Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Yogesh Verma
S.D.E. (OCB-283)
111360
Telephone Exchange
Thanaser, Kurukshetra
NIT Kurukshetra
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I acknowledge my gratitude and thanks to all the well-knowledge person
for giving me opportunity to provide all the best facilities available at
this telecom center. Success of every project depends largely on the self
& encouragement and guidance of many others. I take this opportunity
to express my gratitude to the people who has been involved in the
successful completion of this study project.
First of all, I would like to thank the management at BSNL for
giving me opportunity do my FOUR weeks project training in their
organization. I was with valuable advice and endless supply of new ideas
and support for this project.
I would like to thank Mr. Rajesh Kumar, SDE (OCB) for
providing practical exposure for the project and his valuable guidance
during the project work.
-
Yogesh Verma
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CONTENTS:
Abstract..5
1. History of Telephone Exchange.6
2. Introduction to OCB-2837
2.1 Salient Features of OCB-2837
2.2 Typical Telephone exchange using OCB-283..9
3. Signaling in Telecommunications.....10
3.1 Common Associated Signaling...10
3.2 Common Channel Signaling...10
4. PCM Principles.12
4.1 Introduction.12
4.2 Multiplexing Techniques.12
4.3 Pulse Code Modulation14
5. Optical-Fibre Communications.20
5.1 Brief History20
5.2 Fibre-Optics Applications21
5.2 Fibre-optics System..21
5.3 Principle of Operation..21
5.4 Fibre Types..23
5.5 OFC Splicing...24
6. Digital Hierarchies.27
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ABSTRACT:
This report takes a pedagogical stance in demonstrating how results from theoretical
communication may be applied to yield significant insight into the behavior of the
telecommunication systems, and that this is immediately attainable with the present state of the
art. The focus for this detailed study is provided by various COMMUNICATION systems like
Mobile Communication currently being deployed throughout the world. Accuracy and system
reliability concerns dominate in this domain. Thus, the training has been carried out with the idea
of understanding the telecommunication systems.
A GLANCE AT
BHARAT SANSHAR NIGAM LIMITTED
(A Govt. of India Enterprise)
The Telephone was invented by Mr. Graham Bell. During early stage of development of
telephone exchange, the connections are established with help of human operator. Those type of
exchange were called Manual Telephone Exchange. The technology of telephony was going on
progress with the introduction of automatic exchange. Manual telephone is replaced & automatic
exchange became in use there were lot of advantage of automatic exchange over manual.
In manual telephony, the type of exchange used is Central Battery (C.B.). In certain case
local battery exchange (L.B.) is also used. The local battery exchange is also called magnet
exchange because the set has a magneto generator which the subscriber is required to rotate, to
generate the A.C. necessary to operate the indicator at the exchange.
In automatic telephony connections between two subscribers are established with the help
of human operator. Obviously the junction of human operator is carried out by the machine
known as switching or selector stages. After the development of automatic telephone exchange
technology as a subscriber directly & it has many advantages over manual telephone exchange.
Now a day electronic Automatic exchange is widely used due to their advantages.
1876
Invention of Telephone
1915
1920
1956
1962
Digital transmission(T1)
1965
1974
1977
1980s
Signaling System
1990s
(out-of-band)
2) INTRODUCTION TO OCB-283
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10. The OCB-283 system is made up of only 35 type of cards. This excludes the cards required
for CSN. Because of this number of space card to be kept for maintenance are drastically
reduced.
11. The system has modular structure. The expansion can be very easily carried out by adding
necessary hardware or software.
12. The SMMs (O&M Units) are duplicated with one active & other hot standby. In case of
faults, switch over takes place automatically. More over as disk are connected SMMs, there is no
necessity of changing cables from one system to another.
13. The hard disk of memory capacity 9.2 GB is very compact & maintenance free. The detail
billing data regularly saved in the disk itself from where they can be transferred to magnetic
tapes for processing.
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CSNNNNL
CSNND
CSED
STS
1x3
SMX
LR
SMT
( 1 TO 28) X 2
LR
SMA
( 2 TO 37)
1 TO 4 MAS
SMC
2 TO 14
1 MIS
SMM
1x2
TMN
CSN
SMC :
SMA :
SMT :
SMX :
SMM :
Maintenance Station
STS
3)
SIGNALLING IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS
The term signaling, when used in telephony, refers to the exchange of control information
associated with the establishment of a telephone call on a telecommunications circuit. An
example of this control information is the digits dialed by the caller, the caller's billing number,
and other call-related information.
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When the signaling is performed on the same circuit that will ultimately carry the
conversation of the call, it is termed Channel Associated Signaling (CAS).
In contrast, SS7 signaling is termed as Common Channel Signaling (CCS) in that the path
and facility used by the signaling is separate and distinct from the telecommunications channels
that will ultimately carry the telephone conversation. With CCS, it becomes possible to exchange
signaling without first seizing a facility, leading to significant savings and performance increases
in both signaling and facility usage.
CCS offers the following advantages over CAS, in the context of the PSTN:
Greater trunking efficiency due to the quicker set up and clear down, thereby reducing
traffic on the network.
CCS allows the transfer of additional information along with the signaling traffic
providing features such as caller ID.
The most common CCS signaling methods in use today are Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN) and Signaling System 7 (SS7). ISDN signaling is used primarily on trunks connecting
end-user private branch exchange (PBX) systems to a central office.
Access to an ISDN is provided in two forms:
4) PCM PRINCIPLES:
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
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A long distance or local telephone conversation between two persons could be provided
by using a pair of open wire lines or underground cable as early as early as mid of 19th
century. However, due to fast industrial development and increased telephone awareness,
demand for trunk and local traffic went on increasing at a rapid rate. To cater to the increased
demand of traffic between two stations or between two subscribers at the same station we
resorted to the use of an increased number of pairs on either the open wire alignment, or in
underground cable. This could solve the problem for some time only as there is a limit to the
number of open wire pairs that can be installed on one alignment due to headway
consideration and maintenance problems. Similarly increasing the number of open wire pairs
that can be installed on one alignment due to headway consideration and maintenance
problems. Similarly increasing the number of pairs to the underground cable is uneconomical
and leads to maintenance problems.
It, therefore, became imperative to think of new technical innovations which could
exploit the available bandwidth of transmission media such as open wire lines or underground
cables to provide more number of circuits on one pair. The technique used to provide a number of
circuits using a single transmission link is called Multiplexing.
4.2 MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES:
There are basically two types of multiplexing techniques
i.
ii.
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Each channel is sampled at a specified rate and transmitted for a fixed duration. All channels
are sampled one by, the cycle is repeated again and again. The channels are connected to individual
gates which are opened one by one in a fixed sequence. At the receiving end also similar gates
are opened in unison with the gates at the transmitting end.
The signal received at the receiving end will be in the form of discrete
samples and these are combined to reproduce the original signal. This staggering of channels
in time sequence for transmission over a common medium is called Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM).
4.3 Pulse Code Modulation:
It was only in 1938, Mr. A.M. Reaves (USA) developed a Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM) system to transmit the spoken word in digital form. Since then digital speech
transmission has become an alternative to the analogue systems.
PCM systems use TDM technique to provide a number of circuits on the same
transmission medium viz open wire or underground cable pair or a channel provided by carrier,
coaxial, microwave or satellite system.
Basic Requirements for PCM System:
To develop a PCM signal from several analogue signals, the following processing
steps are required
Filtering
Sampling
Quantization
Encoding
Line Coding
4.3.1 Filtering:
Filters are used to limit the speech signal to the frequency band 300-3400 Hz.
4.3.2 Sampling:
It is the most basic requirement for TDM. Suppose we have an analogue signal Fig.
3 (b), which is applied across a resistor R through a switch S as shown in Fig. 3 (a). Whenever
switch S is closed, an output appears across R. The rate at which S is closed is called the sampling
frequency because during the make periods of S, the samples of the analogue modulating
signal appear across R. Fig. 3(d) is a stream of samples of the input signal which appear across R.
The amplitude of the sample is depend upon the amplitude of the input signal at the instant of
sampling. The duration of these sampled pulses is equal to the duration for which the switch S is
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closed. Minimum number of samples are to be sent for any band limited signal to get a good
approximation of the original analogue signal and the same is defined by the sampling Theorem.
1 sec
8000
between 2 consecutive samples of a channel is 125 microseconds. This duration i.e. 125
microseconds is called Time Frame.
The signals on the common medium (also called the common highway)
of a TDM system will consist of a series of pulses, the amplitudes of which are proportional to
the amplitudes of the individual channels at their respective sampling instants. This is illustrated
in Fig. 5
Encoding:
Conversion of quantized analogue levels to binary signal is called encoding. To represent
256 steps, 8 level code is required. The eight bit code is also called an eight bit "word".
The 8 bit word appears in the form:
P
ABC
Segment Code
WXYZ
Linear encoding
in the segment
The first bit gives the sign of the voltage to be coded. Next 3 bits gives the segment
number. There are 8 segments for the positive voltages and 8 for negative voltages. Last 4 bits
give the position in the segment. Each segment contains 16 positions. Referring to Fig. 9(b),
voltage Vc will be encoded as 1 1 1 1 0101.
5) OPTICAL-FIBRE COMMUNICATIONS
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Another important application for optical fibre is the biomedical industry. Fibre-optic systems
are used in most modern telemedicine devices for transmission of digital diagnostic images.
Other applications for optical fibre include space, military, automotive, and the industrial sector.
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Total
Internal
Reflection: The Reflection that Occurs when a Light Ray Travelling in One Material
Hits a Different Material and Reflects Back into the Original Material without any
Loss of Light.
Fig. 2
Speed of light is actually the velocity of electromagnetic energy in vacuum such as space. Light
travels at slower velocities in other materials such as glass. Light travelling from one material to
another changes speed, which results in light changing its direction of travel. This deflection of
light is called Refraction.
The amount that a ray of light passing from a lower refractive index to a higher one is bent
towards the normal. But light going from a higher index to a lower one refracting away from the
normal, as shown in the figures.
Angle of incidence
1
n1
n2
2
n1
n2
Angle of
reflection
n1
n2
As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction approaches 90o to the normal. The
angle of incidence that yields an angle of refraction of 90o is the critical angle. If the angle of
incidence increases amore than the critical angle, the light is totally reflected back into the first
material so that it does not enter the second material. The angle of incidence and reflection are
equal and it is called Total Internal Reflection.
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Jacket
Jacket
Cladding
Core
Cladding (n2)
Core (n2)
Cladding
Jacket
Light at less than Angle of Angle of
critical angle is
incidence reflection
absorbed in jacket
Light is propagated by
total internal reflection
Fig. Total Internal Reflection in an optical Fibre
Fibre sizes are usually expressed by first giving the core size followed by the cladding size. Thus
50/125 means a core diameter of 50m and a cladding diameter of 125m.
5.5 FIBRE TYPES:
The refractive Index profile describes the relation between the indices of the core and cladding.
Two main relationship exists:
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(I)
Step Index
(II)
Graded Index
The step index fibre has a core with uniform index throughout. The profile shows a sharp step at
the junction of the core and cladding. In contrast, the graded index has a non-uniform core. The
Index is highest at the center and gradually decreases until it matches with that of the cladding.
There is no sharp break in indices between the core and the cladding.
By this classification there are three types of fibres:
(I)
(II)
(III)
5.6.1 STEP-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBRE: It has a large core, up to 100 microns in diameter.
As a result, some of the light rays that make up the digital pulse may travel a direct route,
whereas others zigzag as they bounce off the cladding. These alternative pathways cause the
different groupings of light rays, referred to as modes, to arrive separately at a receiving point.
The pulse, an aggregate of different modes, begins to spread out, losing its well-defined shape.
The need to leave spacing between pulses to prevent overlapping limits bandwidth that is, the
amount of information that can be sent. Consequently, this type of fibre is best suited for
transmission over short distances, in an endoscope, for instance.
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Also, rather than zigzagging off the cladding, light in the core curves helically because of
the graded index, reducing its travel distance. The shortened path and the higher speed allow
light at the periphery to arrive at a receiver at about the same time as the slow but straight rays in
the core axis. The result: a digital pulse suffers less dispersion.
5.6.3 SINGLE-MODE FIBRE: It has a narrow core (eight microns or less), and the index of
refraction between the core and the cladding changes less than it does for multimode fibres.
Light thus travels parallel to the axis, creating little pulse dispersion. Telephone and cable
television networks install millions of kilometers of this fibre every year.
2.
Mechanical splicing.
3.
Fusion splicing.
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This technique is mainly used for temporary splicing in case of emergency repairing. This
method is also convenient to connect measuring instruments to bare fibres for taking various
measurements.
The mechanical splices consist of 4 basic components:
(i)
(ii)
A retainer
(iii)
(iv)
A protective housing
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6) DIGITAL HIERARCHIES:
The term digital hierarchy has been created when developing digital transmission
systems. Consequently, a digital hierarchy comprises a number of levels. Each level is assigned a
specific bit rate which is formed by multiplexing digital signals, each having the bit rate of the
next lower level. In CCITT Rec. G.702, the term digital multiplex hierarchy is defined as
follows:
A series of digital multiplexes graded according to capability so that multiplexing at one
level combines a defined number of digital signals, each having the digit rate prescribed for the
next lower order, into a digital signal having a prescribed digit rate which is then available for
further combination with other digital signals of the same rate in a digital multiplex of the next
higher order.
6.1 OVERVIEW OF PDH:
With the introduction of PCM technology in the 1960s, communications networks were
gradually converted to digital technology over the next few years. To cope with the demand for
even higher bit rates, a multiplex hierarchy called the plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH)
evolved. The bit rates start with the basic multiplex rate of 2 Mbit/s with further stages of 8, 34
and 140 Mbit/s. In North America and Japan, the primary rate is 1.5 Mbit/s. Hierarchy stages of
6 and 44 Mbit/s developed from this. Because of these very different developments, gateways
between one network and another were very difficult and expensive to realize. PCM allows
multiple use of a single line by means of digital time-domain multiplexing. The analog telephone
signal is sampled at a bandwidth of 3.1 kHz, quantized and encoded and then transmitted at a bit
rate of 64 Kbit/s. A transmission rate of 2048 Kbit/s results when 30 such coded channels are
collected together into a frame along with the necessary signaling information. This so-called
primary rate is used throughout the world. Only the USA, Canada and Japan use a primary rate
of 1544 Kbit/s, formed by combining 24 channels instead of 30. The growing demand for more
bandwidth meant that more stages of multiplexing were needed throughout the world. A
practically synchronous (or, to give it its proper name: plesiochronous) digital hierarchy is the
result. Slight differences in timing signals mean that justification or stuffing is necessary when
forming the multiplexed signals. Inserting or dropping an individual 64 Kbit/s channel to or from
a higher digital hierarchy requires a considerable amount of complex multiplexer equipment.
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SDH is an ITU-T standard for a high capacity telecom network. SDH is a synchronous digital
transport system, aim to provide a simple, economical and flexible telecom infrastructure. The
basis of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) is synchronous multiplexing - data from multiple
tributary sources is byte interleaved
6.2.1 Features of SDH:
SDH brings the following advantages to network providers:
High transmission rates:
Transmission rates of up to 40 Gbit/s can be achieved in modern SDH systems. SDH is therefore
the most suitable technology for backbones, which can be considered as being the super
highways in today's telecommunications networks.
Simplified add & drop function:
Compared with the older PDH system, it is much easier to extract and insert low-bit rate
channels from or into the high-speed bit streams in SDH. It is no longer necessary to demultiplex
and then remultiplex the plesiochronous structure.
network elements from different manufacturers into a network. The result is a reduction in
equipment costs as compared with PDH.
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Easy growth to higher bit rates in step with evolution of transmission technology.
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
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The three subsystems, different network elements, and their respective tasks are presented in the
following.
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Mobility management
This maintains information about the subscriber's location.
Signaling
This applies to interfaces with the BSS and PSTN.
Subscriber data handling
This is the permanent data storage in the HLR and temporary storage of relevant data in the
VLR.
Call handling that copes with mobile nature of subscribers (e.g., paging)
Handling location registration and ensuring interworking between Mobile Station and VLR
Standard functions of a local exchange switch in the fixed network (example: charging)
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MOBILE STATION:
The MS includes radio equipment and the man machine interface (MMI) that a subscribe needs
in order to access the services provided by the GSM PLMN. MS can be installed in Vehicles or
can be portable or handheld stations. The MS may include provisions for data communication as
well as voice. A mobile transmits and receives message to and from the GSM system over the air
interface to establish and continue connections through the system.
Different type of MSs can provide different type of data interfaces. To provide a common model
for describing these different MS configuration, reference configuration for MS, similar to
those defined for ISDN land stations, has been defined.
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Functions of MS:
The primary functions of MS are to transmit and receive voice and data over the air interface of
the GSM system. MS performs the signal processing function of digitizing, encoding, error
protecting, encrypting, and modulating the transmitted signals. It also performs the inverse
functions on the received signals from the BS.
In order to transmit voice and data signals, the mobile must be in synchronization with the
system so that the messages are the transmitted and received by the mobile at the correct instant.
To achieve this, the MS automatically tunes and synchronizes to the frequency and TDMA
timeslot specified by the BSC. This message is received over a dedicated timeslot several times
within a multiframe period of 51 frames. We shall discuss the details of this in the next chapter.
The exact synchronization will also include adjusting the timing advance to compensate for
varying distance of the mobile from the BTS.
The MS monitors the power level and signal quality, determined by the BER for known receiver
bit sequences (synchronization sequence), from both its current BTS and up to six surrounding
BTSs. This data is received on the downlink broadcast control channel. The MS determines and
send to the current BTS a list of the six best-received BTS signals. The measurement results from
MS on downlink quality and surrounding BTS signal levels are sent to BSC and processed
within the BSC. The system then uses this list for best cell handover decisions.
MS keeps the GSM network informed of its location during both national and international
roaming, even when it is inactive. This enables the System to page in its present LA.
The MS includes an equalizer that compensates for multi-path distortion on the received signal.
This reduces inter-symbol interface that would otherwise degrade the BER.
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BSC:
The BSC, as discussed, is connected to the MSC on one side and to the BTS on the other. The
BSC performs the Radio Resource (RR) management for the cells under its control. It assigns
and release frequencies and timeslots for all MSs in its own area. The BSC performs the intercell
handover for MSs moving between BTS in its control. It also reallocates frequencies to the BTSs
in its area to meet locally heavy demands during peak hours or on special events. The BSC
controls the power transmission of both BSSs and MSs in its area. The minimum power level for
a mobile unit is broadcast over the BCCH. The BSC provides the time and frequency
synchronization reference signals broadcast by its BTSs. The BSC also measures the time delay
of received MS signals relative to the BTS clock. If the received MS signal is not centered in its
assigned timeslot at the BTS, The BSC can direct the BTS to notify the MS to advance the
timing such that proper synchronization takes place. The functions of BSC are as follows.
The BSC may also perform traffic concentration to reduce the number of transmission
lines from the BSC to its BTSs, as discussed in the last section.
2G
2.5G
GSM
GPRS
GSM
GPRS
200 KHz carrier
200 KHz carrier
8 full-rate time slots 115 Kbps peak data rates
16 half-rate time slots
3G
EDGE
UMTS
UMTS
EDGE
5 MHz carrier
200 KHz carrier
Data rates up to 384 Kbps 2 Mbps peak data rates
New IMT-2000 2 GHz spectrum
8-PSK modulation
Higher symbol rate
HSCSD
HSCSD
Circuit-switched data
64 Kbps peak data rates
EDGE is based on a new modulation scheme that allows a much higher bit rate across the airinterface called 8PSK modulation.
Since 8PSK will be used for UMTS, network operators will be required to introduce this at
some stage before migration to 3G.
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process is reversed and the original signal is extracted. Use of unique codes means that the same
frequency is repeated in all cells, which is commonly referred to as a frequency re-use of 1.
WCDMA is a step further in the CDMA technology. It uses a 5 MHz wide radio signal and a chip
rate of 3.84 Mcps, which is about three times higher than the chip rate of CDMA2000 (1.22
Mcps). The main benefits of a wideband carrier with a higher chip rate are:
Support for higher bit rates
Higher spectrum efficiency thanks to improved trunking efficiency (i.e. a better statistical
averaging)
Higher QoS
Further, experience from second-generation systems like GSM and cdmaOne has enabled
improvements to be incorporated in WCDMA. Focus has also been put on ensuring that as much
as possible of WCDMA operators investments in GSM equipment can be reused. Examples are
the re-use and evolution of the core network, the focus on co-siting and the support of GSM
handover. In order to use GSM handover the subscribers need dual mode handsets.
CDMA TECHNOLOGY:
Access Network:
Access network, the network between local exchange and subscriber, in the Telecom
Network accounts for a major portion of resources both in terms of capital and manpower. So far,
the subscriber loop has remained in the domain of the copper cable providing cost effective
solution in past. Quick deployment of subscriber loop, coverage of inaccessible and remote
locations coupled with modern technology have led to the emergence of new Access
Technologies. The various technological options available are as follows i:
1.
2.
3.
and for rapid development of telephone services. The technology employed shall depend upon
various radio access techniques, like FDMA, TDMA and CDMA.
Different technologies have been developed by the different countries like CT2 from France,
PHS from Japan, DECT from Europe and DAMPS & CDMA from USA. Let us discuss CDMA
technology in WLL application as it has a potential ability to tolerate a fair amount of
interference as compared to other conventional radios. This leads to a considerable advantage
from a system point of view.
7.7 SPREAD SPECTRUM PRINCIPLE:
Originally Spread spectrum radio technology was developed for military use to counter the
interference by hostile jamming. The broad spectrum of the transmitted signal gives rise to
Spread Spectrum. A Spread Spectrum signal is generated by modulating the radio frequency
(RF) signal with a code consisting of different pseudo random binary sequences, which is
inherently resistant to noisy signal environment.
A number of Spread spectrum RF signals thus generated share the same frequency spectrum and
thus the entire bandwidth available in the band is used by each of the users using same frequency
at the same time.
In the above figure, it has been tried to explain that how the base band signal of 9.6 Kbps is
spread using a Pseudo-random Noise (PN) source to occupy entire bandwidth of 1.25 Mhz. At
the receiving end this signal will have interference from signals of other users of the same cell,
users of different cells and interference from other noise sources. All these signals get combined
with the desired signal but using a correct PN code the original data can be reproduced back.
CDMA channel in the Trans and receive direction is a FDD (Frequency Division Duplexing)
channel. The salient features of a typical CDMA system are as follows:
Frequency of operation:
Duplexing Method:
1.25 MHz
Coverage:
The different types of codes used for identification of traffic channels and users identification etc
as follows:
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