer tap settings. The curve
labeled "NEW TAPS"shows the voltage reduction achieved through
the tap optimization. The original system had approximately 90 buses
with voltages above the 1.05 p.u. limit in this division. With the
recommended tap settings nearly all bus voltages were below this
limit.
Figure 3 shows a similar plot for all 138 kV buses. These graphs
demonstrate that high subtransmission voltages were reduced by
lowering the 138 kV bus voltages via 345-138 kV transformer tap
adjustments.
Figure 4 is a plot of the 345 kV bus voltages. The voltages in this
plot are plotted against individual buses, not sorted as in the previous
ranked profile plot. While the. previous figures showed the reduction
in voltages on the 138 kV and 69 kV systems, this figure shows that
most 345 kV bus voltages were increased by 345-138 kV

225

1.15,

0 ORlG TAPS

a 1.

...................
=(%)YT 1

40

20

60

80

100

NUMBER OF BUSES

YT w i l l h a v e t h e f o r m - j B T ,

w h e r e BT>O

Figure 5. Pi equivalent transformer circuit.

Figure 2. 69 kV division light load voltage profile.

0 ORlG TAPS
0 NEWTAPS-

1 .1 - ...........................................................................................
3

1 -05 -

L
-------A-;.

2
-I

5?

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........................

1 - ..............

0.95

............. .:. ..... .-.-p--.--

B. Capacitor Optimization

1
40

20

60

100

80

120

NUMBER OF BUSES

Figure 3. 138 kV light load voltage profile.

1.06

0 O R l G TAPS

1.04

1.02

,.
..

4
!-

-1
0

=-

0.98

0.96
0.94

..

.
..

..

.
.

.... ;........,....... ;..........................................

.........................
..
..
..
..
..
.
.
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
..
..
.
.
- ................_.........................................................................
.
.
.
...
...
..
...
...
..
..
,
.
..
..
.
..
..
..
..
.
..
.

F
G
BUS NAME

always be of opposite sign. When one is positive, representing a

capacitor, the other will be negative, representing an inductor. In the
case of the 345-138 kV transformer, where the tap positions were
moved up one step, BH will be moxe capacitivethan originally and the
345 kV voltage w
illrise.
The transformer tap changes had a positive impact on the total
reactive imports into the OE system in that the net import was reduced.
The imports were reduced by 238 MVAr (38%) on the 345 kV tie
lines and increased by 84 MVAr (31%) on the 138 kV ties, for a net
reduction of 164 MVAr (20%). The reduced imports on the 345 kV
ties was due to the increased voltage level on the 345 kV system,
while the increased imports on the 138 kV ties is a consequenceof the
reduced voltage levels on the 138 kV system.

Figure 4 . 345 kV light load bus voltages.

transformer tap changes. The buses with increased voltages
correspond to the high side buses of the adjusted transformers. The
increase in high side voltage can be best understood by looking at a pi
equivalent model of the transformer.
Figure 5 shows the pi equivalent circuit for a typical fixed tap
transformer with high side taps.[3,4] VH and VL are the high and low
side voltages, respectively. YTis the transformer admittance and n is
the off nominal tums ratio. The shunt elements, BH and BL. will

The substation capacitor replacement needs were studied using a

load case with 4140 MW of load in the OE system. A total of
587 MVAr of capacitors were in this case, representing the existing
reactive compensation. One hundred sixty-five (165) MVAr of this
total represented PCB banks to be removed.
The first task in determining a capacitor replacement plan is to
implement the previously determined fixed tap transformer changes.
Initially the original capacitor banks are left in place to simulate the
results of a one-for-one or MVAr-for-MVArtype replacement scheme
with the new tap settings. This run is not an optimization,but rather a
conventionalpower flow solution intended to serve as a reference for
later comparison.
The results of this simulation confii that with the present reactive
allocation and the proposed transformer tap changes, a large number
of bus voltages will fall below their lower limits of .95 p.u. during
on-peak load conditions. There was an increase in the voltage levels
on the 345 kV system, but nearly all other bus voltages were reduced.
The cause of the voltage level increase on the 345 kV system was
discussed in the transformer tap optimization section. These results
clearly demonstrated that some change in the shunt compensation on
the system would be needed to accommodate the new transformer tap
settings during on-peak load conditions.
A new replacement schedule was formulated which would
improve upon a one-for-one replacement of capacitors. This schedule
represents the optimum shunt compensation scheme for the base
system satisfying all voltage requirementsand minimizing OE system
losses. It is a practical and attainable plan which accounts for the
specific costs and physical limitations of adding compensation at
particular substations.
The final capacitorreplacement schedule consisted of replacing the
165 MVArs of capacitor banks at 26 locations planned for removal
with 388 MVArs at 35 locations. This increases the total shunt
compensation for this study system from 587 MVArs to 810 MVArs.
As an example of the voltage changes attained for the on-peak
case, Figure 6 shows bus voltages for one operating division
(69 kV) of the system. This is a ranked voltage p f d e plot (similar
to that of Figure 3). By implementing the tap changes without my
changes in shunt compensation (curve "NEWTAPS"), the voltages
were reduced by approximately0.03 p.u. throughout this area. This

226

1.1

2
3 BASE

9 NEWTAPS

4000~

1.05

3000.-

n
v

cl

5
>
0

A--

2000-

-.._

---+--

----*

---+- , -----A
0.95 - ............................................ .,..........................................
,

1000--

0.9

1
0

10

20

30

40

NUMBER OF BUSES

0-

RECOMMENDED

Figure 6 . 69 kV division peak load voltage profile.

voltage reduction was expected, since the main intent of the
transformer optimization was to lower subtransmissionvoltages for
light load conditions. After implementingthe capacitor optimization
the bus voltages in this area were brought back to their original onpeak voltage levels (curve FINAL). Therefore, the effect of the
capacitor optimization in this area was to offset the transformer tap
changesrequired to lower light load voltage levels.

Figure 7 . Component of MVArs.

l.lT-------

AREA VOLTAGE RANGES

BEFORE AND AFTER STUDY RECOMMENDATIONS
HIGHEST AND LOWEST OFF- AND ON-PEAK VOLTAGES

C. Summary

Figure 7 summarizes the supply of reactive compensation on the

OE system comparing the components for the original study system
with the study recommendations. The MVArs supplied from
generation. line charging and distribution line capacitors remains
essentially unchanged. The MVArs supplied from substation
capacitors increased by approximately 38% while the system net
MVAr ipterchange demead by appmximately 34%.
Although net reactive import reduction could not be specified as a
constraint in the optimization, it was a study objective and monitored
for all cases in the study. The net reduction in reactive imports was
viewed as a positive benefit resulting from the optimized transformer
tap settings and reactive allocation.
The above reactive additionscombined with the recommended tap
setting changes results in a transmission system voltage profile within
the specified criteria. Figure 8 globally demonstrates the tighter
operating voltage band achieved by implementing the study
recommendations. The horizontal axis indicates the operating division
and voltage class while the vertical axis indicates the per unit voltage
level based on nominal voltage for each area. The maximum light load
and minimum on-peak voltage in each area are shown with the 0s
corresponding to the levels without the study recommendations and
the xs correspondingto the levels with the study recommendations.
In general, light load voltages were reduced while on-peak voltages
were raised to establish the desired tighter operating voltage band.
The sensitivity of the study objectives to increasing the reactive
compensation beyond the recommended level was also evaluated.
Figure 9 summarizesthe effect of the transformer tap setting changes
and various levels of reactive additions on losses and reactive imports.
The horizontal axis indicates the specific study case with respect to tap
changes and amount of reactive compensation on the system. The
vertical axis on the left indicates the percent change in losses from the
original base case while the vertical axis on the right indicates the
percent change in reactive imports. Along the horizontal axis, the
second 0 point demonstrates the effect of no change in the amount
or placement of reactive compensation with the recommended
transformer tap changes. Active and reactive losses changed slightly
and reactive imports were reduced. However, the voltage profile for
this case does not meet the specified criteria. The next point (-57)
represents a reduced level of reactive compensation (-57 MVAr),
although the compensation was optimally sized and located. The
active and reactive losses. reactive imports and voltage profile were all
essentially unchanged from the previous case. These two simulations
confirmed the need for additional reactive compensation to meet the
voltage requirements for the peak load system.

,g

______~.

A23

B23

C23

A69

869

C69

D69

E69

F69

G69

H69

169

J69

D I V I S I O N AND VOLTAGE LEVEL

+-Original Range +-

x New Range
Figure 8. Area voltage ranges.
ON-PEAK SYSTEM CASE SUMMARY
% D E V I A T I O N FROM ORIGINAL

,
I
I

-8J
0

ORIGINAL

TAPS

-1

-57
NEW TAPS -

APPROXIMATE ADDED COMPENSATION (MVARS)

Figure 9. On-peak system case summary.

-50

227

The next point (223) represents the effect of the recommended

reactive allocations. The active and reactive losses and reactive
imports were all reduced and the voltage profile was within the
specifed criteria. The last point (388) representsan increased level of
optimally located capacitors. Active and reactive losses and reactive
imports are further reduced while the voltage profile r e d s similar to
the recommended case. Thewresults indicatethat additional increases
in reactive compensation would have little effect on voltage control,
however active and reactive losses and reactive imports would be
redUCed.
The final study recommendations for transformer tap setting
changes and capacitor bank additions result in a number of
improvements to overall system performance including:

REFER EN CES
S.A. Miske, Jr., W. Neugebauer, D.J. Ward, A Systems
Approach to the Replacement of Older Substation Capacitors,
mesented
at the 1988 American Power Conference, Chicago
r
- - - ~
Illinois, April 1
R.C. Degeneff, W. Neugebauer, C.H. Saylor, S.L. Corey,
Security-ConstrainedOptimization: An Added Dimension in
Utility Systems Optimal Power Flow, IEEE Computer
Applicationsin Power, October 1988.
R.C. Burchett, H.H. Happ, R.E. Palmer, D.R. Vierath,
Quadratically Convergent Optimal Power Flow, IEEE
Transactions
Power Amaratus and Systems, Volume 103, NO.
~.~~
11, 1984, pp. 3267-3f3.
W.C. Merritt, C.H. Saylor, R.C. Burchett, H.H. Happ,
Security Constrained Optimization - A Case Study, IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, Volume 3, No. 3, 1988, pp.
970-977.
P.E: Gil!, W. Murray, and M.H. Wright, h W . i d
,Academic Press, 1981.
P.M. Anderson,
ted Power S y w n s , The Iowa
State University-73,
pp. 262-264.
W.D. Stevenson, Jr., Elements of Power S u e m s hdYdS,
McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1982, pp. 216-218.
~

The transmission system voltage profile has generally been

impr~vedf a ~n-peakloading and light load periods.
Improvement in quality of service to transmission and
ultimately distributioncustomersbecause of improved voltage
control and reduced range.
Active power losses reduced by 1.3% (approximately
8Ooo Mwh annually).
Reactive power losses reduced by 4.3%.
Reactive power imports reduced by 34.3%.
The estimatedcapital equiyalent savings of the reduction in active
power losses represents approximately 80% of the capital cost of
implementing the shdy recommendations.
The study also identified several issues for further review and an
additionalfollow on study:
A review of voltage limits is to be made for three isolated 23 kV
systems in order to finalize the associatedtransformer tap settings and
capacitor bank recommendations. Optimization of the voltage
schedules for localized generation and synchronous condenser
facilities may enhance voltage control in some areas of the 23 kV
system. This could eiiminate the need for some of the associated
preliminary transformer tap setting and capacitor bank
recommendations.
Some of the 69 kV capacitor bank recommendations at
distribution substations exclusively serving radial load may be
implemented more cost effectivelywith distribution line capacitorson
the distribution circuits. Equivalent levels of compensation can be
installed more economically at the distribution level because of the
lower voltage rating and the lower distribution substation transformer
losses.
When generator operating capabilities have been finalized, the
systemvoltage schedulescan then be reviewed with respect to further
optimization and loss reduction.

Robert DAquilo was bom in Queens, New York in 1962. He

received his B.S. and M.S. degrees from Clarkson University in
ElectricalEngineering in 1984 and 1985,respectively.
In 1986 Mr. DAquila joined the GE Power Systems E n g h d g
Department in Schenectady, N.Y. He has been involved in
transmission planning and design projects and the development of
power system analysis software. He is currently involved in the
analysis of reactive power control and voltage stability. Before
joining GE, he was employed by Consolidated Edison Company,
New York, N.Y. where he worked in the areas of transmission
planning and system operation.

CONCLUSIONS

Carl Bridenbaugh was bom in Port Huron, Michigan in 1960. He

received his BSEE from the University of Derroit in 1983and his MS
in Electrical Engineering from Union College in 1985. He also
graduatedfirom the GE Power SystemsEngineeringCourse in 1985.
In 1983, Mr.Bridenbaugh joined the GE Systems Development
and Engineering Department in Schenectady,N.Y. as an Engineer on
Rotation involved in all aspects of power system engineering and
economic studies. In 1986 he became an Application Engineer,
performing power system dynamic studies and developing computer
models of power system components for use in dynamic performance
analysis. In 1989 he joined the Ohio Edison Company in Akron,
Ohio as a Planning Engineer in the TransmissionPlanning Section of
the Advanced Engineering and Planning Department. He is currently
involved in both long and short range studies of the transmission and
subtransmissionsystem.
Mr. Bridenbaugh is a member of IEEE and is Treasurer of the
Akron Chapter of the IEEEPower Engineering Society. He holds a
ProfessionalEngineering Licehse in the states of New York and Ohio.

This study has effectivelyidenNied msformer tap changes and a

capacitor replacement and addition program which will improve the
overall transmission and subtransmission voltage profile, reduce
system losses and reduce the net reactive system imports. The
recommendations have been limited to the areas of transformer taps
and capacitors, which can readily be implemented for improving
system performance.
The recommendations include several areas that require further
review to ensure the most effective and economic implementationfor
the needed system improvement in this area. Some distribution
substation capacitor banks are under review to determine if a
comparable level of compensation to the transmission system can be
more economically and effectively implemented by applying the
compensation on the distribution lines. Several of the 138-23 kV
transformer tap and 23 kV capacitor bank recommendationsare also
being studied further.
The study was conducted in such a way that later optimization of
the generator terminal voltage schedule may be an effective option for
further controlling voltage and reducing the net reactive system
imports. When the capabilities of the generating units have been
verified k u g h field tests, their voltage schedules will be reviewed to
determine if further improvements in voltage control, system losses
and net reactive imports can be achieved.

Dennis A. DiMascio is a Senior Transmission Planning Engineer

in the Transmission Planning Section of the Advanced Engineering
and Planning Department at Ohio Edison Company. He received his
BSEE and BA in Mathematicsfrom the University of Akron in 1965.
He is also a 1972 graduate of the WestinghouseAdvanced School of
Power System Engineering. Before his present job assignment, he
worked as a substation design engineer and in equipment application
engineering of power circuit preakers and synchronous motors. He
has been a member of IEEE since 1966 and served as Chairman of
Akron Section Power Group and as a member of the Synchronous
Machinery Subcommittee. He is a registeredProfessionalEngineerin
the State of Ohio.