32.power System Study-Sc, RC & Dynamic Testing

POWER SYSTEM STUDY-SHORT CIRCUIT STUDY, RELAY CO-ORDINATION & Dynamic Testing Technique
By
KAMIN DAVE(DOBLE ENGINEERING PVT.LTD), KEIL SHAH
Power System Study:

SHORT CIRCUIT Study, Relay Co-ordination
&
Dynamic Testing Technique of Relay
KAMIN DAVE (DOBLE ENGINEERING PVT.LTD), KEIL SHAH (EXPELPROSYS.)
KNOWLEDGE IS POWER
MULTIPLICATION OF THIS DOCUMENT IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED
By
INTRODUCTION:
Successful Operation of a power system depends largely on the engineers ability to
provide reliable and uninterrupted service to loads. The reliability of the power supply
implies much more than merely being available. Ideally, the loads must be fed at
constant voltage and frequency at all times. In practical terms this means that
consumers equipment may operate satisfactorily. For example, a drop in voltage of 1015% or a reduction of the system frequency of only a few hertz may lead to stalling of
the motor loads on the system.
As electrical utilities have grown in size, and the number of interconnections has
increased, planning for future expansion has become increasingly complex. The
increasing cost of additions and modifications has made it imperative that utilities
consider a range of design options, and perform detailed studies of the effects on the
system of each option, based on the number of assumptions: like normal and abnormal
operating conditions, peak and off-peak loadings, and present and future years of
handled.
Future transmission and distribution systems will be far more complex than those of
today. This means that the power system planners task will be more complex. If the
systems being planned are to be optional with respect to construction cost, performance,
and operating efficiency, better planning tools are required.
Parameter Conversion:
Power transmission lines are operated at voltage levels where kilovolts is the most
convenient unit to express voltage. The amount of power transmitted is in terms of
kilowatts or megawatts and kilo amperes or mega amperes. However the quantities,
current and Ohms are often expressed as a percent or per unit of base value. The per
unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the quantity to its base value
expressed as a decimal. Both the per unit (p.u.) and percent methods of calculation are
simpler than the use of actual amperes, Ohms, and voltage values.
The per unit method has an advantage over the percent method because the product of
two quantities expressed in per unit is expressed in per unit itself, but the product of two
quantities expressed in percent must be divided by 100 to obtain the result in percent.
The per unit value of a line to neutral voltage on the line to neutral voltage base is equal
to the per unit value of the line to line voltage at the same point on the line to line voltage
base if the system is balanced. Similarly, the three-phase kVA is three times the
kVA/phase and the three-phase kVA base is three times the base kVA per phase.
Therefore the per unit value of the three-phase kVA on the three-phase kVA base is
identical to the per unit value of the kVA per phase on the kVA per phase base.
Base impedance and base current value can be computed directly from three-phase
values of base kilovolts and base kilo-amperes.
By
Base Current = {Base kVA (3-ph) / 1.7325*Base kV}

Where, Base kV is the line-to-line voltage.
Base Z = { (Base kV / 1.7325)2*1000 / (Base kVA) / 1.7325 }
Base Z = { (Base kV)2 / (Base MVA) }
Sometimes the per unit impedance of a component of a system is expressed on a base
other than the one selected as base for the part of the system in which the component is
located. Since all impedances in any one part of a system must be expressed on the
same impedance base when making computations, it is necessary to have a means of
converting per unit impedances from one base to another. The per unit impedance is
given by following equation;
Per unit Z = { ( Actual Z in Ohms*Base MVA ) / ( Base kV )2 }
Which shows that per unit impedance is directly proportional to base MVA and
inversely proportional to the square of the base voltage. Therefore, to change from per
unit impedance on a given base to per unit impedance on a new base, the following
equation is used,
Per unit Znew = ( Per unit Zgiven )*( Base kVgiven / Base kVnew )2*( Base MVAnew / Base MKVAgiven )
The Ohmic values of resistance and leakage reactance of a transformer depends on

whether they are measured from the LT side or HT side of a transformer. If they are
expressed in p.u., the base MVA rating of the transformer which is same as referred
from HT side or LT side. The base kV is selected as the voltage of LT winding, if the
ohmic values are referring to LT side, else it is selected as voltage of HT winding, if the
ohmic values are referring to HT side of transformer. Whereas the PU values remains
same regardless of whether they are determined from HT side or LT side.
The advantages of the PU method are;
The PU impedance of machines of same type and widely different ratings
usually lie within a narrow range, although the ohmic values differ for machines
of different ratings. For this reason, when the impedance is not known definitely,
it is generally possible to select from the tabulated values a PU impedance
which will be reasonably correct.
When impedance in ohms is specified in an equivalent circuit, each impedance

must be referred to the same circuit by multiplying it by the square of the ratio of
rated voltages of the two sides of a transformer. The PU impedance, once
expressed in proper base, remains same either referring from HT side or LT side.
The way in which transformers are connected in three phase circuits does not
affect the PU impedances of the equivalent circuit, although the transformer
connection does determine the relation between the voltage bases on the two
sides of the transformer.
Two winding Transformer Parameter Conversions:
By
Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of a piece of apparatus in percent or per

on the base of the nameplate rating. It is converted to common base using MVA rating
and the voltage rating of transformer. Sometimes the voltage ratings of the transformer
does not match exactly with the base voltage on their respective sides, in case the
transformer parameters are converted to the base values of voltage and MVA. To begin
with, assuming that transformer tap is on primary side ( HV side ), the given impedance
is converted to common base as;
Znewpu = { (Zoldpu)*(MVAnew / MVAold)*(Rated kVsec / Base kVsec)2 }

If the transformer parameters are given in actual units (ohms). Then the values are
converted to common base as;
Zpu = (Zohms)*(Base MVA / BasekV2)

Base kV is the voltage referred to the side at which measurements are made.
The transformer R/X ratio is used to separate the transformer resistance and reactance
values from the impedance. If number of units are in parallel then the effective
equivalent impedance is computed by dividing the impedance by units.
X = [ {Z2 / { 1 + ( R / X )2 }} / Units ]
R = (X)*(R / X)
The minimum tap value is computed as;
Tapmin(pu) = [ { VTap min kV / Base kVpri }*{ Base kVsec / Rated kVsec } ]
The maximum tap value is computed as;
Tapmax(pu) = [ { VTap max kV / Base kVpri }*{ Base kVsec / Rated kVsec } ]
The tap step value (pu) is computed as;
Tap step(pu) = [ { VTap max kV VTap min kV } / { NTap max NTap min } ]
Nominal tap value (pu) is computed as;
Tap nom = [ { VTap min kV + { ( NTap nom NTap min )*Tap step kV } } ]*[ Base kV sec / Rated kV sec ]
The vector groups shows the connection of phases of two windings of a transformer and
the numerical index for the phase displacement of the vectors of the two star-voltages.
The numerical index shows by what multiples of 30o the low voltage vector lags ( anticlockwise rotation of vectors ) behind the high voltage vector with the corresponding
terminal designation. For example the groups are interpreted as;
Vector Group Dy5 High voltage in Delta and low voltage in star connection.
Vector Group Yz11 High voltage in Star and low voltage in zigzag connection.
By
The transformer vector group information is required for 3-phase load flow and
unbalanced fault studies. The different vector groups used are;
Star with neutral isolated.

Star with neutral grounded.
Star with neutral impedance.
Delta connected.
The zero sequence impedances differ greatly depending on the type of connection and
the construction of the transformers. Conductors connected to transformer windings with
delta connection or with star with an insulated neutral point cannot carry a zero
sequence current. The zero sequence impedance is therefore infinite. When the neutral
point of star winding is earthed or connected, zero sequence can flow in the associated
system. If the transformer is star connected on primary side and delta connected on
secondary side, then shunt impedance will exists from primary node to ground and viceversa.
The neutral impedance given in ohms, converted to common base as;
Base Zpri = ( Base kVpri2 / Base MVA ) in Ohm

Base Zsec = ( Base kVsec2 / Base MVA ) in Ohm
Rpu neutral pri = ( ROhm neutral pri / Base Z pri )
Rpu neutral sec = ( ROhms neutral sec / Base Zsec )
EXAMPLE:
Rated MVA
Primary Voltage
Secondary Voltage
Positive sequence impedance
Zero sequence impedance
TAPmin
TAPmax
TAPnormal
Minimum TAP Voltage
Maximum TAP Voltage
Neutral Rpri = Rsec
Connection
= 315
= 420 kV
= 240 kV
= 0.125PU or 12.5%
= 0.100PU or 10%
= 1.0
= 17.0
= 12.0
= 360 kV
= 440 kV
= 2.0 Ohm.
= YnYn0
The transformer is connected to a bus on HT side with voltage 400 kV and on LT side is
connected to a bus with voltage 220 kV. Hence primary base voltage = 400 kV and the
secondary base voltage is 220 kV.
The common base MVA = 100
Zpositive seq. in PU
= (%Z / 100)*(Base MVA / Rated MVA)*(Rated kV / Base kV)2

= (12.5 / 100)*(100 / 315)*(240/220)2
By
= 0.047225 PU
Xpositive seq. in PU
Rpositive seq. in PU
= [ {Z2 / { 1 + ( R / X )2 }} / Units ]
= [ {(0.047225)2 } / { 1 + (0.05)2 } ]
= 0.047166 PU
= (0.04766 * 0.05)
= 0.002358 PU
Zzero seq. in PU

= (10 / 100)*(100 / 315)*(240/220)2
= 0.0377804 PU
Xzero seq. in PU
= [ {Z2 / { 1 + ( R / X )2 }} / Units ]
= [ {(0.0377804)2 } / { 1 + (0.05)2 } ]
= 0.0377332 PU
Rzero seq. in PU
= (0.0377332 * 0.05)
= 0.00188666 PU
= [ { 360 / 400 }*{ 220 / 240 } ]
= 0.82500 PU
= [ { 440 / 400 }*{ 220 / 240 } ]
= 1.00833 PU
= [ { 440 360 } / { (17 1)*400 } ]
= 0.0125 PU
= [ { 360 + { (12 1)*5 } } / 400 ]*[ 220 / 240 ]
= 0.95104 PU
The neutral impedance values are computed as;

= ( 400 )2 / 100
= 1600 Ohm.
= ( 220 )2 / 100
= 484 Ohm.
= ( 2 / 1600 )
= 0.00125 PU
By

= ( 2 / 484 )
= 0.004132 PU
Three Winding Transformer Parameter Conversions:
The MVA rating of a two-winding transformer is same on primary and secondary side,
whereas all the three windings of a three winding transformer may have different MVA
ratings. The impedance of each winding of a three-winding transformer may be given in
percent or PU based on the rating of its own winding. The transformer impedance
values, which are measured by short circuit test, are
Impedance measured in primary with secondary short circuited and tertiary open
(Z ps).
Impedance measured in primary with tertiary short circuited and secondary open
(Z pt).
Impedance measured in secondary with tertiary short circuited and primary open
(Z st).
If the three impedances measured in Ohms are referred to the voltage of one of the
windings, the impedance of each separate winding referred to that same winding are
related to the measured impedances as;
Z ps = Zp + Zs
Z pt = Zp + Zt
Zst = Zs + Zt
Where Zp, Zs, and Zt are the impedance of primary, secondary and tertiary windings
referred to primary circuit. If Zps, Zpt, Zst are the measured impedances refer to primary
circuit, the real and reactive parts are separated as;
X ps = [ { Z ps2 } / {( R / X ps )2 + 1} ] / Units
X pt = [ { Z pt2 } / {( R / X pt )2 + 1} ] / Units
X st = [ { Z st2 } / {( R / X st )2 + 1} ] / Units
Solving the above impedance simultaneous equations for Rp, Rs, & Rt, Xp, Xs & Xt
yields,
Rp = [ R ps + R pt R st ] / 2
Rs = [ R ps + R st R pt ] / 2
Rt = [ R pt + R st R ps ] / 2
Xp = [ X ps + X pt X st ] / 2
By
Xs = [ X ps + X st X pt ] / 2
Xt = [ X pt + X st X ps ] / 2
The impedance of the three windings are connected in star (Y) to represent the single
phase equivalent circuit of the three winding transformer. Since the ohmic values of the
impedances must be referred to the same voltage, it follows that conversion to PU
requires the same MVA base for all the three circuits and requires voltage bases in three
circuits of the transformer.
The neutral impedances, if present is converted to per unit values on common base as;
Base Z pri = ( Base kV pri )2 / Base MVA

Base Z sec = ( Base kV sec )2 / Base MVA
Base Z ter = ( Base kV ter )2 / Base MVA
Rpu neutral pri = Rohm neural pri / Base Z pri
Rpu neutral sec = Rohm neutral sec / Base Z sec
Rpu neutral ter = Rohm neutral ter / Base Z ter
EXAMPLE:
Rated Primary MVA
Primary Voltage
Rated Secondary MVA
Secondary Voltage
Rated tertiary MVA
Tertiary Voltage
Zps
RX-Ratio-ps
Zpt
RX-Ratio-pt
Zst
RX-Ratio-st
TAPmin
TAPmax
TAPnormal
Minimum TAP Voltage
Maximum TAP Voltage
Rpri = Rsec = Rtertiary
Connection
= 15
= 66 kV
= 10
= 13.2 kV
= 5.0
= 2.3 kV
= 7% on 15 MVA, 66 kV
= 0.05
= 9% on 15 MVA, 66 kV
= 0.05
= 8% on 15 MVA, 66 kV
= 0.05
= 1.0
= 17.0
= 12.0
= 59.4 kV
= 72.6 kV
= 2.0 Ohm.
= YYnYn0
Assuming the common base values as 15MVA and 66 kV. First step is to convert all the
impedance to common base on primary side. Zps & Zpt are measured at primary
ratings, need no conversion while the Zst measured at different ratings it is converted to
common base values as;
By
Zst in PU

= (8.0 / 100)*(15 / 10)*(13.2 / 13.2 )2
= 0.12 PU
Zps in PU

= (7.0 / 100)*(15 / 15)*(13.2 / 13.2 )2
= 0.07 PU
Zpt in PU

= (9.0 / 100)*(15 / 15)*(13.2 / 13.2 )2
= 0.09 PU
X ps = [ { Z ps2 } / {( R / X ps )2 + 1} ] / Units
= [ { (0.07)2 } / {( 0.05 )2 + 1} ] / Units
= 0.06991 PU
X pt = [ { Z pt2 } / {( R / X pt )2 + 1} ] / Units
= [ { (0.09)2 } / {(0.05)2 + 1} ] / Units
= 0.0898877 PU
X st = [ { Z st2 } / {( R / X st )2 + 1} ] / Units
= [ { (0.12)2 } / {(0.05)2 + 1} ] / Units
= 0.1198503 PU
Rst = Xst * RXRatio-st
= 0.1198503 * 0.05
= 0.0059925 PU
Rps = Xps * RXRatio-ps
= 0.06991 * 0.05
= 0.0034955 PU
Rpt = Xpt * RXRatio-pt
= 0.0898877 * 0.05
= 0.00449438 PU
Rp = [ R ps + R pt R st ] / 2
= [ 0.0034955 + 0.00449438 0.0059925 ] / 2
= 0.00099865 PU
Rs = [ R ps + R st R pt ] / 2
= [ 0.0034955 + 0.0059925 0.00449438 ] / 2
= 0.00249685 PU
Rt = [ R pt + R st R ps ] / 2
= [ 0.00449438 + 0.0059925 0.0034955 ] / 2
By
= 0.00349565 PU
Xp = [ X ps + X pt X st ] / 2
= [ 0.06991 + 0.0898877 0.1198503 ] / 2
= 0.0199737 PU
Xs = [ X ps + X st X pt ] / 2
= [ 0.06991 + 0.1198503 0.0898877 ] / 2
= 0.0499363 PU
Xt = [ X pt + X st X ps ] / 2
= [ 0.0898877 + 0.1198503 0.06991 ] / 2
= 0.069914 PU
= [ { 59.4 / 66 }*{ 13.2 / 13.2 } ]
= 0.9 PU
= [ { 72.6 / 66 }*{ 13.2 / 13.2 } ]
= 1.10 PU
= [ { 72.6 59.4 } / { (17 1)*66 } ]
= 0.0125 PU
= [ { 59.4 + { (12 1)*0.825 } } / 66 ]*[ 13.2 / 13.2 ]
= 1.0375 PU
The neutral impedance values are computed as;

= ( 66 )2 / 15
= 290.4 Ohm.
= ( 13.2 )2 / 15
= 11.616 Ohm.
Base Zter = ( Base kVter2 / Base MVA ) in Ohm
= ( 2.3 )2 / 15
= 0.35267 Ohm.
= ( 2 / 290.4 )
= 0.00688 PU
10
By

= ( 2 / 11.616 )
= 0.172176 PU
Rpu neutral ter = ( ROhms neutral ter / Base Zter )
= ( 2 / 0.35267 )
= 5.671 PU
Transmission Line Parameter Conversions:
For a transmission line, line resistance, reactance and the susceptance of the line are
given in actual units (Ohms) per km length of the line per circuit. Zero sequence
impedance denotes the impedance of zero sequence system of a three phase line per
phase in which equal and in-phase currents are flowing through the three phase
conductors of the system. The operative zero sequence impedance is affected by,
among other things, the electrical conductivity of the earth and the presence of earth
wires. The same formule are used for both positive and zero sequence parameter
conversion. The line positive sequence parameters are converted to per unit on common
base values as;
Base Z = ( Base kV )2 / Base MVA

R1pu = ( R1ohm / Base Z )*( Length / Circuits )
X1pu = ( X1ohm / Base Z )*( Length / Circuits )
B1pu = ( B1mho * Base Z )*( Length * Circuits )
EXAMPLE:
Number of Circuits
= 1.0
Length of Line
= 181km.
Positive sequence R
= 0.0288864 Ohm/km.
Zero sequence R
= 0.072216 Ohm/km.
Positive sequence X
= 0.32704 Ohm/km.
Zero sequence X
= 0.8176 Ohm/km.
Positive sequence B
= 1.78087E-06 mho/km.
Zero sequence B
= 1.52374E-06 mho/km.
Common base MVA = 100 and Base voltage = 400.0 kV.
Base Z = ( Base kV )2 / Base MVA

= ( 400 )2 / 100
= 1600 Ohm.
R1pos. pu = ( R1ohm / Base Z )*( Length / Circuits )
= ( 0.0288864 / 1600 )*(181 / 1)
= 0.003267 PU
X1pos.pu = ( X1ohm / Base Z )*( Length / Circuits )
11
By
= ( 0.32704 / 1600 )*(181 / 1)

= 0.03699 PU
B1pos.pu = ( B1mho * Base Z )*( Length * Circuits )
= (1.78087E-06 * 1600)*(181*1)
= 0.51574 PU
R1zero. pu = ( R0ohm / Base Z )*( Length / Circuits )
= ( 0.072216 / 1600 )*(181 / 1)
= 0.008169 PU
X1zero.pu = ( X0ohm / Base Z )*( Length / Circuits )
= ( 0.8176 / 1600 )*(181 / 1)
= 0.09249 PU
B1zero.pu = ( B0mho * Base Z )*( Length * Circuits )
= (1.52374E-06 * 1600)*(181*1)
= 0.44127 PU
Motor Parameter Conversions:
The induction motor parameters are given in PU on its own rating. The motor is
represented as a shunt impedance between node to which motor is connected and
ground. The shunt impedance value is obtained after simplifying the exact equivalent
circuit as shown in fig below. The motor parameters are converted to common base by
using formula.
Rmotor = Rold ( Base kV old / Base kV new )2*( MVA new / MVA old )
Rmotor = Rmotor / Units
Xmotor = Xold ( Base kV old / Base kV new )2*(MVA new / MVA old )
Xmotor = Xmotor / Units
By using above formula, stator resistance, rotor resistance, stator reactance, rotor
reactance and magnetizing reactance are converted to common base. On simplifying the
equivalent circuit, we obtain equations for the equivalent resistance and reactance as
denoted below;
Rmotorq = Rstator + [ { ( Slip * Rrotor * ( Xmag )2 ) } / { Rrotor2 + ( Slip2 ( Xrotor + Xmag )2 } ]
2
Xmotorq = Xstator + [ ( Rrotor *Xmag ) + ( Slip *Xrotor*Xmag ( Xrotor + Xmag ) ) ] / [ Rrotor + ( Slip ( Xrotor + Xmag ) ) ]
Type of motor winding connection is used for zero sequence network calculations only.
The motor neutral impedance, value is converted to common base and 3-times of it is
added to the zero sequence impedance value of the motor to get the effective zero
sequence impedance.
EXAMPLE:
12
By
Number of Units
= 1.0
Voltage Rating
= 2.3 kV
Rating
= 1.6785 MW, 0.8 P.F.
Stator resistance
= 0.029 Ohm.
Stator reactance
= 0.226 Ohm.
Rotor resistance
= 0.022 Ohm.
Rotor reactance
= 0.226 Ohm.
Magnetizing reactance
= 13.04 Ohm.
Winding type
= Delta.
Common base = 100 MVA and base volt = 2.3 kV.
Motor Zbase = (Base kV)2 / (Base MVA)
= (2.3)2 / (2.098125)
= 2.5213 Ohm.
Rstator = Rold ( Base kV old / Base kV new )2*( MVA new / MVA old )
= (0.029 / 2.5213)*( 2.3 / 2.3 )2 *(100 / 2.098125)
= 0.5482 PU.
Xstator = Xold ( Base kV old / Base kV new )2*(MVA new / MVA old )
= (0.226 / 2.5213)*( 2.3 / 2.3 )2 *(100 / 2.098125)
= 4.2722 PU.
Rrotor = Rold ( Base kV old / Base kV new )2*( MVA new / MVA old )
= (0.022 / 2.5213)*( 2.3 / 2.3 )2 *(100 / 2.098125)
= 0.41588 PU.
Xrotor = Xold ( Base kV old / Base kV new )2*(MVA new / MVA old )
= (0.226 / 2.5213)*( 2.3 / 2.3 )2 *(100 / 2.098125)
= 4.2722 PU.
Xmagnetizing = Xold ( Base kV old / Base kV new )2*(MVA new / MVA old )
= (13.04 / 2.5213)*( 2.3 / 2.3 )2 *(100 / 2.098125)
= 246.504 PU.
Rmotorq = Rstator + [ { ( Slip * Rrotor * ( Xmag )2 ) } / { Rrotor2 + ( Slip2 ( Xrotor + Xmag )2 } ]
= 0.5482 + [{ (0.0077*0.41588*(246.504)2 )} / {(0.41588)2 + ( (0.0077)2 ( 4.2722 + 246.504)2 }]
= 50.010 PU.
2
Xmotorq = Xstator + [ ( Rrotor *Xmag ) + ( Slip *Xrotor*Xmag ( Xrotor + Xmag ) ) ] / [ Rrotor + ( Slip ( Xrotor + Xmag ) ) ]
2
2
2
2
= 4.2722+[ (0.41588 *246.504)+(0.0077 *4.2722*246.504 (4.2722+246.504))] / [ 0.41588 (4.2722+246.504) ) ]
= 19.215899 PU.
Series Reactor Parameter Conversions:

The reactors are used as branch elements to limit the current during fault conditions, to
cyclic voltage fluctuations caused by repetitive loads (Cyclic loads) in conjunction with
condensers and to limit the motor starting currents. The series reactor resistance and
reactance values are given in PU on its own rating. The values are converted to
common base as:
13
By
R new = (R old)* (Base kV old / Base kV new)2* (MVA new / MVA old)
X new = (X old)* (Base kV old / Base kV new)2* (MVA new / MVA old)
EXAMPLE:
Rated Voltage = 11 kV.
Rated Current = 262 Amp.
kVar = 256.
Reactor MVA = 1.7325 * 11*262 = 5 MVA
X in Ohm = (kVar) / (3* I2)
= (256*1000) / (3*2622)
= 1.2431 Ohm/Phase
X in PU = (1.2431 *5) / (11)2
= 0.0514 PU
Common base MVA = 100, Base Voltage = 11kV.

Rreactor = 0.0 PU.
Xreactor = (0.514)*(100/5)*(11/11)2
= 1.028 PU
Shunt Capacitor Parameter Conversions:

The shunt capacitor banks are used extensively to correct power factors and as results,
improve voltage regulation at the point of connection. The shunt capacitor conductance
and susceptance values are given in PU on its own rating. The values are converted to
common base as:
G new = (G old)* (Base kV new / Base kV old)2 * (MVA old / MVA new)
B new = (B old)* (Base kV new / Base kV old)2 * (MVA old / MVA new)
Series Capacitor Parameter Conversions:
The series capacitors are sometimes used on transmission and distribution lines to
compensate for the inductive reactance drop or to improve the system stability by
increasing the amount of power that can be transmitted on tie lines. The series capacitor
conductance and susceptance values are given in PU on its own rating. The values are
converted to common base as:
G new = (G old)* (Base kV new / Base kV old)2 * (MVA old / MVA new)
All series elements are molded in impedance form, hence the parameters are converted
to impedance form by inverting the admittance.
R pu = (G pu) / (G2 pu + B2 pu)

14
By
X pu = (B pu) / (G2 pu + B2 pu)

Shunt Reactor Parameter Conversions:
The shunt reactor resistance and reactance values are given in PU on its own rating.
The values are converted to common base as:
R new = (R old)* (Base kV old / Base kV new)2* (MVA new / MVA old)
X new = (X old)* (Base kV old / Base kV new)2* (MVA new / MVA old)
All shunt elements are molded in admittance form; its data is converted to admittance
form by using the formula-
G pu = (R pu) / (R2 pu + X2 pu)

B pu = (X pu) / (R2 pu + X2 pu)
Generator Parameter Conversions:
The generator resistance, direct axis sub-transient & transient reactance, quadrature
axis sub-transient & transient reactance etc., is specified in PU on its own rating. The
reactance values are converted to PU on common base as:
R gen = (R old)* (Base kV old / Base kV new)2* (MVA new / MVA old)
R gen = (R gen) / Units
X gen = (X old)* (Base kV old / Base kV new)2* (MVA new / MVA old)
X gen = (X gen) / Units
X 2(Neg.) = (X d + X q) / 2
T d = (X d / Xd)* T do, T do = Transient OC time constant
T q = T d / 2
T a = (X 2(Neg.)) / (w*Ra), Ra = Stator Resistance in Ohm.
By using the above formula, the Sub-transient, Transient, & Steady-state direct axis
reactance, negative sequence reactance and the zero sequence reactance values are
converted to PU on common base.
The generator specified voltage is in actual units (kV). It is converted to PU by dividing it
by the base voltage.
15
By
V gen pu = (V gen kV) / (Base kV)

Type of generator winding connection is used for zero sequence network calculations
only. The neutral impedance is given in actual units (Ohms), it is converted to PU on
common base as:
Base Z = (Base kV)2 / (Base MVA)

R neutral pu = (R neutral Ohms) / (Base Z)
The generator neutral impedance value is converted to common base and 3 times of it is
added to the zero sequence impedance value of the generator to get the effective zero
sequence impedance.
Tdo = No load time constant determines the excitation and de-magnetisation with Open
stator circuit.
Td = Sub-transient time constant determines the excitation and de-magnetization with
three phase short circuit.
Td = Transient time constant determines the excitation and de-magnetization with three
phase short circuit.
EXAMPLE:
Number of units = 1.0
Voltage Rating = 11.0 kV
Rated MVA = 260 MVA
Positive sequence resistance = 0.00154 PU.
Steady state direct axis reactance = 2.22 PU.
Transient direct axis reactance = 0.265 PU.
Negative sequence reactance = 0.225 PU.
Zero sequence reactance = 0.125 PU.
Winding connection = Star connection.
Neutral resistance = 2.0 Ohms.
Neutral reactance = 0.0 Ohms.
Common base = 100 MVA and base voltage = 11 kV.
R gen = (R old)* (Base kV old / Base kV new)2* (MVA new / MVA old)
= (0.00154)*(11 / 11)2* (100 / 260)
= 0.00059 PU.
X gen pos. = (X old)* (Base kV old / Base kV new)2* (MVA new / MVA old)
= (2.22)*(11 / 11)2* (100 / 260)
= 0.8538 PU.
X gen Neg. = (X old)* (Base kV old / Base kV new)2* (MVA new / MVA old)
= (0.225)*(11 / 11)2* (100 / 260)
= 0.08654 PU
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X d = (X old)* (Base kV old / Base kV new)2* (MVA new / MVA old)

= (0.265)*(11 / 11)2* (100 / 260)
= 0.10192 PU.
Base Impedance = (Base Voltage)2 / Base MVA
= (11)2 / 100
= 3.24 Ohm.
Generator technical data-sheet of Brush Electric Machine, USA are as shown below
which is installed in Search-Chem industries ltd, Bharuch;
Rated MVA
= 35
Terminal Voltage
= 11.0kV
Frequency
= 50Hz
Speed
= 3000RPM
Power Factor
= 0.85
Applicable national standard
= IEC 34-3
Rated Air inlet temperature
= 15 deg.
Unsaturated Direct axis Synchronous Reactance (Xd)
= 243.9%
Saturated Direct axis Synchronous Reactance (Xd)
= 243.9%
Saturated Direct axis Transient Reactance (Xd)
= 25.1%
Unsaturated Direct axis Transient Reactance (Xd)
= 33.9%
Saturated Direct axis Sub-transient Reactance (Xd)
= 18%
Unsaturated Direct axis Sub-transient Reactance (Xd)
= 24.1%
Unsaturated Quadrature axis Synchronous Reactance (Xq) = 224.1%
Saturated Quadrature axis Synchronous Reactance (Xq) = 224.1%
Unsaturated Quadrature axis Transient Reactance (Xq) = 48.2%
Saturated Quadrature axis Sub-transient Reactance (Xq) = 17.7%
Unsaturated Quadrature axis Sub-transient Reactance (Xq) = 24.1%
Saturated Negative sequence Reactance (X2)
= 17.3%
Unsaturated Negative sequence Reactance (X2)
= 23.2%
Saturated Zero Sequence Reactance (X0)
= 10.2%
Unsaturated Zero Sequence Reactance (X0)
= 12.9%
Leakage Reactance, Overexcited (XLM,OEX)
= 21.2%
Leakage Reactance, Underexcited (XLM,UEX)
= 21.2%
Short Circuit Ratio
= 0.43
Open Circuit Time constant (Td0)
= 6.016second
3-ph Short-circuit transient time constant (Td3)
= 0.620second
Line to Line short-circuit transient time constant (Td2)
= 0.975second
Line to Neutral short-circuit transient time constant (Td1) = 1.165second
Short-circuit sub-transient time constant (Td)
= 0.015second
Open Circuit Sub-transient time constant (Td0)
= 0.021second
Open Circuit Time constant (Tq0)
= 0.522second
3-ph Short-circuit transient time constant (Tq)
= 0.522second
Short-circuit sub-transient time constant (Tq)
= 0.015second
Open Circuit Sub-transient time constant (Tq0)
= 0.041second
Generator technical data-sheet of Brush Electric Machine, USA are as shown below
which is installed in Search-Chem industries ltd, Bharuch;
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Rated MVA
Terminal Voltage
Frequency
Speed
Power Factor
Rated Air inlet temperature
Saturated Direct axis Transient Reactance (Xd)
Short Circuit Ratio
= 60
= 11.0kV
= 50Hz
= 3000RPM
= 0.85
= IEC 34-3
= 15 deg.
= 257%
= 22.7%
= 15.9%
= 10.4%
= 19.4%
= 0.41
Generator technical data-sheet of ALSTOM Electric Machine, UK are as shown below

which is installed in Sanghi industries ltd, Kuttch;
Rated MVA
= 15
Terminal Voltage
= 11.0kV
Frequency
= 50Hz
Speed
= 600RPM
Power Factor
= 0.80
= IEC 60034
Ambient temperature
= 50 deg.
= 169.4%
Saturated Direct axis Synchronous Reactance (Xd)
=Saturated Direct axis Transient Reactance (Xd)
= 28.1%
Unsaturated Direct axis Transient Reactance (Xd)
= 34.7%
= 18.7%
Unsaturated Direct axis Sub-transient Reactance (Xd)
= 23.1%
Unsaturated Quadrature axis Synchronous Reactance (Xq) = 100.2%
Saturated Quadrature axis Synchronous Reactance (Xq) = Saturated Quadrature axis Sub-transient Reactance (Xq) = 21.5%
Unsaturated Quadrature axis Sub-transient Reactance (Xq)= 25.6%
Unsaturated Zero Sequence Resistance (R0)
= 24.5%
= 6.5%
= 0.914%
Short Circuit Ratio

Open Circuit Time constant (Td0)
3-ph Short-circuit transient time constant (Td)
3-ph Short-circuit saturated transient time constant (Td)
Short-circuit sub-transient time constant (Td)
Short-circuit saturated sub-transient time constant (Td)
Maximum kVAr available at zero p.f. under-excited
Maximum kVAr available at zero p.f. over-excited
Over speed
= 0.637
= 3.63second
= 0.743second
= 0.590second
= 0.05second
= 0.035second
= 0.51 PU
= 0.76 PU
= 720RPM
Typical Parameters Considered for fault study:
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Generator:
Transient (Xd) or sub-transient (Xd) reactance is considered for positive
sequence.
Negative sequence reactance which is approximately equal to (Xd).
Zero sequence reactance, which is comparatively small around 0.1 to 0.7 times
of (Xd).
Assume Short Circuit Ratio = 1 / Xd while value of Xd is not given in data-sheet
Transformer:
* Positive sequence, Negative sequence, & Zero sequence impedances are equal.
Per Unit (PU) and Percentage Quantity (%):

Per Unit Quantity = Percentage Quantity / 100
Quantity => Voltage, Current, MVA, Impedance

E.g. Z = 10% => Z = 0.10 PU; V = 105% => V = 1.05PU
Per Unit Computation is slightly advantageous over percentage computation.
Product of two quantities expressed in PU. Result also in PU.
Product of two quantities expressed in percent. Result shall be divided by 100 to
get percent.
Fault level calculations are generally performed using PU only.
Per Unit Quantity:
Q(PU) = Q (ACTUAL) / Q (BASE)

e.g. Vbase = 6.6kV; Vactual = 3.3kV; => V = 0.5 PU
e.g. Pbase = 100 MVA; Pactual = 200 MW; => P = 2 PU
Choosing Base:
In general, MVA (3-ph) & Voltage (L to L) chosen as base
Base Current = Base MVA / 1.7325 * Base Voltage
Base Impedance = Base Voltage / 1.7325 * Base Current
= {Base Voltage / (1.7325 * Base MVA / 1.7325 * Base Voltage) }
= (Base Voltage)2 / Base MVA
Base Voltage changes on either side of Transformer:
Choose Base Voltage as 11 kV and Base Power as 100 MVA

Let there be 11 / 132 kV Transformer.
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On the HT side of Transformer, base voltage is Automatically 132 kV.

You can not independently choose another base voltage on other side of
Transformer.
Base Power is 100 MVA on either side of Transformer.
On Low voltage side:

Base voltage = 11 kV (Always L to L )
Base MVA = 100 (Always 3-ph Power)
Base Current = 100 / 1.7325 * 11 = 5.2486 kA
Base Impedance = (11)2 / 100 = 1.21 Ohms
On High voltage side:
Base Voltage = 132 kV (Always L to L)
Base MVA = 100 (Always 3-ph Power)
Base Current = 100 / 1.7325 * 132 = 0.4374 kA
Base Impedance = (132)2 / 100 = 174.24 Ohms
Advantages of Calculations in Per Unit System:
Per Unit Impedance of Transformer is same whether referred to Primary or
Secondary.
e.g. 11 / 33 kV, 50 MVA, Z = 10% (0.1PU)
In PU, Z = 0.1 on either 11 kV or 33 kV side

In Ohms, on 11 kV side:
Z base = (Base Voltage)2 / Base MVA = (11)2 / 50 = 2.42 Ohms

Z 11 = (Z base * Z pu) = (2.42)* (0.1) = 0.242 Ohms.
On 33 kV side:

Z 33 = (Z base* Z pu) = (21.78)* (0.1) = 2.178 Ohms
Per Unit Impedance lie within a Narrow Band while Ohmic values can be
widely different.
Transformer 415 V to 400 kV and 500 kVA to 500 MVA.
Z lies between 5% (0.05PU) to 15% (0.15PU)
Generator 1 MVA to 500 MVA,
Xd lies between 20% (0.2PU) to 30% (0.3PU)
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PU = only realistic way to solve big and practical problems.
Basic Considerations of Short-Circuit Calculations:

Why Short-Circuit Calculations?
Several sections of the National Electrical Code relate to proper over-current protection.
Safe and reliable application of over-current protective devices based on these sections
mandate that a short circuit study and a selective coordination study be conducted.
The protection for an electrical system should not only be safe under all service
conditions but, to insure continuity of service, it should be selectively coordinated as
well. A coordinated system is one where only the faulted circuit is isolated without
disturbing any other part of the system. Over-current protection devices should also
provide short-circuit as well as overload protection for system components, such as bus,
wire, motor controllers, etc.
To obtain reliable, coordinated operation and assure that system components are
protected from damage, it is necessary to first calculate the available fault current at
various critical points in the electrical system.
Once the short-circuit levels are determined, the engineer can specify proper interrupting
rating requirements, selectively coordinate the system and provide component
protection.
General Comments on Short-Circuit Calculations:
Short Circuit Calculations should be done at all critical points in the system.
These would include:
- Service Entrance
- Panel Boards
- Motor Control Centers
- Motor Starters
- Transfer Switches
- Load Centers
Normally, short circuit studies involve calculating a bolted 3-phase fault condition. This
can be characterized as all three phases bolted together to create a zero impedance
connection. This establishes a worst case condition that results in maximum thermal
and mechanical stress in the system. From this calculation, other types of fault
conditions can be obtained.
Sources of short circuit current that are normally taken under consideration include:
- Utility Generation
- Local Generation
- Synchronous Motors and
- Induction Motors
Capacitor discharge currents can normally be neglected due to their short time duration.
Certain IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) publications detail how to
calculate these currents if they are substantial.
Asymmetrical Components:
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Short circuit current normally takes on an asymmetrical characteristic during the first few
cycles of duration. That is, it is offset about the zero axis, as indicated in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
In Figure 2, note that the total short-circuit current Ia is the summation of two
components - the symmetrical RMS current IS, and the DC component, IDC. The DC
component is a function of the stored energy within the system at the initiation of the
short circuit. It decays to zero after a few cycles due to I2R losses in the system, at which
point the short circuit current is symmetrical about the zero axis. The RMS value of the
symmetrical component may be determined using Ohms Law. To determine the
asymmetrical component, it is necessary to know the X/R ratio of the system. To obtain
the X/R ratio, the total resistance and total reactance of the circuit to the point of fault
must be determined. Maximum thermal and mechanical stress on the equipment occurs
during these first few cycles. It is important to concentrate on what happens during the
first half cycle after the initiation of the fault.
Figure 2.
Where,
Ia = Asymmetrical RMS Fault Current in kA.
IDC = DC component depend on X/R in kA
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Is = Asymmetrical RMS Fault Current in kA.

Ip = Instantaneous Peak Current in kA.
Figure 2 illustrates a worst case waveform that 1 phase of the 3 phase system will
assume during the first few cycles after the fault initiation.
The key portions are:
- Symmetrical RMS Short Circuit Current = Is
- Instantaneous Peak Current = Ip
- Asymmetrical RMS Short Circuit Current
(worst case single phase) = Ia
Interrupting Rating, Interrupting Capacity and Short-Circuit Currents:
Interrupting Rating can be defined as the maximum short-circuit current that a protective
device can safely clear, under specified test conditions.
Interrupting Capacity can be defined as the actual short circuit current that a protective
device has been tested to interrupt.
Interrupting Rating:
Equipment intended to break current at fault levels shall have an interrupting rating
sufficient for the system voltage and the current, which is available at the line terminals
of the equipment.
Available Short-Circuit Current:
Service Equipment shall be suitable for the short circuit current available at its supply
terminals.
Low voltage fuses have their interrupting rating expressed in terms of the symmetrical
component of short-circuit current, IS. They are given an RMS symmetrical interrupting
rating at a specific power factor. This means that the fuse can interrupt any asymmetrical
current associated with this rating. Thus only the symmetrical component of short-circuit
current need be considered to determine the necessary interrupting rating of a low
voltage fuse. For U.L. listed low voltage fuses, interrupting rating equals its interrupting
capacity.
Low voltage molded case circuit breakers also have their interrupting rating expressed in
terms of RMS symmetrical amperes at a specific power factor. However, it is necessary
to determine a molded case circuit breakers interrupting capacity in order to safely apply
it. The reader is directed to Buss bulletin PMCB II for an understanding of this concept.
Three Phase fault through Impedance:
Fault MVA = Base MVA / (Z1 + Zf)
Ia1 = Fault MVA / 1.7325*(Rated kV), Ia2 = 0, Ia0 = 0
Let, Ia1 = Positive sequence Fault Current in kA,
Ia2 = Negative sequence Fault Current in kA
Ia0 = Zero sequence Fault Current in kA
Z1 = Positive sequence impedance in PU.
Zf = Fault impedance in PU.
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Example: (Z1 + Zf) = 0.2 PU., Base MVA = 15, Rated kV = 11, Base kV = 11.
PU method:
Step:-1
Fault MVA = 15 / 0.2 = 75 MVA
Step:-2
Ia1 = 75 / 1.7325*(11) = 3.93kA.
Ohm method:
Step:-1
Find Base Impedance value in Ohm

Step:-2
Find Z value in Ohm
Z in Ohm
= (Z base * Z pu) = (8.066)* (0.2) = 1.613 Ohms.
Step:-3
Find Fault current
Ia1 = Rated kV / 1.7325*(Z
in Ohm)
= 3.93kA.
Single-line to ground fault:

(Z1 + Z2 + Z0) = (Z1 + Z2 + Z0) / 3
Fault MVA = Base MVA / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)
Ia0 = Fault MVA / 1.7325*(Rated kV)
Let, Ia1 = Positive sequence Fault Current in kA,
Ia2 = Negative sequence Fault Current in kA
Ia0 = Zero sequence Fault Current in kA
Z1 = Positive sequence impedance in PU.
Zf = Fault impedance in PU.
Example: Z1 = 1.35 PU., Z2 = 1.35 PU, Z0 = 1.0 PU, Base MVA = 100, Rated kV = 6.6,
Base kV = 6.6.
PU method:
Step:-1
(Z1 + Z2 + Z0) = (Z1 + Z2 + Z0) / 3 = (1.35 + 1.35 + 1.0) / 3 = 1.23 PU
Step:-1
Fault MVA = 100 / 1.23 = 81.30 MVA
Step:-2
Ia0 = 81.30 / 1.7325*(6.6) = 7.11kA.
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Ohm method:
Step:-1
Find Base Impedance value in Ohm
Z base = (Base Voltage)2 / Base MVA = (6.6)2 / 100 = 0.4356 Ohms

Step:-2
Find Z value in Ohm
Z in Ohm
= (Z base * Z pu) = (0.4356)* (1.23) = 0.5357 Ohms.
Step:-3
Find Fault current
Ia1 = Rated kV / 1.7325*(Z
in Ohm)
= 7.11kA.
Sudden three-phase short circuit on an unloaded synchronous generator:

A sudden three-phase short circuit on an initially unloaded synchronous generator will
have several types of current components: a unidirectional (or DC) transient current, an
AC transient current, and an AC steady state current. Upon close examination, the AC
transient current is seen to decay first rapidly, then more slowly. The initial rapid decay is
called the sub-transient (Xd) part and the slower decay is called the transient part. The
AC component is symmetrical, since all three phases will have essentially the same
RMS current values at any time, but the DC transients are asymmetrical. Thus the
symmetrical short-circuit current excludes the DC terms and the asymmetrical current
includes both the AC and the DC terms.
Figure 2.1.1 shows plots that resemble actual short-circuit currents in the three armature
phases. The phase a current is completely offset in the negative direction, while the b
and c phase currents are offset half as much in the positive direction. The exact offsets
will depend on the instant at which the fault occurs relative to the pre-fault voltage
waveform.
DC offsets:
The physical reason for the existence of the DC offsets is that the current and flux
waveforms of an inductive circuit cannot change instantly. Since the pre-fault current is
zero, the DC offset in any given phase must take on a value equal in magnitude and
opposite in sign to the value of the AC waveform just after the fault. Since the AC
currents are shifted by 120o from each other, the DC components of the three phases
will always add to zero.
The maximum DC offset in a phase current is the peak value of the AC initial
component. This occurs in one phase at most, since the three DC offsets must add to
zero as discussed above. That means that the maximum DC offset is 1.414 times the
initial RMS AC waveform.
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View of DOBLE DATC software which is shown a DC OFFSET with L/R=300ms
Symmetrical short-circuit current:

In most short-circuit current calculations, the AC (or symmetrical) current is needed. We
consider a sudden three-phase short circuit on an unloaded synchronous generator.
The sub-transient component of this current decays with a time constant that is
determined by the time constant of the damper windings, which are windings on the pole
faces of salient-pole synchronous motors and generators. Cylindrical-rotor machines
usually have no damper windings, but eddy currents in their solid-iron rotors have much
the same effect. Just after the short circuit, the RMS value of the current is I" = E / Xd"
where E is the pre-fault voltage and Xd" is the generator sub-transient reactance. If E is
in volts (line- neutral) and Xd" is in ohms, then I" will be in amps. If E and Xd" are in perunit, then I" will be in per unit. Since Xd" is usually tabulated in percent or per unit, and
since E is approximately 1.00 per unit, we will use per-unit equations for our calculations.
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Figure 2.1.1 Synchronous machine armature short-circuit currents for sudden 3-ph Fault
The transient component decays with a much longer time constant (about 1 second
compared to several cycles for the sub-transient) that is due to the time constant of the
field winding. A few cycles after the fault occurs, the RMS value of the current is I' = E /
Xd' where Xd' is the generator transient reactance.
Figure 2.1.2 shows the rms ac (or symmetrical) short-circuit current for the same case
that is illustrated in the previous figure.
If the short circuit is left on until the transients die out, the steady-state short-circuit
current may be determined. We subtract the steady-state current from the ac
component, and plot the result on semi-log paper, as shown in Figure 2.1.3, to
determine transient and sub-transient time constants and reactances.
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Figure 2.1.3 The transient time constant Td' is the slope of the line fitted by ignoring the
initial part of this curve. The excess current for the first few cycles may be plotted on a
similar graph to obtain the sub-transient time constant Td".
Calculation:
According to ANSI/IEEE Std. 242-1996, the total AC component of armature current
consists of the steady-state (Id) value and two components that decaying at a rate
according to their respective time constant.
Iac = (Id Id)*(e(2*3.14*f*t)/(Td) ) + (Id Id)*(e(2*3.14*f*t)/(Td) ) + Id-----------(1)

(1) Subtransient Component, Id
Id = (e/Xd) p.u. where e = (et + Xd Sin(theta) )----------------(2)
When machine is at no-load, e=et
(2) Transient component, Id
Id = (e/Xd) p.u.
(3) Steady-state component, Id
Id = (et/Xd)* (If/Ifg)----------------------------------------------------------(3)
(4) The DC component of the armature current is controlled by the sub-transient
reactance and the armature time constant:
Idc = (1.414)* (Id)* (e(2*3.14*f*t)/(X/R) )

= (1.414)* (Id)* (e(t/(L/R)) )---------------------------------------------(4)
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General Description of Calculation Methodology:

LOW ZERO-SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES ON GENERATORS:
Good design practice dictates that short circuit calculations be performed to ensure that
the IEC rating specified for equipment is higher than the anticipated fault currents.
Properly rated equipment is not only a code requirement but can impact the cost of a
project. Equipment that is underrated must be replaced, and overrated equipment costs
more than properly rated equipment.
Short circuit calculations during the design phase require some assumptions and
generalizations, which are validated or corrected when a detailed study is completed.
The detailed study is usually completed prior to the review of equipment submittals.
Underrated equipment identified in the study can be changed before orders are released
or factories prepare the equipment for shipment.
In the case study mentioned in the introduction, the detailed short circuit study was not
completed until after the equipment had been installed. Since the engineer had used the
positive sequence impedance of the generator for his calculations (or used generator
decrement curve data, which is based on the positive sequence impedance), some of
the equipment was underrated. As will be discussed below, the lower zero sequence
impedance of a generator can result in line-to-ground fault currents that can be as high
as one and a half times the phase fault currents.
ANALYSIS
To graphically illustrate the variation in magnitude between line-to-ground faults and
phase faults, we will begin by looking at the one-line diagram for a typical installation.
This is shown in Figure below. The service transformers are 2500 kVA and the
generators are 1500 kW.
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Table 1 summarizes the impedance values for the transformers and generators shown.
All values are shown in per unit for each phase. The kVA base is 10,000 and the kV
base for the primary is 13.8 and 0.48 for the secondary. Note that the values for the
generator reactance are sub-transient values.
As can be seen by observation, the generator zero-sequence X(0) impedance is
somewhat lower than the positive-sequence X(+). This contrasts markedly with the
transformers and the utility source impedance, where the zero-sequence impedance
X(0) is essentially the same as the positive sequence impedance X(+).
TABLE:-1: SOURCE & TRANSFORMER DATA
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For the purpose of this analysis, we will assume that the utility and generators will never
be paralleled. As such, there is no need to consider the implications of the lower
generator zero-sequence impedance being in parallel with the utility transformer zerosequence impedance.
To determine the available three-phase fault currents, the pre-fault voltage (usually
taken to be the nominal voltage) would be divided by the equivalent positive sequence
impedance of the network, as seen from the faulted bus.
Using the impedance values for the conductors shown in Table 2, for a fault at the ATS,
the positive sequence network, with the generator as the source, would be as shown in
Figure. (Since the line-to-ground fault current magnitudes for the transformer source are
the same as the phase fault current magnitudes, we will confine our analysis to the
generator source.)
TABLE:-2: CONDUCTOR IMPEDANCE VALUE
POSITIVE SEQUENCE DIAGRAM OF NETWORK
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The equivalent impedance of the positive sequence network would then be the parallel
combination of the series combination of generators and their conductors in series with
the conductor to the ATS.
Neglecting the impedance of the conductors, neglecting the resistance of the generators,
and using only the positive sequence impedance would yield the following results:
We now turn our attention to the available line-to-ground fault currents. For this
calculation, the pre-fault voltage would be divided by the equivalent zero sequence
impedance of the network, as seen from the faulted bus. Looking at the impedance seen
at the ATS for a line-to-ground fault, the following sequence network is generated.
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Sequence Network for Line-to-Ground Faults
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As before, we will neglect the impedance of the conductors and the resistance of the
generators. This would yield the following results:
As can be seen from this calculation, the line-to-ground fault current is almost 125% of
the three-phase fault current. If the model were expanded to include five generators, the
three-phase fault current would be approximately 27.75 kA and the line-to-ground fault
current would be 34.5 kA. If the AIC rating of the equipment to be used were based on
the three phase currents, the equipment would be underrated. Of course, in a case with
fewer and/or smaller machines, the disparity between the phase fault currents and the
ground fault currents may not be a problem, that is, 125% of the phase fault currents
may still be well below the minimum IEC rating of equipment in a given voltage rating.
However, it is always important to check before the equipment is approved for
manufacture and shipment.
CONCLUSIONS
This simple, two machine model demonstrates the higher magnitudes that can be
anticipated for line-to-ground faults when a facility is fed from a generator source. When
specifying the IEC rating of equipment, it is important to consider the source of the fault
and the nature of that source.
Although simple installations with small machines may not be affected, good design
practice would dictate that consideration be given to the calculation of line-to-ground
fault currents. Failure to compare the equipment short circuit ratings to the calculated
line-to-ground fault currents can cause construction delays and expensive equipment
replacement.
ANSI/IEEE CALCULATION METHODS:
In ANSI/IEEE short-circuit calculations, an equivalent voltage source at the fault location,
which equals the pre-fault voltage at the location, replaces all external voltage sources
and machine internal voltage sources.
All machines are represented by their internal impedances. Line capacitances and static
loads are neglected. Transformer taps can be set at either the nominal position or at the
tapped position, and different schemes are available to correct transformer impedance
and system voltages if off-nominal tap setting exists. It is assumed the fault is bolted,
therefore, arc resistances are not considered. System impedances are assumed to be
balanced three-phase, and the method of symmetrical components is used for
unbalanced fault calculations.
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Three different impedance networks are formed to calculate momentary, interrupting,

and steady-state short-circuit currents, and corresponding duties for various protective
devices. These networks are: cycle network (sub-transient network), 1.5-4.0 cycle
network (transient network), and 30-cycle network (steady-state network).
ANSI/IEEE standards recommend the use of separate R and X networks to calculate
X/R values. An X/R ratio is obtained for each individual faulted bus and short-circuit
current. This X/R ratio is then used to determine the multiplying factor to account for the
system DC OFFSET.
Cycle Fault:
It is used to calculate momentary short-circuit and protective device duties at the
Cycle after the fault. The following table shows the type of device and its associated
duties using the cycle fault.
Type of Device
Duty
High Voltage Circuit breaker
Closing & Latching capability
Low Voltage Circuit breaker
Interrupting capability
Fuse
Switch gear & MCC
Bus bracing
Relay
Instantaneous settings
cycle fault is also consider as a sub-transient period fault, primarily because all
rotating machines are represented by their sub-transient reactances, as shown in table:
Type of Machine
Xsc
Utility
Turbo generator
Xd
Hydro generator with amortisseur winding
Xd
Hydro generator
winding
without
amortisseur 0.75*Xd
Condenser
Xd
Synchronous motor
Xd
Induction machine >1000hp @ 1800rpm or Xd = 1/LRC (LRC = Locked rotor current)

less
Induction machine >250hp @ 3600rpm
Xd = 1/LRC
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Induction machine >50hp
1.2*Xd
Induction machine <50hp
1.67*Xd
1.5 4.0 Cycle Fault:

It is used to calculate the interrupting short-circuit and protective device duties 1.5 4.0
Cycle after the fault. The following table shows the type of device and its associated
duties using the 1.5 4.0 cycle fault.
Type of Device
Duty
N/A
Fuse
N/A
Switch gear & MCC
N/A
Relay
IDMtL Over current relay settings
1.5 4.0 cycle fault is also consider as a transient period fault, because all rotating
machines are represented by their transient reactances, as shown in table:
Type of Machine
Xsc
Utility
Turbo generator
Xd
Xd
Hydro generator
winding
without
amortisseur 0.75*Xd
Condenser
Xd
Synchronous motor
1.5*Xd
Induction machine >1000hp @ 1800rpm or 1.5*Xd = 1/LRC (LRC = Locked rotor

less
current)
1.5*Xd = 1/LRC
3.0*Xd
Infinite
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30 Cycle Fault:
It is used to calculate the steady state short-circuit current and duties for some of the
protective devices 30 Cycle after the fault. The following table shows the type of device
and its associated duties using the 1.5 4.0 cycle fault.
Type of Device
Duty
N/A
N/A
Fuse
N/A
Switch gear & MCC
N/A
Relay
IDMtL Over current relay settings
The type of rotating machine and its representation in the 30-cycle fault is shown in
following table. Note that induction machines, synchronous motors, and condensers are
not considered in the 30-cycle fault calculation.
Type of Machine
Xsc
Utility
Turbo generator
Xd
Xd
Hydro generator
winding
without
amortisseur Xd
Condenser
Infinite
Synchronous motor
Infinite
Induction machine >1000hp @ 1800rpm or Infinite

less
Infinite
Infinite
Infinite
ANSI Multiplying Factor (MF):
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The ANSI (American National Standards & Institute) multiplying factor is determined by
the equivalent system X/R ratio at a particular fault location. The X/R ratio is calculated
by the separate R and X networks.
Momentary (1/2 Cycle) short-circuit current calculation (Buses & HV CB):
The momentary short-circuit current at the cycle represents the highest or maximum
value of the short-circuit current (before its AC & DC components decay toward the
steady state value). Although, in reality, the highest or maximum short-circuit current
actually occurs slightly before the cycle, the cycle network is used for this
calculation.
The following procedure is used to calculate momentary short-circuit current:
Step:-1
Calculate the symmetrical rms value of momentary short-circuit current using the
following formula:
Imom,rms,symm = ( Vpre-fault ) / ((1.7325)*Zeq)
Where Zeq is the equivalent impedance at the faulted bus from the cycle fault.
Step:-2
Calculate the Asymmetrical rms value of momentary short-circuit current using the
following formula:
Imom,rms,Asymm = (MFm)*( Imom,rms,symm )
Step:-3
Calculate the Multiplying or Asymmetrical factor using the following formula:
(MFm) = Under root( 1 + (2e)-2*3.14/(X/R))
Step:-4
Calculate the Peak value of momentary short-circuit current using the following formula:
Imom,Peak = (MFP)*( Imom,rms,Asymm )
Step:-5
Calculate the Peak Multiplying factor using the following formula:
(MFP) = 1.414*(Under root( 1 + (e)-3.14/(X/R)))
In both equations for MFm and MFP calculation, X/R is the ratio of X to R at the fault
location obtained from separate X and R networks at cycle. The value of the fault
current calculated by this method can be used for following purpose:
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Check closing & latching capabilities of high voltage circuit breakers.
Check bus-bar capacity.
Adjust relay instantaneous settings.
Check interrupting capabilities of fuses and low voltage circuit breakers.
High voltage Circuit breaker Interrupting short-circuit current calculation:

The interrupting fault currents for high voltage circuit breakers correspond to the 1.5
4.0 cycle short-circuit for high voltage circuit breakers:
The following procedure is used to calculate the interrupting short-circuit current:
Step:-1
Calculate the symmetrical rms value of the interrupting short-circuit current using the
following formula:
Iint,rms,symm = ( Vpre-fault ) / ((1.7325)*Zeq)
Where Zeq is the equivalent impedance at the faulted bus from the 1.5 4.0 cycle fault.
Step:-2
Calculate the short-circuit current contributions to the fault location from the surrounding
buses.
Step:-3
If contribution is from a Remote bus, the symmetrical value is corrected by the factor of
MFr, calculated from
MFr = Under root( 1 + (2e)-4*3.14*t/(X/R))
Where t is the circuit breaker contact parting time in cycles, as given in the following
table:
Circuit breaker rating in Cycles
Contact Parting time in Cycles
8
4.0
5
3.0
3
2.0
2
1.5
Low voltage Circuit breaker Interrupting short-circuit current calculation:
Due to the instantaneous action of low voltage circuit breakers at maximum short-circuit
values, the cycle network is used for calculating the interrupting short-circuit current.
The following procedure is used to calculate the interrupting short-circuit current:
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Step:-1
Calculate the symmetrical rms value of the interrupting short-circuit current using the
following formula:
Iint,rms,symm = ( Vpre-fault ) / ((1.7325)*Zeq)
Where Zeq is the equivalent impedance at the faulted bus from the cycle fault.
Step:-2
Calculate the adjusted asymmetrical rms value of the interrupting short-circuit current
duty using the following formula:
Iint,rms,adj = MF * Iint,rms,symm
Step:-3
(MF) = {1.414*(Under root( 1 + (e)-3.14/(X/R)))} / {1.414*(Under root( 1 + (e)-3.14/(X/R)TEST))} for

unfused power breakers.
(MF) = {1.414*(Under root( 1 + (2e)-2*3.14/(X/R)))} / {1.414*(Under root( 1 + (2e)-2*3.14/(X/R)TEST))} for
fused power or molded case breakers.
Where (X/R)test is calculated based on the test power factor. The manufacturer
maximum testing power factors given in the following table are used as the default
values:
Circuit breaker type
Max Design %PF
(X/R)test
Power breaker (Unfused)
15
6.59
Power breaker (fused)
20
4.90
Molded case (>20000A)
20
4.90
Molded case (10001-20000A) 30
3.18
Molded case (<10000A)
50
1.73
IEC CALCULATION METHODS:
Initial Symmetrical Short-circuit current (Ik):
This is the rms value of the ac symmetrical component of an available short-circuit
current applicable at the instant of short-circuit if the impedance remains at zero time
value.
Peak Short-circuit current (ip):
This is the maximum possible instantaneous value of the available short-circuit current.
Symmetrical Short-circuit Breaking current (Ib):
This is the rms value of an integral cycle of the symmetrical ac component of the
available short-circuit at the instant of contact separation of the first pole of a switching
device.
Steady state Short-circuit current (Ik):
This is the rms value of the short-circuit current which remains after the decay of the
transient phenomena.
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Sub-transient Voltage (E) of a Synchronous machine:

This is the rms value of the symmetrical internal voltage of a synchronous machine
which is active behind the sub-transient reactance Xd at the moment of short-circuit.
Sub-transient Reactance (Xd) of a Synchronous machine:
This is the effective reactance at the moment of short-circuit. For the calculation of shortcircuit currents, the saturated value of (Xd) is taken.
According to IEC Standard 909, the synchronous motor impedance used in IEC shortcircuit calculations is calculated in the same way as the synchronous generator.
Zk = KG(R+Xd)
KG = (kVn * Cmax) / kVr* {1 + (Xd)*(SIN(pHi))}
Where kVn and kVr are the nominal voltage of the terminal bus and the motor rated
voltage respectively, Cmax is determine based on machine rated voltage, Xd is
machine sub-transient reactance (Per unit in motor base), and pHi is the machine rated
power factor angle.
Minimum time delay (Tmin) of a Circuit breaker:
This is the shortest time between the beginning of the short-circuit current and the first
contact separation of one pole of the switching device.
Voltage factor C:
This is the factor used to adjust the value of the equivalent voltage source for minimum
and maximum current calculation according to the following table:
Nominal Voltage Vn
Low voltage; 100V
1000V
Medium voltage:>1kV
35kV
230V/400V
High
voltage:>35kV
230kV
Cmax
to 1.05
Cmin
1.00
to 1.05
1.00
1.00
to 1.10
0.95
1.00
Initial symmetrical short-circuit current calculation:

Ik = (C * Vn) / {(1.7325)*Zk}
Where Zk is the equivalent impedance at the fault location.
Peak short-circuit current calculation:
IP = 1.414* (Ik)* (R/X)
DC component of short-circuit current calculation:
(2*3.14*f*t)/(X/R)
IDC = 1.414* (Ik)* (e
)
Asymmetrical Short-circuit current calculation for MV CB:
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(-4*3.14*f*t)/(X/R)
IK,ASYMM. = (Ik)*{1 + (2e
)}
DC component of short-circuit current calculation for MC CB:

(2*3.14*f*t)/(X/R)
)
IDC = 1.414* (Ik)* (e
Asymmetrical Short-circuit current calculation for LV CB:
(-4*3.14*f*t)/(X/R)
)}
Asymmetrical Short-circuit current calculation for FUSE:
(-4*3.14*f*t)/(X/R)
)}
The Importance of the X/R Ratio in Low-Voltage Short Circuit Studies:

Introduction:
In some short circuit studies, the X/R ratio is ignored when comparing the short circuit
rating of the equipment to the available fault current at the equipment. What is not
always realized is that when low-voltage gear is tested, it is tested at a certain X/R ratio.
The X/R ratio is important because it determines the peak asymmetrical fault current.
The asymmetrical fault current can be much larger than the symmetrical fault current.
The purpose of this article is to introduce such terms as the X/R ratio and asymmetrical
fault current and to relate the importance of the X/R ratio to the rating of low-voltage
equipment.
X/R Ratio and Asymmetrical Fault Current:
In AC electrical systems, impedance has two components. The first is called reactance
(X). Reactance depends on two things: (1) the inductance and (2) the frequency.
Inductance reflects how hard it is to change the current. All conductors have some
inductance, but a more useful example of a component having inductance is a coil of
wire. Frequency is fixed at either 60 or 50Hz, depending upon where in the world the
electrical system is, so the reactance is solely dependent upon the inductance.
The second component of impedance is the familiar resistance (R). Resistance is a
measure of how hard it is for current to flow. When current flows through a material
having resistance, heat is transferred from the material to the surroundings.
The resistance and reactance of a circuit establishes a power factor. The power factor
(p.f.) is given by the following equation:
p.f. = cos(tan-1(X/R))
If the power factor is unity (1), then the impedance only has resistance. If the power
factor is zero, then the impedance only has reactance.
The power factor also determines how much the voltage and current waveforms (sine
waves) are out of phase. Remember that both voltage and current are sine waves in
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linear AC electrical systems. For purely resistive systems, the voltage and current are in
phase. For purely reactive systems, the voltage and current are 90-degress (one-quarter
of a cycle) out of phase, with the voltage leading the current. Figure 2 below illustrates
this.
Effect of P.F. upon Voltage (------) and Current (------) waveform
The above equation means that the power factor and X/R ratio are related. Therefore,
power factor and X/R ratio are different ways of saying the same thing. Please note that
as power factor decreases, the X/R ratio increases.
Right after a fault occurs, the current waveform is no longer a sine wave. Instead, it can
be represented by the sum of a sine wave and a decaying exponential. Figure 3 below
illustrates this phenomenon.
Sine-wave (-----) , Decaying Exponential (-----), and their Sum (-----)
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Please note that the decaying exponential added to the sine wave causes the current to
reach a much larger value than that of the sine wave alone. The waveform that equals
the sum of the sine wave and the decaying exponential is called the asymmetrical
current because the waveform does not have symmetry above and below the time axis.
The sine wave alone is called the symmetrical current because it does have symmetry
above and below the time axis.
The actual waveform of the asymmetrical fault current is hard to predict because it
depends on what time in the voltage cycle waveform the fault occurs. However, the
largest asymmetrical fault current occurs when a fault happens at a point when the
voltage is zero. Then, the asymmetrical fault current depends only on the X/R ratio, or
power factor, and the magnitude of the symmetrical fault current.
Figure 4 below shows how the ratio of the peak asymmetrical current to the RMS
symmetrical current varies with the X/R ratio. (RMS symmetrical current equals the peak
symmetrical current divided by the square root of 2.) What Figure 4 shows is that the
peak asymmetrical current increases with the X/R ratio.
Figure 4. Peak asymmetrical current as a function of symmetrical RMS current. (Data
taken from notes on the GE Electrical Distribution & Control Low-voltage Protector
Application Seminar.)
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Role of X/R Ratio when Comparing Short Circuit Ratings:

Low voltage devices have one rating, as opposed to medium-voltage gear, which have
both a momentary and interrupting rating. This rating is reported in terms of symmetrical
current. Therefore, the rating must be compared to the calculated symmetrical current.
But the story does not end here. All low voltage protective devices are tested at an X/R
ratio. The X/R ratio at which a device is tested depends upon the device type. Table 1
below summarizes the device types and the X/R ratios at which they are tested.
Table 1. X/R ratios at which low voltage protective devices are tested.
Although low voltage devices do not have asymmetrical ratings, if we know the
symmetrical current rating and the test X/R ratio, Figure 4 gives us the maximum
asymmetrical fault current. So, in a way, there is an asymmetrical fault current rating, but
it is not explicit. Therefore, in any short circuit study, both the X/R ratio and the
symmetrical fault current must be taken into account.
Remember that, for a calculated value of RMS symmetrical current, as X/R ratio
increase, the maximum asymmetrical current (peak or RMS) also increases.
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If the calculated symmetrical fault current is larger than the device short circuit rating, the
device in underrated, regardless of X/R ratio. However, it is possible for the device to be
underrated even if the short circuit rating exceeds the calculated symmetrical fault
current. How is this possible? We will discuss this next.
Consider some equipment whose calculated symmetrical fault current is less than the
short circuit rating of the equipment. Also, the calculated X/R ratio is less than or equal
to the test X/R ratio. The maximum calculated asymmetrical fault current will be less
than the maximum asymmetrical current that corresponds to the short circuit rating and
the test X/R ratio. The device will be properly rated.
Now consider another possibility. What if the symmetrical fault current is the same as the
equipments rated current, but the actual X/R ratio is larger than the tested X/R ratio?
Now, the maximum asymmetrical fault current will be larger than the maximum
asymmetrical current corresponding to the short circuit rating and the test X/R ratio.
Although the available symmetrical fault current is equal to the rating, the asymmetrical
fault current is higher than that when the device was tested. The device is not rated
properly.
The above two paragraphs motivate a de-rating factor, or multiplying factor (MF), that is
defined by the following formula:
If the calculated X/R ratio at a device is larger than the test X/R ratio of the device, then
the calculated symmetrical fault current must be multiplied by the multiplying factor. Or,
equivalently, the short circuit rating must be divided by the multiplying factor. The
multiplying factor is equal to the ratio of the calculated asymmetrical fault current to the
asymmetrical fault current at the test X/R ratio and the rated symmetrical current.
Here is an example of the process. After running a fault analysis, the symmetrical fault
current at some low voltage switchgear is found to be 62kA during the first half-cycle.
The switchgear contains power circuit breakers rated at 65kA. The asymmetrical peak
fault current was found to be 149kA. The X/R ratio was calculated to be 11.1.
The test X/R ratio of low voltage power circuit breakers is 6.6. Although the symmetrical
fault current is lower than the rating of the circuit breakers, the fact that the X/R ratio is
higher than the test value means that we must use the multiplying factor.
Therefore, the effective symmetrical fault current is 1.07 X 62kA = 66kA. Because 66kA
> 65kA, the switchgear is underrated. We can also de-rate the switchgear. Then, the
effective rating of the gear is 65kA / 1.07 = 61kA. Now, because 62kA > 61kA, the
switchgear is under-rated.
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Summary of X/R Ratio:

When performing short circuit calculations, it is important to consider the X/R ratio. The
higher the X/R ratio, the higher the asymmetrical peak fault current. Therefore, when
verifying the ratings of electrical equipment, both the symmetrical short circuit rating and
the X/R ratio must be taken into consideration.
If the calculated X/R ratio is larger than the test X/R ratio, then the equipment short
circuit rating must be de-rated by a multiplying factor. This multiplying factor equals the
ratio of the calculated peak asymmetrical fault current divided by the peak asymmetrical
current corresponding to the rated symmetrical current and the test X/R ratio.
Procedures and Methods:

Short-Circuit Current Calculations & Relay-Coordination:
To determine the fault current at any point in the system, first draw a one-line diagram
showing all of the sources of short-circuit current feeding into the fault, as well as the
impedances of the circuit components.
To begin the study, the system components, including those of the utility system, are
represented as impedances in the diagram.
It must be understood that short circuit calculations are performed without current
limiting devices in the system. Calculations are done as though these devices are
Replaced with copper bars, to determine the maximum available short circuit current.
This is necessary to project how the system and the current limiting devices will perform.
Also, current limiting devices do not operate in series to produce a compounding
current limiting effect. The downstream, or load side, fuse will operate alone under a
short circuit condition if properly coordinated.
Three-phase Short-Circuit Calculation by Per-Unit Method:
The Per-Unit method is generally used for calculating short-circuit currents when the
electrical system is more complex.
After establishing a one-line diagram of the system, proceed to the following
calculations:
Step-1:
Infinite Source (Power Grid) Impedance:
Source Impedance Zs = MVA Base / MVA Fault

Step-2:
Transmission Line Impedance:
Step-3:
Power/Distribution Transformer Impedance:
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X PU = (%X)* (KVA Base) / (100)* (KVA Xmer)

R PU = (%R)* (KVA Base) / (100)* (KVA Xmer)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Z2 PU = (X PU)2 + (R PU)2
Or
Z2 PU = (%Z)* (KVA Base) / (100)* (KVA Xmer)
Step-4:
Cable:
X PU = {(X in Ohms)* (KVA Base)} / {(1000)* (kV Base)2}

R PU = {(R in Ohms)* (KVA Base)} / {(1000)* (kV Base)2}
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Z3 PU = (X PU)2 + (R PU)2
Step-5:
Determine the total Single Circuit line Impedance of Power Grid:
Z Total PU = (Zs PU + Z1 PU + Z2 PU + Z3 PU)

Step-6:
Determine the total Short Circuit MVA from Power Grid:
MVA SC1 = (MVA Base) / (Z Total PU)

Step-7:
Determine Short Circuit Current Contribution from Power Grid:
I kA1 = (MVA SC1) / (1.7325* Rated KV)

Step-8:
Determine the Short Circuit Contribution from Generator:
Z gen PU = {(%Xd)* (MVA Base)} / {(100)* (MVA Rated)}

Step-9:
Determine the total Short Circuit MVA from Generator:
MVA SC2 = (MVA Base) / (Z gen PU)

Step-10:
Determine Short Circuit Current Contribution from Generator:
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Step-11:
Determine the Short Circuit Contribution from Motors or Dynamic loads:
Z loads PU = {(%Z)* (MVA Base)} / {(100)* (MVA Rated)}

Generally, %Z = 25% consider for LT motors or loads and %Z = 15-20% for HT motors
or loads.
Step-12:
Determine the total Short Circuit MVA from Dynamic loads or Motors:
MVA SC3 = (MVA Base) / (Z loads PU)

Step-13:
Determine Short Circuit Current Contribution from Dynamic loads or Motors:

Step-14:
Determine Total Short Circuit Current at Fault:
I kA symm RMS = (I kA1 + I kA2 + I kA3)

Step-15:
Determine X/R ratio of the system to the point of fault:
X/Rratio = (X PU total) / (R PU total)

Step-16:
Determine the Asymmetrical RMS short-circuit current to the point of fault:
I kA asymm RMS = (I kA symm RMS)* (Asym Factor)

Step-17:
Determine the Asymmetrical Factor:
Asym Factor or Momentary multiplying factor (MFm) = Under root( 1 + (2e)-2*3.14/(X/R))
Step-16:
Determine the Peak value of short-circuit current to the point of fault:
I kA mom, peak = (I kA Asymm RMS)* (MFP)

Step-17:
Determine the Multiplying peak Factor:
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Peak Momentary multiplying factor (MFP) = 1.414*(Under root( 1 + (e)-3.14/(X/R)))
Example is shown in fig
All Sources and loads feed fault Current figure (3)
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CASE STUDY-1:
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CASE STUDY-2:
FAULT LEVEL CALCULATIONS

The calculation of fault level / short circuit current can be calculated using PU values
of impedances / reactances of different components of the system. For calculation of
PU values, let us select the base MVA = 15 MVA
INFINITE SOURCE:
Fault level at infinite bus as given by GEB is 5481 MVA at Jambua Load Dispatch
Center, at 132 KV voltage level & 15.5 KM far from the plant site. Based on this,
source impedance can be found out as given below:
Source Impedance Zs = 15 / 5481 = 0.0027367269 PU
TRANSMISSION LINE:
According to data available from GEB, the two 132 KV transmission lines, having
Panther 0.2 conductor & 15.5 KM length have following parameters
R = 9.31 X 10-4 PU / KM / circuit
X = 2.216 X 10-3 PU / KM / circuit
Zt = Under root of ( R2 + X2 )
= Under root of ( (0.000931)2 + (0.002216)2 )
Zt = 0.0024036258 PU / KM / circuit
Total impedance for 15.5 KM long line Zt = 0.00558837 PU / circuit
POWER TRANSFORMER:
The rating of power transformer is 15 MVA / 20 MVA.
For calculation of transformer impedance, normal operating conditions are to be
considered. So the rating of the transformer = 15 MVA has to be considered.
Power transformer PU impedance can be calculated as follows.
9.2 X 15
Ztr = ----------------100 X 15
Ztr = 0.092 PU
CABLE:
The cable between power transformer & 6.6 KV HT panel is 8 X 3C X 300 sq.mm. &
the length of the cable = 100 mtrs
The impedance of the cable Zc = 0.0006780303 PU
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2270 DESIEL GENERATOR:

According to Generator data, the sub-transient reactance (Xd) of the Generator =
16.3 %
The PU value of Generator impedance on 15 MVA base can be found out through
following formula:
16.3 X 15
PU impedance of Generator Zg = --------------------100 X 2.270
= 1.0770925 PU
350 KW, 6.6 KV CHILLER MOTOR:

As the actual motor transient reactance is not available, the motor transient
reactance is selected as 17 % for all HT motor, according to statistical analysis.
The PU value of 350 KW, 6.6 KV motor impedance on 15 MVA base can be found
out through following formula:
Motor impedance Zm =
17 X 15
------------------100 X 0.4375
5.82857 PU
350 KW MOTOR CABLE:

The cable connecting 6.6 KV panel & 350 KW motor is 1 X 3C X 185 sq.mm. with
550 mtrs length.
The PU value of the cable connecting 350 KW motor & 6.6 KV panel Zcm
Zcm = 0.0436294 PU
250 KW, 6.6 KV COMPRESSOR MOTOR:

As the actual motor transient reactance is not available, the motor transient
reactance is selected as 17 % for all HT motor, according to statistical analysis.
he PU value of 250 KW, 6.6 KV motor impedance on 15 MVA base can be found out
through following formula:
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Motor impedance Zm =
=
17 X 15
------------------100 X 0.3125
8.16 PU
350 KW MOTOR CABLE:

The cable connecting 6.6 KV panel & 350 KW motor is 1 X 3C X 185 sq.mm. with
550 mtrs length.
The PU value of the cable connecting 350 KW motor & 6.6 KV panel Zcm
Zcm = 0.0436294 PU
2 MVA DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER( LT1, LT2, LT3 ):

Percentage Impedance of Transformer (%Z) = 6.43%
2 MVA distribution transformer PU impedance can be calculated as follows.
6.43 X 15
Ztr = ----------------100 X 2
Ztr = 0.48225 PU
CABLE:
The cable between distribution transformer & 6.6 KV HT panel is 8 X 3C X 300
sq.mm. & the length of the cable = 525 mtrs
The PU impedance of the cable Zc = 0.02847 PU
LT DYNAMIC LOAD:
As the actual LT motor data of transient reactance is not available, according to
standard statistical analysis, it is taken as 25 %
The LT motors are not considered individually but are considered as a lumped load
on each LT transformer
According to the plant operating condition, 1. 2 MVA load is considered as a
Dynamic lumped load on each 2 MVA transformer
The PU impedance of the LT dynamic load Zm
25 X 15
---------------100 X 1.2
3.125 PU
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FAULT LEVEL CALCULATION AT 132 KV SWITCHYARD BUS:

Total impedance of a Two grid from infinite source to 6.6 KV panel:
0.00558837
= 0.002736729 + ----------------2
= 0.00553085 PU / circuit
Fault contribution of Both Grid running in parallel = 15 / 0.00553085 = 2712 MVA
CONDITION - A:
WHEN ALL 4 DG SETS ARE RUNNING IN PARALLEL WITH TWO GRID SUPPLY
Fault contribution of both the Grid for a fault on 6.6 KV bus

Total impedance of two grid lines from infinite source to 6.6 KV panel:
0.00558837+ 0.092 + 0.0006780303
= 0.002736729 + ------------------------------------------------2
= 0.518698 PU / circuit
Fault contribution of Both Grid running in parallel = 15 / 0.0518698 = 289 MVA
Fault contribution of all the four DG SETS for a fault on 6.6 KV bus
The PU impedance of a single DG = 1.0770925 PU
Considering all four DG running in parallel, total PU impedance = 0.2692731 PU

Fault contribution of all DG running in parallel = 15 / 0.2692731 = 55.7 MVA
= 56 MVA (say)
Fault contribution of all the HT motors for a fault on 6.6 KV bus
Considering normal working condition of the plant, total 4 no of 350 KW & 4 no of 250
KW motor are taken in to consideration for Fault contribution
Total PU impedance of a single 350 KW HT motor feeder = 5.8285714 + 0.0436294
= 5.872200814 PU
= 8.2036294 PU
Total PU impedance of all HT motors = 5.872200814 / 4 || 8.2036294 / 4
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= 0.8556042 PU
Fault contribution of all HT motor running in parallel
= 15 / 0.8556042
= 17.53 MVA
= 18 MVA (say)
Total fault level on 6.6 kv bus for 2 Grid & 4 DG-SET running in parallel = 363 MVA
This value exceeds the bus bar short circuit rating of 350 MVA.
CONDITION B:
WHEN ALL 4 DG ARE WORKING IN PARALLEL WITH ONE GRID
Fault contribution of one Grid for a fault on 6.6 KV bus

This condition considers both the infinite sources & both the transmission lines but only a
single power transformer & a single 6.6 KV incoming grid, keeping 132 KV bus coupler
closed.
Total impedance of a single grid from infinite source to 6.6 KV panel:
0.00558837
0.002736729 + ------------------+ 0.092 + 0.0006780303
2
= 0.0982088 PU
Fault contribution of one grid = 15 / 0.0968405 = 153 MVA
Fault contribution of all the four DG for a fault on 6.6 KV bus

Considering all four DG running in parallel, total PU impedance = 0.2692731 PU
Fault contribution of all DG running in parallel
= 15 / 0.2692731
= 55.7 MVA
= 56 MVA (say)

Total PU impedance of a single 350 KW HT motor feeder
= 5.8285714 + 0.0436294
= 5.872200814 PU
= 8.2036294 PU
Total PU impedance of all HT motors
= 5.872200814 / 4 || 8.2036294 / 4
= 0.8556042 PU
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Fault contribution of all HT motor running in parallel
= 15 / 0.8556042
= 17.53 MVA
= 18 MVA (say)
Total fault level on 6.6 kv bus for 2 GRID & 4 DG running in parallel = 227 MVA
This value is well within the bus bar short circuit rating of 350 MVA.
CONDITION C:
WHEN 5 DG ARE WORKING IN PARALLEL WITH ONE GRID
Fault contribution of one Grid for a fault on 6.6 KV bus

This condition considers both the infinite sources & both the transmission lines but only a
single power transformer & a single 6.6 KV incoming grid, keeping 132 KV bus coupler
closed.
Total impedance of a single grid from infinite source to 6.6 KV panel:
0.00558837
= 0.002736729 + ------------------+ 0.092 + 0.0006780303
2
= 0.0982088 PU
Fault contribution of one grid = 15 / 0.0968405 = 153 MVA
Fault contribution of all the 5 DG for a fault on 6.6 KV bus

Considering all 5 DG running in parallel, total PU impedance
Fault contribution of all DG running in parallel
= 0.2154185 PU
= 15 / 0.2154185
= 69.63 MVA
= 70 MVA (say)

= 5.872200814 PU
= 8.2036294 PU
Total PU impedance of all HT motors = 5.872200814 / 4 || 8.2036294 / 4
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= 0.8556042 PU
Fault contribution of all HT motor running in parallel = 15 / 0.8556042 = 17.53 MVA
= 18 MVA (say)
Total fault level on 6.6 kv bus for 2 GRID & 4 DG running in parallel = 241 MVA
This value is well within the bus bar short circuit rating of 350 MVA.
SUMMARY OF THREE PHASE FAULT LEVEL CALCULATIONS
ON 6.6 kV VOLTAGE LEVEL
SR.
NO
SOURCE
CONDITION
6.6kV
BUSBAR
(MVA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
2G+4D+M
1G + 4D + M
4D + M
2G + M
5D + M
1G + 5D + M
3D + 2G + M
363
227
74
307
88
241
349
Fault current
at 6.6KV
BUSBAR (KA)
32.45
19.85
6.47
26.85
7.69
21.08
30.53
WHERE,
G = GRID OR GUJARAT ELECTRICITY BOARD SUPPLY.
D = DIESEL GENERATOR SETS.
M = MOTOR.
From above results, we can conclude that, running two grid in parallel with four DG
SETS will create a fault level greater than rated 350 MVA fault level. Hence, it is
recommended to run a single grid in parallel with four DG SETS considering future
scope of one more DG.
Three-phase Short-Circuit Calculation by Ohmic Method:

Step-1:
Most circuit component impedances are given in ohms except utility and transformer
impedances, which are found by the following formulae, (Note that the transformer and
utility ohms are referred to the secondary KV by squaring the secondary voltage.)
tXutility in Ohms = 1000 (kVsecondary)2 / S.C. kVAutility.
Step-2:
Xtransformer in Ohms = (10)*(%X)*(kVsecondary)2 / kVAtransformer.
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Step-3:
The impedance (in Ohms) given for current transformer, large switches and large C.B. is
essentially all X.
Step-4:
Xcable and bus in Ohms.
Rcable and bus in Ohms.
Step-5:
Total all X and R in system to point of fault.
Step-6:
Determine impedance (in Ohms) of the system by:
Step-7:
Calculate short-circuit symmetrical RMS amperes at point of fault.
Step-8:
Determine the motor load. Add up the full load motor currents. The full load motor
current in the system is generally a percentage of the transformer full load current,
depending upon the types of loads. The generally accepted procedure assumes 50%
motor load when both motor and lighting loads are considered.
Step-9:
The symmetrical motor contribution can be approximated by using an average
multiplying factor associated with the motors in the system. This factor varies according
to motor design and in this text may be chosen as 4 times motor full load current for
approximate calculation purposes. To solve for the symmetrical motor contribution:
Step-10:
The total symmetrical short-circuit RMS current is calculated as:
Step-11:
Determine X/R ratio of the system to the point of fault.
Step-12:
Calculate the asymmetrical RMS short-circuit current.
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Step-13:
The short-circuit current that the motor load can contribute is an asymmetrical current
usually approximated as being equal to the locked rotor current of the motor. As a close
approximation with a margin of safety use:
Step-14:
The total asymmetrical short-circuit RMS current is calculated as:
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66
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67
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Case Study-2:
Sc=175 MVA (min fault MVA )
Sc=220 MVA (max fault MVA )
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Determinate the equivalent impedance network related to the 22 kV level (figure 12) and
calculate the fault currents, on the 22 kV voltage level. In the example all impedances
are considered to be pure reactances.
The short-circuit currents are calculated for different fault points in the system. This is
done for both maximum and minimum short-circuit capacity.
Three-phase short-circuit current:
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The phase to phase short-circuit current can be found by multiplying the three phase
short-circuit current by a factor:
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Three-phase Short-Circuit Calculation by Point-to-Point Method:

The application of the point-to-point method permits the determination of available shortcircuit currents with a reasonable degree of accuracy at various points for either 3 or 1
electrical distribution systems. This method can assume unlimited primary short-circuit
current (infinite bus).
Basic Point-to-Point Calculation Procedure:
Step-1:
Determine the transformer full load amperes from either the nameplate or the following
formulas:
Step-2:
Find the transformer multiplier.
Note:
Transformer impedance (Z) helps to determine what the short circuit current will be at
the transformer secondary. Transformer impedance is determined as follows: The
transformer secondary is short-circuited. Voltage is applied to the primary, which causes
full load current to flow in the secondary. This applied voltage divided by the rated
primary voltage is the impedance of the transformer.
Example: For a 440 volt rated primary, if 18.0 volts causes secondary full load current to
flow through the shorted secondary, the transformer impedance is 18/440 = .0409 =
4.09%Z.
In addition, UL listed transformer 25KVA and larger have a 10% impedance tolerance.
Short circuit amperes can be affected by this tolerance.
Step-3:
Determine the transformer short-circuit current;
Note:
Motor short-circuit contribution, if significant, may be added to the transformer secondary
short-circuit current value as determined in Step 3. Proceed with this adjusted figure
through Steps 4, 5 and 6. A practical estimate of motor short-circuit contribution is to
multiply the total motor current in amperes by 4.
Step-4:
Calculate the "f" factor.
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Where:
L = length (feet) of circuit to the fault.
C = constant from Table 6, page 27. For parallel runs, multiply C values by the number
of conductors per phase.
I = available short-circuit current in amperes at beginning of circuit.
Note:
The L-N fault current is higher than the L-L fault current at the secondary terminals of a
single-phase center-tapped transformer. The short-circuit current available (I) for this
case in Step 4 should be adjusted at the transformer terminals as follows:
At L-N center tapped transformer terminals,
I = 1.5 x L-L Short-Circuit Amperes at Transformer Terminals
At some distance from the terminals, depending upon wire size, the L-N fault current is
lower than the L-L fault current. The 1.5 multiplier is an approximation and will
theoretically vary from 1.33 to 1.67. These figures are based on change in turns ratio
between primary and secondary, infinite source available, zero feet from terminals of
transformer, and 1.2 x %X and 1.5 x %R for L-N vs. L-L resistance and reactance
values. Begin L-N calculations at transformer secondary terminals then proceed point-topoint.
Step-5:
Calculate "M" (multiplier).
Step-6:
Calculate the available short-circuit symmetrical RMS current at the point of fault.
Calculation of Short-Circuit Currents at Second Transformer in System:

Use the following procedure to calculate the level of fault current at the secondary of a
second, downstream transformer in a system when the level of fault current at the
transformer primary is known.
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Procedure for Second Transformer in System:

Step-1:
Calculate the "f" factor (IS.C. primary known)
Step-2:
Calculate "M" (multiplier).
Step-3:
Calculate the short-circuit current at the secondary of the transformer. (See Note under
Step 3 of "Basic Point-to- Point Calculation Procedure".)
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1 Short-Circuit Current Calculations 1 Transformer System:
Procedures and Methods:

Short-circuit calculations on a single-phase center tapped transformer system require a
slightly different procedure than 3 faults on 3 systems.
1.
It is necessary that the proper impedance be used to represent the primary system. For
3 fault calculations, single primary conductor impedance is only considered from the
source to the transformer connection. This is compensated for in the 3 short-circuit
formula by multiplying the single conductor or single-phase impedance by 1.73.
However, for single-phase faults, primary conductor impedance is considered from the
source to the transformer and back to the source. This is compensated in the
calculations by multiplying the 3 primary source impedance by two.
2.
The impedance of the center-tapped transformer must be adjusted for the half-winding
(generally line-to-neutral) fault condition.
The diagram at the right illustrates that during line-to-neutral faults, the full primary
winding is involved but, only the half-winding on the secondary is involved. Therefore,
the actual transformer reactance and resistance of the half winding condition is different
than the actual transformer reactance and resistance of the full winding condition.
Thus, adjustment to the %X and %R must be made when considering line-to-neutral
faults. The adjustment multipliers generally used for this condition are as follows:
1.5 times full winding %R on full winding basis.
1.2 times full winding %X on full winding basis.
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3.
The impedance of the cable and two-pole switches on the system must be considered
"both-ways" since the current flows to the fault and then returns to the source. For
instance, if a line-to-line fault occurs 50 feet from a transformer, then 100 feet of cable
impedance must be included in the calculation.
The calculations on the following pages illustrate 1 fault calculations on a single-phase
transformer system. Both line-to-line and line-to-neutral faults are considered.
Note in these examples:

a).
The multiplier of 2 for some electrical components to account for the single-phase fault
current flow.
b).
The half-winding transformer %X and %R multipliers for the line-to-neutral fault situation.
c).
The KVA and voltage bases used in the per-unit calculations.
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80
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Comparison of Results:
Per-Unit Method vs. Point-to-Point Method
Per-Unit
Method
X1
Line-Line
16,984A
Line-Neutral
20,041A
PTP
Method
18,453A
20,555A
Impedance and Reactance DataTransformers and Switches:
This table has been reprinted from IEEE Std 141-1986, IEEE Recommended Practice
for Electric Power Distribution for Industrial Plants, Copyright 1986 by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc with the permission of the IEEE Standards
Department.
Impedance Data for Three Phase Transformers:
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Impedance Data for Single Phase Transformers:
National standards do not specify %Z for single-phase transformers. Consult

manufacturer for values to use in calculation.
Based on rated current of the winding (onehalf nameplate kVA divided by secondary
line-to-neutral voltage).
Note:
UL Listed transformers 25 KVA and greater have a 10% tolerance on their impedance
nameplate.
This table has been reprinted from IEEE-Std 242-1986 (R1991), IEEE Recommended
Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems,
Copyright 1986 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. with the
permission of the IEEE Standards Department.
Impedance Data for Single Phase and Three Phase:
These represent actual transformer nameplate ratings taken from field installations.
Note:
UL Listed transformers 25KVA and greater have a 10% tolerance on their impedance
nameplate.
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Current Transformer Reactance Data:

Approximate Reactance of Current Transformers
Note:
Values given are in ohms per phase. For actual values, refer to manufacturers' data.
for Commercial Building Power Systems, Copyright 1990 by the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers, Inc. with the permission of the IEEE Standards Department.
Disconnecting Switch Reactance Data:
Disconnecting-Switch Approximate Reactance Data, in Ohms
Note:
The reactance of disconnecting switches for low-voltage circuits (600V and below) is in
the order of magnitude of 0.00008 - 0.00005 ohm/pole at 60 Hz for switches rated 400 4000 A, respectively.
For actual values, refer to manufacturers data.
for Commercial Building Power Systems, Copyright 1990 by the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers, Inc. with the permission of the IEEE Standards Department.
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RELAY CO-ORDINATION:
Relay co-ordination procedure is used for power system protection. Power system
protection engineering deals with precautionary measures to be taken to safeguard the
power system during abnormal operating conditions.
The practice of protection engineering involves periodic fault studies followed by relay
setting, checking and co-ordination studies.
The Protection philosophy is to adopt a mainly Primary Protection & Backup Protection.
PRIMARY PROTECTION & BACKUP PROTECTION:
- Primary Protection: Device Closest to the Fault.
- Backup Protection: Device next in the line.
- Backup protection should be Operates, If the primary protection fails.
- Reason for Providing Back up Protection;
Failure of primary protection:
- Mal-operation of the relay.
- Incorrect system design.
- Wrong selection of the relay.
- Improper installation and maintenance.
Circuit Breaker failure (Stuck breaker)
Ideal backup protection would be completely independent of the main protection. Current
transformers, Voltage transformers, auxiliary tripping relays, trip coils and dc supplies
would be duplicated.
The following compromises are typical;
- Separate current transformers are used for each protective system as this involves
little extra cost.
- Common voltage transformers are used.
- Trip supplies to the two protections should be separately used.
Why do we need to coordinate protective relaying system?
It is evident that in spite of all precautions taken in the design & installation of electrical
power / distribution systems, there are bound to arise abnormal conditions or faults
some of which like short circuits may prove extremely damaging to not only the faulty
component but to the neighboring components & to the power system as a whole. It is of
vital importance to limit the damage to a minimum by speedy isolation of the faulty
section, without disturbing the working of the rest of the system.
It is obvious that faster the speed of operation of elements of protective system (relay &
breaker), less is the damage to the equipment. The time setting of the relays has to be
decided based on the short time rating of the equipments to be protected. More over if
the faults are not cleared within the time, the generator may go out of step and complete
shut down of all the generator may occur resulting in to total dark-out. On the same way
relay should not be made extremely fast, as otherwise the relays may operate
unnecessarily for transient conditions
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Protective system should be able to discriminate between fault & load condition even
when the minimum fault current is less than the maximum load current. The relay should
be able to distinguish between over load & over current.
Only faulty element of the system should be isolated & healthy section should be left
intact. This selectivity can be obtained by grading of protections of several zones.
All the above can be achieved by proper coordination of protective relaying
system of different zones. The relay coordination is one of the ways through
which the system can become more stable & more reliable.
The following points may be considered while co-coordinating the operation of different
releases / relays in a radial system.
Circuit Breaker Interrupting Time
Release overshoot
Release operating time error
Final safety margin
The discrimination time between two electro-mechanical relays are as shown below;
T = ( 0.4t + 0.2 ) in second
The discrimination time between two numerical relays are as shown below;
T = ( 0.4t + 0.15 ) in second
Where t is the operating time of fuse and 0.4*t is the discrimination time between fuse
& breaker.
The discrimination time between two electro-mechanical relays are as shown below;
T = ( 0.25t + 0.2 ) in second
The discrimination time between two numerical relays are as shown below;
T = ( 0.25t + 0.15 ) in second
Where t is the operating time of fuse and 0.25*t is the discrimination time between
breaker & breaker.
The time interval according to ANSI/ IEEE Std-242: 1986 is usually 0.3 to 0.4 seconds.
This interval is measured between relays in series either at the instantaneous setting of
the load side feeder circuit breaker relay or the maximum short circuit current which can
flow through both devices simultaneously, whichever is lowest. The recommended time
has the following components:
Circuit breaker opening time (5 cycles): 0.08 seconds
Relay over-travel or Overshoot: 0.10 seconds
Safety factor for CT saturation, setting errors, etc.: 0.22 seconds
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An over current Protections are used for the feeder protections because of economical
cost and more simplicity. An over current relay operates when the magnitude of the
current exceeds its preset value. Normally, various types over current protection with
various characteristics are used for feeder protection as mention below;
Standard Normal inverse (3.0s at 10times of PS),

T in second = [0.14 / ((PSM)0.02 1)]* TMS
Standard Very inverse (1.5s at 10times of PS),
T in second = [13.5 / ((PSM) 1)]* TMS
Standard extremely inverse(0.8s at 10times of PS),
T in second = [80 / ((PSM)2 1)]* TMS
Standard long inverse(17s at 10times of PS),
T in second = [120 / ((PSM) 1)]* TMS
IEEE Normal inverse,
IEEE Moderately inverse,
IEEE very inverse,
IEEE extremely inverse,
IEEE short time inverse,
IEEE long time inverse.
Earlier in electro-mechanical protection, one relay is used with only one characteristic
like CDG-11 has Normal inverse characteristic, CDG-12 has long inverse characteristic,
CDG-13 has Very inverse characteristic, CDG-14 has Extremely inverse characteristic.
But, now today modern numerical protection (like SPAJ-140C, 7SJ600, 7SJ61, IM30-AP,
P123, SEL-501 etc.) have more than one characteristics so, now, today we have better
selectivity and ranges which is given a better relay co-ordination.
Selectivity with over current protections may be achieved by one of the following
methods;
- Grading the magnitude of the fault current.
- Grading the time of operation.
- Combination of above two.
- Direction of the fault current.
Application of Extremely Inverse Time Over-current Relay:
It is sometimes difficult to find an inverse time relay having characteristics are not
suitable to grade with fuses because of characteristic curve is not close with defined fuse
characteristic.
Extremely inverse characteristic is very close with fuse operating characteristics.
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DATA REQUIRED TO PERFORM RELAY CO-ORDINATION STUDY:

1. Power, voltage ratings, impedance, and connection configurations of all transformers
included in the system to be analyzed.
2. Normal and emergency switching/steady state conditions.
3. Nameplate data from all protective devices included in study; i.e., manufacturers
Catalog number, voltage/current, and IEC ratings.
4. Trip device type-range and current setting.
5. Conductor sizes, types, configurations, and temperature ratings.
6. Current transformer ratios.
7. Utility equipment rating and device settings.
8. Existing System one-line diagram.
REQUIRED DATA OF TRANSFORMER:

MVA rating
Primary and secondary voltage rating
Percentage impedance [%Z] on the given MVA rating for
positive and zero sequence [%Z1 and %Z0]
X/R Ratio for positive and zero sequence
Winging connection and Neutral Grounding Reactance /
Resistance if any
Tap data for both fixed taps and LTC taps, minimum and
maximum %tap position and steps size for LTC
REQUIRED DATA OF LINE / CABLE:
Cable/Conductor type
Cable length [ more than 100 Mt ] and cable size
Resistance [ohm], Reactance [ohm] and Susceptance [mho] per Km for
both positive and zero sequence values.
REQUIRED DATA OF MOTOR:

KW rating
MVA rating
Rated RPM
Rated current [ I ]
Rated kV
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Starting current [ Ist ]

No load current [ I0 ]
Rotor resistance and reactance in ohm [ R2 & X2 ]
Stator resistance and reactance in ohm [ R1 & X1 ]
Magnetizing reactance in ohm
Type of starting
Motor performance characteristics
REQUIRED DATA OF GENERATOR:
MW rating
Voltage rating
Direct axis reactance [ Xd ] in % or p.u.
Quadrature axis reactance [ Xq ] in % or p.u.
Direct axis transient reactance [ Xd ] in % or p.u.
Quadrature axis transient reactance [ Xq ] in % or p.u.
Direct axis sub-transient reactance [ Xd ] in % or p.u.
Quadrature axis sub-transient reactance [ Xq ] in % or p.u.
Synchronous reactance [ Xs ] in % or p.u.
Negative phase sequence reactance [ X2 ] in % or p.u.
Zero phase sequence reactance [ X0 ] in % or p.u.
Transient time constant ( short circuit ) [ Td ] in seconds
Sub-transient time constant ( short circuit ) [ Td ] in
seconds
Generator Reactive capacity curve, if available
Generator negative phase sequence withstand capacity
curve
Over-voltage and under-voltage withstand capacity
Over-frequency and under-frequency withstand capacity
REQUIRED DATA OF RELAYS:
Relay type, model and manufacturers name
CT rating/ratio
Plug setting range
Time dial setting range
Relay characteristic curve details
Instantaneous setting data or Range.
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DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER INCOMING & OUTGOING RELAY
Transformer secondary Relay 51/51N (CDG 34 R1) Extremely Inverse 0.6

sec
Relay (R1) must be co-ordinate with Fuse.
Plug settings
Phase fault setting:
The plug setting of relay has to be decided based on rated secondary current of
distribution transformer.
Highest Rating of Induction motor is = 30kW
The full load current of distribution transformer = 2782.41A
P.O.C. = ( Iload + Ist Ifl )
= ( 2600 + 208 41.5 )
= 2767A
where,
Iload is the maximum load current of feeder during starting of 30kW motor.
Ist is the starting current of motor.
Ifl is the full load current of motor.
CTR = 3000/5A
%Loading on CT = 2782.41 / 3000 = 0.9274.
The full load current is 92.74 % of CT primary.
So nearest higher setting of Relay is = 100%.
So selected setting is 100% i.e.5 Amp.
Earth fault setting:
Select the plug setting of the earth fault unit = 20 % IN = 1 Amp.
Time multiplier settings:
Phase fault setting:
The required time of operation of relay = 0.2 + 0.4*0.02 = 0.208 Seconds.
The 3- phase fault current at 415 V bus is 41 kAmp.
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) = 41.0 *103 / 3000 = 13.66
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) = 13.66
Required time of operation = 0.208 Seconds
According to characteristics define in relay manual, TMS = 0.5
Selected TMS = 0.5
Actual time of operation = 0.22 Seconds
Required time of operation = 0.208seconds
Plug setting multiplier (PSM) = 68.33
Selected TMS = 0.8
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Transformer primary Relay 50/50N, 51/51N (TJM 11 R2) 1.3 Second

Relay (R2) must be co-ordinate with Relay (R1)
Plug settings
Current Setting:
Full load current on HV side is = 200A
CTR = 250/5A
Plug setting Amp. Of Relay = 216.6 Amp
Plug setting of Relay > 108.30%
The nearest higher setting is 125%
So the selected setting is 125% i.e.5 Amp.
High Set Setting:
The high set unit should not trip for the fault on 415 V bus or through fault. The
unit must operate on HT fault or Transformer HT winding fault or Bushing fault.
Reflected Fault Current on HV side is = 41000 * 0.415 / 6.6 = 2578.03A
Selected Plug setting of Relay is = 250A
Plug setting Multiplier (PSM) on through fault current of Relay is = 2578.03 / 250 =
10.31
The plug setting multiplier (PSM) for fault on 415 V bus is 10.31
Fault Current on hV side of Transformer is = 20000A
Plug setting multiplier (PSM) on HV fault of Relay is = 20000 / 250 = 80
The plug setting multiplier (PSM) for fault on 6.6 kV bus is 80
The plug setting multiplier of high set unit should be lesser then 80 & greater
then 10.31,
Taking 30 % margin, the PSM of the High Set unit = 10.31 * 1.3 = 13.40
Based on above selected plug setting of the high set unit = 1500 %
The maximum earth fault current for 6.6 kV voltage level = 200 Amp.
The required setting considering sensitivity & stability = 10 % of In
High set setting of earth fault unit = 400 %
Time multiplier settings:
Phase Relay:
Relay should be coordinated with transformer secondary relay by considering fault
level on 415 V bus i.e. 41 KAmp.
Required time of operation = 0.22 + 0.205 = 0.425 seconds
Plug setting multiplier (PSM) = 10.31
Time of Operation on PSM = [0.14 / [(10.31)0.02 1]] * TMS1.0 * [1.3 / 3 ] = 1.26s
Reqd. TMS = 0.425 / 1.26 = 0.3373
Time multiplier setting = 0.3373
Actual Selected TMS = 0.35 (say)
Actual Time of operation on selected TMS = 0.441 Seconds.
Time of operation of the relay for a fault at 6.6 kV bus.
Plug setting multiplier (PSM) = 80
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Time of Operation on PSM and TMS1.0 is = (2.26 * 1.3) / 3 = 2.938 / 3 = 0.9793s

Time of Operation on selected TMS = 0.35 * 0.9793 = 0.3427 Seconds
High Set Setting: Instantaneous operation
As this relay should not be coordinated with any other relay, the required time of
operation should take care of stability & speed both considering this the required
time of operation = 250 milliseconds
Plug Setting Multiplier = 200/20 = 10
At PSM = 10 & TMS = 1, Time of operation of the relay = 1.3 Seconds
So the TMS at required time of operation = 0.2
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COMPREHENSIVE HT MOTOR PROTECTION RELAY ( 96 )

6.6 kV, 250 KW (R1)
Relay: CTMM-509DF17A
Ith: (Thermal setting)
The Connected load of motor is 250kW.
Motor Efficiency = 0.9
Rated P.F. = 0.85
Full load current = 29A (Data is taken from Name-plate)
CTR = 50/5A
% Loading on CT is 29 / 50 = 58%
CT secondary current is = 0.58 * 5 = 2.9A
Current setting range of thermal element = 0.7to 1.3 In
As the motor is totally enclosed the setting should be adopted at 110% of full
load current i.e. 2.9 * 1.1 = 3.19 Amp
Allowable current for thermal setting in CT secondary = 3.19 A
Required thermal setting = 3.19/5 = 0.638
Selected thermal setting = 0.7In = 3.5 Amp.
Selected thermal curve = 2a
%Ith: 90% (Thermal Alarm)
I1(t): ( Stalling protection )
According to Hot curve of the motor, the motor can withstand 4.5 times the motor
rated full load current for a period of 12 Seconds.
The stalling current setting of the motor = 4.5 * Full load current of motor
= 130.5Amp.( CT primary)
= 13.05 Amp (CT sec)
Required setting of the relay = 13.05/5 = 2.61 In
So selected current setting = 2.4In
Selected time setting = 10 Seconds
I2: ( Unbalance protection )
This unbalance setting is generally set at 50 % of the starting current of the
motor. According to starting characteristics, the current is approximately 4.5
Times the motor full load current. Taking some safety margin let us consider the
starting current as 5 times the full load current of motor i.e. 29 * 5 = 145 Amp..
50 % of the starting current = (145 * 50)/ 100 = 72.5 Amp
The required setting = 1.45In
Selected plug setting = 1.5In
The selected time setting = 3 Seconds
I0: ( Earth fault protection )
The standard practice is to consider 10 % of the full load current i.e. 2.9 Amp.
The required setting = 2.9*5/50 = 0.29Amp = 290 mA
The selected current setting: 290 mA
The selected time setting = 250 millisecond
I1: (Instantaneous protection)
During short circuit in the motor or motor feeder, the fault current = 20 KA
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Let us set the relay at 10 times the rated current i.e. = 29 * 10 = 290 Amp.
Required setting of the relay = 290 * 5/50 = 29 Amp
Selected setting of the relay = 30 Amp.
Time of operation = Instantaneous
6.6 kV, 250 KW (R1)
Relay: MM-30
Full load current of the motor = 29 Amp.
Full load current in CT secondary = 2.9 Amp.
Im = Motor rated current = (0.1 1.5)In = 0.58 * 5 = 2.9 Amp
Im = Motor rated current in CT primary = 29 Amp.
In = Rated primary current of phase CTs= 50 A
On = Rated Secondary current of earth fault detection CTs = 50
Ist = Motor starting current = 4.5 * Im = 130.5 Amp
tSt = Motor starting time = 5 Seconds
ITr = Switch over current of motor start up = Dis
tTr = Maximum switch over time from start up = Dis
tm = Thermal time constant of motor while running = 4 Minutes
Steady motor cooling down time constant
to/tm = Steady/ Running motor thermal time constant = 3
to = Steady motor cooling down time when motor current drops below 0.1Im
Thermal pre-trip alarm
Ta/n = Pre alarm motor heating level = 90 %
Ta = Full load temperature of the motor
n = No of starting
Restart Inhibition
Ts/n = Motor restart heating level = 100%
Ts = Restart temperature of the motor
Limitation of the starts number
St N0: Maximum no of starting allowed = 2
tStN0: Time interval in which StN0 counted = 15 Minutes
tBst: Inhibition time (after allowable no of starting are made within a specified set
time) = 10 Minutes
Locked Rotor Protection
Current level:
ILR = Locked rotor current = 4*Im
Inhibition time for the locked rotor funtion:
tLR = 2*tSt = 2 * 5 = 10 Seconds
Current Unbalance( Negative Sequence Current Protection )
Considering unbalance in the starting condition, taking some safety margin, the
required setting = 30% (as per inverse time characteristics)
Is >= Negative Sequence Current = 0.3 Im
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tIs = Time Current Curve = 3 Seconds

I < = Under current protection = Dis
Over current Protection:
Current level :
I> =( 1 5 ) Ist, limited to 20 times In = 2* 130.5 = 261 Amp = 5.22 times of In.
Trip time delay:
tI >= (0.05 0.5) seconds = 0.1 second
Reset time delay:
TBO = 0.15 Seconds
Earth fault protection:
Zero Sequence Current Level:
O >= (0.02 2) On = 0.06*On = 0.06 * 5 = 300 milliAmp.
tO>= (0.05 5) Seconds = 0.25 Seconds = 250 milliSeconds
6.6 kV, 365 KW (R1)
Relay: CTMM-507DF10A
Ith: (Thermal setting)
Current setting range of thermal element = 0.7 to 1.3 In
Allowable current for thermal setting in CT secondary = 4.29 A
Required Thermal setting = 4.29/5 = 0.85In
Selected thermal setting = 0.85In = 4.25 A
Selected thermal curve =3
%Ith: 90% (Thermal Alarm)
I1(t): ( Stalling protection )
According to Hot curve of the motor, the motor can withstand 6 times the motor rated
full load current for a period of 15 Seconds.
The stalling current setting of the motor = 6 * Full load current of motor
= 234Amp.( CT primary)
= 23.4 Amp (CT sec)
Required setting of the relay = 23.4/5 = 4.68 In
So selected current setting = 4.5In
Selected time setting = 10 Seconds
I2: ( Unbalance protection )
This unbalance setting is generally set at 50 % of the starting current of the motor
According to starting characteristics, the current is approximately 6 Times the
motor full load current. i.e. 39 * 6 = 234 Amp..
50 % of the starting current = (234 * 50)/ 100 = 117 Amp
The required setting =2.34In
Selected plug setting = 2.1In
The selected time setting = 3 Seconds
I0: ( Earth fault protection )
The standard practice to set the earth fault relay is to consider 10 % of the full
load current i.e. 3.9 Amp.
The required setting = 3.9*5/50 = 0.39Amp = 390 mA
The selected current setting: 390 mA
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The selected time setting = 250 millisecond

I1: (Instantaneous protection)
During short circuit in the motor or motor feeder, the fault current = 20 KA
Let us set the relay at 10 times the rated current i.e. = 39 * 10 = 390 Amp.
Required setting of the relay = 390 * 5/50 = 39 Amp
Selected setting of the relay = 40 Amp.
Time of operation = Instantaneous
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COORDINATION OF HT PROTECTIVE SYSTEM (BUS-COUPLER, GRID, DG)

CASE-A WHEN INCOMER 1 IS IN THE SYSTEM
BUSCOUPLER 2 51/51N R3
RELAY: CDG-31 -3 second (Two Over Current One Earth Fault Relay)
Considering fault level on 6.6 kV bus = 20 KAmp.
Consider fault F1 on Bus A
Phase fault
The plug setting of Relay = 100% i.e. 2000 Amp.
The PSM = 15,000/2000 = 7.5
Required Time of Operation = 350 millisecond
Selected TMS = 0.1
Actual time of operation = 350 millisecond
Earth fault:
The PS = 10%In = 40 Amp.
The Plug Setting Multiplier = 200/40 = 5
Required time of operation = 400 millisecond
Selected TMS = 0.1
Actual Time Of Operation = 400 millisecond
BUSCOUPLER 1- 51/51N
RELAY: TJMH-131 -1. 3 second (Two Over Current One Earth Fault Relay)
Considering fault level on 6.6 kV bus = 20 KAmp.
Consider fault F3 on Bus C
Phase fault
The plug setting of Relay = 100% i.e. 2000 Amp.
The PSM = 20,000/2000 = 10
Selected TMS = 0.4
Actual time of operation = 520 millisecond
Earth fault:
The PS = 10%In = 40 Amp.
Selected TMS = 0.2
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GENERATOR BACKUP PROTECTION:

VOLTAGE RESTRAINED OVER CURRENT RELAY CDV 62-B (51V R4) - 3 SEC
Plug Setting:
Plug setting of relay is to be decided based on DG full load current
The full load current of DG is 200 Amp.
Considering 100% loading, the curent setting should be = 200 A
The standard setting available is 100%
So the setting selected is 100% i.e. 5 Amp
Time Setting:
Relay should be coordinated with relay of distribution transformer primary by considering
fault level on fault feeding capacity = 1218.07 A
Required time of operation = 0.62 + 0.4 = 1.02 seconds
Plug setting multiplier = 6.09
Time multiplier setting = 0.37
Selected TMS = 0.35
Actual time of operation = 964 milliSeconds.
Over load setting:
For 2 times the plug setting, the relay should operate in 22 seconds at 1 TMS
So the relay will operate in 15.4 Second at P.S. = 100 & TMS = 0.35
For a fault in DG feeder:
Fault current = 18.77 KAmp.
Plug Setting Multiplier = 93.87
Time of operation at TMS =0.40 & PSM = 93.87 Amp, will be = 880 milliSeconds
RESIDUAL EARTH FAULT RELAY CDG 11 (51N) - 3 SECONDS
Plug setting = 20 %In = 40 Amp
Plug Setting Multiplier = 200 / 40 =5
Required Time of operation = 950 milliseconds
The value of TMS = 0.22
Selected TMS = 0.25
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GRID INCOMER:
POWER TRANSFORMER OUTGOING RELAY -TJMH 131 ( 51/51N-R4) 1.3 Sec
Plug setting of relay of relay is to be decided based on Power Transformer secondary
full load current.
The full load current of power transformer = 1312.16 Amp. ( Based on 15 MVA )
The full load current is 65.60 % of CT primary
The nearest higher setting is 75%
So the setting selected is 75 % i.e.3.75 Amp.
Plug Setting Multiplier = 15,000/1500 = 10
Required time of operation = 620 + 400 = 1020 milliseconds
According to characteristics TMS = 0.78
Selected TMS = 0.75
Actual Time Of Operation = 980 milliseconds
Time of operation will be = 980 milliseconds
Earth fault:
Plug setting = 10%In = 40 Amp.
Selected TMS = 0.4
POWER TRANSFORMER GROUND RELAY - TJM 60 (51G)1.3 Sec
Plug Setting = 10%In = 50 Amp.
Plug setting multiplier = 200/50 = 4 Amp
Required Time of operation = 750 millisecond
Selected TMS = 0.35
Actual Time Of operation = 767 milliseconds
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POWER TRANSFORMER INCOMING RELAY-ICM 21B (51/51N-R5) 1.3 Sec

Plug setting of Relay > 92.85 Amp.
> 92.85%
The nearest higher setting = 100%
So the setting selected is 100%
This relay should be co-ordinated with power transformer secondary relay , for a fault on
6.6 kV bus i.e. 20 KAmp.
Required Time of Operation = 0.98 Second
Primary equivalent of Fault current contribution(15 KAmp) = 750 Amp.
PSM = 750/100 = 7.5
Selected TMS = 0.65
At PSM = 7.5 & TMS = 0.65, the actual time of operation = 980 Seconds
For a fault on 132 kV side of the transformer
The plug setting multiplier = 11862/100 = 118.62
At TMS = 0.65 & PSM = 118.62, time of operation = 650 millisecond
GROUND FAULT RELAY- ICM21BNP (51G) -1.3 SEC
(connected on 132 kV Neutral circuit of power transformer)
Plug Setting = 0.1 = 10 Amp
Plug Setting Multiplier = 11862/10 = 1186
Selected TMS = 20 %
Actual Time of operation = 190 millisecond
DIRECTIONAL EARTH FAULT RELAY TJM12 (67N)-1.3 SEC
(connected in 132 kV Line Incomer)
Plug Setting = 0.1 = 10 Amp
Plug Setting Multiplier = 11862/10 = 118.62
Selected TMS = 20 %
Actual Time of operation = 190 millisecond
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VERIFICATION OF UTILITY REQUIREMENTS ON MODERN NUMERICAL TRANSFORMER

PROTECTION BY DYNAMIC SIMULATION:
INTRODUCTION
Power utilities are aware of the specific characteristics and requirements for their
network. For this reason, they may require additional functionality from the protective
devices and secondary systems included in their power network. Therefore ECEPA
requires a number of specific tests to be conducted on the protection system proposed
for a particular application to prove the suitability of the proposed protection system for
the specific application, as in Xiang (1). Only when all of these tests are successfully
passed, the protection system is certified for use in ECEPAs network.
The 500/230kV autotransformers are extremely important power transmission elements
in ECEPAs network. Most of these autotransformers consist of three single-phase
transformer units. Protection systems for these autotransformers have to fulfill very strict
requirements, which are set down by the utility.
TEST SYSTEM SET - UP
ECEPAs analogue power system simulator was used to perform all tests. The simulator
can incorporate the analogue models of lines, transformers, generators etc. For the
auto-transformer protection testing, the simulated test system was therefore set-up in
accordance with single-phase transformer units. The tested power system with the
tested internal and external fault positions is shown in Figure 1.
Figure:-1 Test System Setup

Autotransformer Model Description
The common and serial windings of the autotransformer model consist of more than
twenty coils with independently connectable taps in order to facilitate autotransformer
connection with different turns ratio, faults close to the neutral, turn-to- turn faults
involving any number of shorted turns etc. The LV winding has the similar construction.
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By changing the relative position of the coils and the size of the air-gap of the iron core,
the leakage impedance and magnetizing impedance of the autotransformer model can
be adjusted. The three single-phase transformers were connected in such a way to form
three-phase autotransformer with Yy0d11 vector group connection. The equivalent data
for three-phase autotransformer model are given in Table 1.
Protection System Connections and Settings

Overall three winding biased differential protection function (ANSI device No 87T) with
additional unrestrained operating level (ANSI device No 87H) and low impedance
restricted earth-fault protection function (ANSI device No 87N) were activated within
protection system during all tests. All ten currents connected to the protection system
were recorded during all tests, as shown in Figure 1.
The differential function (87T & 87H) has measured the three-phase currents from all
three sides of the protected autotransformer. However, it shall be noted that currents
from the LV side were located inside of the delta winding. Therefore, measured currents
on all sides were in phase. Due to that fact, autotransformer vector group was set as
Yy0y0 in the protection system. Automatic deductions of the zero-sequence currents for
the differential function were enabled on all three sides within the protection system. This
was done in order to prevent the unwanted operation of the transformer differential
function during external single-phase to ground faults on 500kV or 250kV side. The
cross blocking between the phases was always disabled. Therefore, during any inrush
conditions each phase individually had to restrain and prevent unwanted operation only
on the measurement available from that phase. The minimum pick-up current for the
transformer differential function was set to 30% on the protected autotransformer base of
1082MVA. The differential function overall operating characteristic is given in Figure 2.
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Figure:-2 87T & 87H Operating Characteristics

The restricted earth-fault function (87N)
Measured two sets of three-phase currents from 500kV and 250kV sides and one singlephase current from the autotransformer common neutral point. The minimum pick-up
current for the restricted earth-fault function was set to 30% on the base of rated current
for the 250kV winding. Its overall operating characteristic is given in Figure 3.
Figure:-3 87N Operating Characteristic

DYNAMIC TESTS
More than two hundred dynamic tests were performed during the testing. Different types
of internal fault, external fault, involving faults, inrushes etc. were simulated. However,
the paper will concentrate primarily on internal transformer fault types that are very
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specific for the transformer protection and usually provide difficult operating conditions
for the transformer protection system.
Internal faults followed by CT saturation
Traditionally the second harmonic blocking is used in order to restrain the transformer
differential relays during inrush condition. However, it is known that the second harmonic
blocking can prevent or delay the operation of the differential relay for internal faults
followed by CT saturation, as in Kasztenny et al (2), Sidhu et al (3) and Mikrut et al (4).
The behaviour of the protection system during such operating conditions was tested.
First, the protection system was set-up in the traditional way. The second harmonic
blocking was always active, and the set level for this restrain criterion was 15%.
Figure:-4 Late 87T trip due to traditional use of 2nd harmonic blocking criteria
Figure:-5 Fast 87T trip due to adaptive use of 2nd harmonic blocking criteria
After this test, the unique feature of the protection system, to adaptively use the second
harmonic blocking was enabled. No any other setting parameter was changed. Then the
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operation of the differential function for internal faults was not effected at all by presence
of second harmonic due to distorted CT secondary current, as shown in Figure 5.
These tests show that modern numerical protection system can adaptively use the
second harmonic blocking criteria. The protection system can utilize it as restrain
quantity during inrush conditions, but disregard its delaying influence during internal
faults. This feature insures much quicker operation of the differential function within
numerical protection system for internal faults followed by CT saturation.
Internal turn-to-turn faults
The turn-to-turn fault is a unique type of fault appearing only in electrical machines (i.e.
transformers, generators and motors). The main problem with this type of fault is that the
terminal currents are almost not affected at all, but the currents in the shorted turns can
be many times higher than the rated winding current.
The differential protection function is the only electrical protection, which can detect this
type of fault. Turn-to-turn faults were simulated in serial, common and LV
autotransformer windings. The influence of the different fault locations within the winding
was checked. The following table summarizes the test results for several test cases.
During these tests, the differential function detected and tripped all turn-to-turn faults,
which had two or more percents of shorted turns.
Internal winding-to-earth faults
The internal winding-to-earth fault is unique type of fault appearing only in electrical
machines. The fault voltage varies in proportion to the fault location within the winding. It
has the full phase-to-earth voltage value for faults close to the winding bushing and
value almost down to zero volts for fault close to the autotransformer neutral point.
The most difficult faults to detect are the faults close to the neutral point. For these faults
the terminal currents are almost not effected at all, but the current in the autotransformer
neutral has very high value irrespective of the fault location in the winding. This is
practically the major difference in comparison with the turn-to-turn faults.
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The restricted-earth-fault protection function and the differential protection function are
the main electrical type protections for this type of fault. However due to the fact that the
neutral current is always high for this type of faults, restricted-earthfault protection
function has shown distinct advantages for fast disconnection of autotransformer for this
type of internal fault. Winding-to-earth faults were simulated in serial and common
autotransformer windings. The following table summarises the test results for several
test cases.
The restricted earth fault function successfully detected and tripped all winding-to-earth
faults regardless of the percentage of involved turns and fault resistance.
Energizing of faulty autotransformer
After a couple of incidences in China with energizing of faulty transformer, followed by
failure of the protection system to operate for these conditions, the local utilities have
set-up very strict requirements on new transformer protection system for these type of
operating conditions. Therefore, all types of internal faults including turn to-turn and
winding to earth faults must be tested during dynamic simulations. The numerical
protection system successfully detected and cleared all of these types of faults.
For simplicity, the results of only two test cases are presented in this paper. Both test
cases represent switch-on of the autotransformer from the 500kV side. However, in both
cases the transformer had internal earth fault, which was quickly detected and tripped by
the numerical protection system. For these two test cases direct pictures from the
disturbance evaluation tool are shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7.
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Figure:-6 Energizing of Faulty transformer with internal phase L3-to-earth fault.
Figure:-7 Energizing of faulty transformer with internal 2% winding to earth fault

CONCLUSION
The dynamic tests have verified that the modern numerical transformer protection
system can fulfill very demanding requirements set by the power utility. The key to the
success was the capability of the protection system to combine the overall transformer
differential function (ANSI No 87T & 87H) with the numerical restricted-earth-fault
protection function (ANSI No 87N). During all dynamic tests, these two protection
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functions worked in perfect harmony complimenting each other for different difficult test
cases, as in Bin (5).
The numerical transformer protection system showed the following capability:
- To detect and trip all turn-to turn faults with two or more percent of shorted turns
- To detect and trip all winding-to-earth faults, even the one located only one percent
away from the common neutral point
- To detect and trip all evolving faults
- To detect and trip all types of internal faults during switch-on of the autotransformer
- To remain stable for all magnetic inrushes
- To remain stable for all external faults
REFERENCES
1. Xiang CF, 1998, Power Transformer Protection, Dynamic Simulation Test Program,
English Version of Internal ECEPA Document.
2. Kasztenny B, Rosolowski E, Saha M M and Hillstrom B, 1997, A Multi-Criteria Fuzzy
Logic Transformer Protection, 6th International Conference on Developments in Power
System Protection, IEE Pub. No 434, pp 143-146.
3. Sidhu T S, Sachdev M S, Wood H C and Nagpal M, 1992, Design, Implementation
and Testing of a Microprocessor-Based High-Speed Relay for Detecting Transformer
Winding Faults, IEEE Transaction on Power Delivery, Vol. 7 No 1, pp 108-117.
4. Mikrut M, Winkler W and Witek B, 1989, Performance of Differential Protection for
Threewinding Power Transformers During Transient CTs Saturation, 4th International
Conference on Developments in Power System Protection, IEE Pub. No 302, pp 40-44.
5. Bin L, 2000, ECEPA Report about the Dynamic Testing, English Translation of
ECEPTRI Document No 19992221967
6. IEEE, 1985, Standard C37.91-1985
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Dynamic Simulation of a differential current protection scheme involving

multiple current transformers.
A.D. Parker, R. White (ALSTOM T&D Stafford, U.K.)
P.G. McLaren, E. Dirks (University of Manitoba, Canada)
I - INTRODUCTION:
Multiple current transformers feeding a common burden are found in differential
protection schemes for busbars, machines and power transformers. In the order to test
the relays used in such schemes, it is necessary to reproduce the secondary level
currents produced by the current transformers in the scheme. One method of producing
these currents is by using a synthetic test plant [1] [2] to produce primary level currents
in to actual CTs but an alternative method which now presents itself is real time
playback simulation or real time digital simulation [3] of the multiple CT currents. These
simulations require only a few current amplifiers capable of reproducing the secondary
level currents of the CTs in the scheme & are driven from the digital to analogue
converter outputs of the simulator. In the limit, where only a spill current is required to
drive the relay, a single amplifier will suffice. This is a much more compact & convenient
way to test the relay but we must be sure that the simulators are capable of producing
the same currents as appear on the synthetic test plant.
This topic presents a mathematical formulation for multiple CTs feeding a common
burden. The jiles-atherton theory [4] for ferromagnetic hysteresis is used as the basis for
the current transformer model [5] as it can accurately represent the remanence flux in
transformer cores. A case of three current transformers in a differential protection
scheme is used to illustrate the formation of the problem. The paper presents the results
of an electromagnetic transient simulation carried out using PSCAD/EMTDC/ and RTDS
using the proposed CT model, and compares the results with waveforms produced on a
synthetic test plant. The mathematical model is presented in section-III. And the results
of simulations & comparisons with test results are presented in subsequent sections for
a 3CT & 4CT connection.
II THE B-H LOOP:
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III CURRENT TRANSFORMER MODEL:

The problem of modeling the CT in an electromagnetic transient simulation program is to
determine the changes in secondary currents when the changes in primary currents are
given as inputs to the model. In order to develop the necessary equations, the 3CT
arrangement shown in figure-2 is considered in the following discussion. Each of the CT
branches has an over current element of negligible impedance. The lowest branch will
carry any spill current from the summation of the three CT secondary currents.
Figure:-2 Circuit diagram showing 3CT connection
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The following equations are obtained by applying Amperes circuital law to the core of
each CT (I = 1, 2, 3)
NP = Number of turns in the primary;

NS = Number of turns in secondary;
l = Length of flux path;
Delta H = Rate of change in magnetic field intensity;
Delta IP = Rate of Change in Primary Current;
Delta IS = Rate of Change in Secondary Current;
The subscript 1, 2, 3 are identify as CT1, CT2, CT3
Consider of a mean path length & uniform flux density in the core.
Equation:-2 is obtained by equating the rate of change of flux leakage to the sum of
voltage drops in the secondary circuit (for I = 1, 2, 3) and using the trapezoidal rule of
integration.
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REFERENCES:
[1] GEC Protective Relays Application Guide.
[2] P.A. Crossley, A.D.Parker, Design & Evalution of Circulating Current Differential
Relay Test System. IEEE Transaction on Power Delivery, Vol. 13.
[3] P.G. Mclaren, R.P. Jayasnghe, Simulation of CTs operating in parallel in to a
differential current protection scheme. IEEE Wescanex 97.
[4] D.C. Jiles, D.L. Atherton, Theory of Ferromagnetic Hysteresis.
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Testing Line Current Differential Relays Using Real-Time Digital

Simulators:
I. Voloh, Member, IEEE, B. Kasztenny, Senior Member, IEEE, C.B. Campbell, Member, IEEE
INTRODUCTION:
Some new technologies and tools recently developed offer significant potential to cope
with the challenges facing power engineering in the deregulated market. The
development of relatively high bandwidth channels has given protection and control
engineers an option they have wanted for a long time-the line digital current differential
relay. This type of truly differential unit protection is growing in popularity because it
provides many advantages compared to traditional line protection [1]. However, this
scheme raises new engineering challenges as the communications and protection
aspects have the same importance. These new challenges exist in both design and
testing, and in application of the scheme by utility personnel.
Along with definite advantages, new generations of digital relays have also brought new
issues, which did not exist in the previous analog technologies, such as A/D conversion,
digital filtering, phasor estimation, software quality etc. [2].
A multi-function line differential relay is a very complex product that cannot be
adequately tested with standard relay test sets [3,4]. Real Time Digital Simulators in
conjunction with current and voltage amplifiers and a communication data link simulator
can perform the essential design validation testing required in conditions very similar to
actual installations. This arrangement can also be used to determine if the relay will
meet specific standards and requirements of a particular user in a particular power
system.
LINE CURRENT DIFFERENTIAL RELAYING-PROTECTION AND COMMUNICATION
CHALLENGES:
Modern current differential relays are located many miles apart and connected via digital
communication channels, typically at 64 kbps. The channel bandwidth limits the rate at
which the current phasors necessary for the differential calculation can be inter-changed
among the terminals. The accuracy of time synchronization between the terminals
strongly affects the performance of the protection system. Whatever technique is used
for synchronization it must cope with jitter between relay clocks.
Quality of a communications channel includes such events as variable channel delay,
noise, channel interruption, and fading. Correct operation of the current differential
protection must be assured even though channel degradation usually accompanies
power system faults. Applied protection algorithms must respond to deterioration or loss
of the channel at all terminals of the line in order to prevent incorrect operation. Upon
detecting critical problems with the communications channel the relay performs one or
more of the following:
(a) Block the differential element.
(b) Enable backup protection.
(c) Raise an alarm.
There are two types of current differential system configuration:
Master-Master and Master-Slave. In a multiple-masters design, it is assumed that all
relays are performing protection functions independently and every relay is allowed to
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make a trip decision. In a single-master design, only one relay is allowed to make a trip
decision; slaves will follow the master.
The weakness of the single-master system is obvious; if the master is lost the system
becomes unavailable. In addition, the time-to-trip at a slave relay is longer as the relay
needs to receive instructions from the master. The penalty to overcome this weakness
by using the multiple-master system is a larger bandwidth required. A combination of the
two schemes provides good performance: during normal conditions, all relays are
masters but during communications disturbances the system converts to a master-slave
configuration.
From the power system protection point of view, the line current differential system faces
a number of well-known problems: CT saturation (especially asymmetrical at line
terminals), current reversals, cross-country faults, evolving faults, high resistance faults,
weak-infeed conditions, line energization, charging currents, etc. Three-terminal lines
and tapped transformers create unique difficulties.
POWER SYSTEM CONDITIONS AND CONFIGURATIONS:
Some of the power system configuration and equipment to be modeled are:
Single- and double-circuit lines in a two-terminal configuration.
Single-circuit line in a three-terminal configuration, with an intertie between two of the
terminals.
Series compensated lines.
Lines with shunt reactors.
Lines with tapped transformer.
Single and three-pole operated circuit breakers.
CTs, VTs and CVTs.
Some of the communication channel conditions requiring special attention are:
Noise.
Channel asymmetry.
Channel interruption.
Fading.
Power system conditions to be considered are:
High-resistance faults.
Power swings.
Cross-country faults.
Evolving faults.
CT saturation.
Off-nominal frequencies.
In our tests the Real-Time Digital Simulator (RTDS) [5] equipped with high accuracy
voltage and current amplifiers has been used to simulate variety of power system
configurations and conditions. The Communications Data Link Simulator (CDLS) has
been used to model problems in the communication channels.
Figs. 1, 2 and 3 show system configurations used in the presented studies.
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PROTECTION TESTS:
CT Saturation:
Current differential protection is highly dependent on adequate CT performance at all
terminals of the line. The most severe problem caused by CT related errors is singleterminal CT saturation during external fault, as shown in Fig.4. Factors causing such
problem are: low class CT type, different types of CTs at the line terminals, different CT
burdens at the line terminals, high system time constant. The line differential algorithm
must be designed to cope with this type of CT performance.
Testing concerns are both external faults (security) and internal faults (dependability,
tripping time on saturated CTs).
Evolving Faults:
In a single-pole tripping applications it is important to trip all three phases if a fault
evolves from a single phase to ground fault to a multiphase fault. If one pole was already
tripped and during the open pole condition, a second fault occurs, the relay must
promptly trip both closed phases as well.
Line differential relays, if working on a per-phase basis (phase-segregated) would
typically use the differential element for phase selection. If responding to a combined
signal, the relay would incorporate a dedicated phase selector. In any case, the testing
should focus on race conditions between the tripping protection functions and the phase
selecting function, as well as on accuracy of the latter.
Power Swings:
A current differential relay by the principle of operation is immune to power swings.
Special attention, however, must be paid to frequency tracking and sample
synchronization mechanisms, as well as to distance backup and other protection
functions.
Off-nominal frequencies (or in other words problems with a relay frequency tracking
mechanism) are not critical for the current differential element-on external faults the two
(or three) terminal currents sum up to zero as both waveforms and phasors. Even if the
latter are not measured precisely (due to the off-nominal sampling rate), the sum of the
currents, i.e. the operating signal shall sum up to zero providing the frequency errors are
similar at all the line terminals.
Line Charging Current:
Line capacitive charging current is seen by a differential relay as a differential signal and
may require increasing the pickup setting in order to ensure security during line
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energization. This is particularly true for long transmission lines and cables. Long
transmission lines may be equipped with shunt reactors. Depending on the connection
status of the latter, modern microprocessor based relays can apply multiple setting
groups to tune the settings accordingly. In any case, however, an increased pickup
setting would deteriorate sensitivity of the protection system.
Some relays incorporate charging current compensation algorithms: the line charging
current is calculated based on the busbar voltages and subtracted from the measured
differential signal. Figs. 6 and 7 present en effect of such compensation for one
particular relay.
When testing such advanced functions both steady state and transient conditions must
be checked. Also, if shunt reactors are used to compensate a portion of the line charging
current, their influence on the relay behavior must be verified. Additionally, the relay
must respond to the status of the shunt reactors (compensate appropriately less if the
reactors are in service), and to the status of the CB if the potential signal is taken from
the bus (if the CB is open the compensation should not take place).
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Cross-Country Faults:
A current differential relay applied to double circuit lines must trip for faults only on the
protected line. On loosely-coupled systems, or when the two circuits belong to different
Utilities, this requirement becomes critical.
Fig.8 shows a test case for an inter-circuit fault involving phases A and B: the phase AG
fault is seen by the relay as internal and the phase BG fault is seen as external so the
relay trips phase A only.
Series Compensated Lines:

Current differential relay can be reliably applied to series compensated lines as long as
the current inversion is not a problem. Differential relays are not affected by subsynchronous oscillations directly, but care must be applied when testing the relays as
the frequency tracking mechanism and backup protection functions may be affected.
Weak-Infeed Conditions:
The amount of the differential current is defined by the current contribution from both
ends of the line. Therefore, an open breaker or weak-infeed conditions would affect
sensitivity of the relay. If the line is energized from a weak terminal, the relay may not
operate for some faults until the second terminal is closed. Another concern is the phase
selection for single-pole tripping for relays responding to a composite (not phasesegregated) differential current.
High-Resistance Faults:
As always, current differential settings are a tradeoff between security and sensitivity.
Maximum sensitivity is achieved when the line CT ratios are well matched, and the
charging current is well compensated. If the application is biased towards dependability
and improved sensitivity, it becomes critical to bias the testing procedure to verify
security. Transients, CT saturation, evolving external faults, off-nominal frequencies are
the factors to be considered while testing.
Off-Normal Frequency Conditions:
Any digital relay is subject to errors if the sampling rate is different from that assumed by
the measuring algorithms. This calls for a frequency tracking mechanism. The
mechanism that measures the actual system frequency and controls the sampling clock
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should be reasonably accurate and fast enough to cope with changing system
frequency.
In a current differential system where signals are to be measured at several terminals
and the local frequencies may be slightly different frequency tracking may create some
extra problems. The method adopted for frequency tracking may have significant impact
on the robustness of the system and should be tested carefully.
Stub Bus Faults:
If a protected line is connected between two breakers of a ring bus or breaker-and-a-half
arrangement a problem arises when the breakers are closed but the line disconnect
switch is open. Under this condition, the basic premise of the current differential scheme
does not apply and the relay must be prevented from mis-operating. An auxiliary contact
on the line disconnect switch can be used as a supervisory signal to block the scheme:
Some relays force the fail status of the communication channel [1] blocking indirectly
the differential function, others do it by applying forced-null differential current
calculations.
Both the approaches are appropriate for a simple 2-terminal line but on a 3-terminal
system or a 2-terminal line with a tapped transformer, the forced-null approach offers
extra advantages. Detailed testing should be performed to validate the performance on
3-terminal and/or tapped lines.
Three-Terminal Lines:
Protection systems that use GPS time stamping for synchronization are no different
between the 2- and 3-terminal applications. Systems that use communication channels
for self-synchronization behave differently in three-terminal applications. The time
synchronization process is more complicated, but some extra redundancy is provided by
the need of a third communication channel and the Master-Master mode of operation.
Response of a 3-terminal protection system when one terminal breaker is open must be
tested with special care.
Backup Protection:
Current differential protection is vulnerable to communications problem. It is important to
detect channel failures and promptly activate backup protection during such conditions,
and to return to normal when channel quality is restored. Unfortunately, communications
is often degraded during a power system fault so this mechanism much be fast and
accurate.
This group of tests should include both the back-up protection elements and the
communication self-supervision if the latter is employed by the relay to enable or modify
the settings of the back-up protection functions.
CONCLUSIONS:
Modern microprocessor-based line current differential protection systems are complex
devices that include sophisticated protection algorithms.
Basic validation testing may be performed using phasors and test sets as far as the
protection functions are considered.
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True performance testing requires either a real-time digital simulator or a playback

system capable of driving several sets of three-phase currents and voltages (2- and 3terminal testing).
REFERENCES:
[1] W.A.Elmore, "Current Differential and Phase Comparison Relaying Compared with
Pilot Distance Schemes" presented at the 25th Annual Western Protective Relay
Conference, Spokane, Washington 1998.
[2] H.Ungrad, W.Winkler and A.Wisznievski, Protection Techniques in Electrical Energy
Systems, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York 1995.
[3] Working group F-8 of the Relay Input Sources, Subcommittee of the IEEE Power
System Relaying Committee, Digital Simulator Performance Requirements for Relay
Testing., IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol.13, No.1, pp.78-84, January
1998.
[4] D.Jakominich, R.Krebs, D.Retzmann and A.Kumar, "Real-Time Power System
Simulator Design Considerations and Relay Performance Evaluation., IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol.14, No.3, pp.773-779, July 1999.
[5] Real-Time Digital Simulator, Instruction Manual, RTDS Technologies, Inc., Manitoba,
Canada, 1997.
[6] IEEE Standard For N Times 64 Kilobit per Second Optical Fiber Interfaces Between
Teleprotection and Multiplexer Equipment, IEEE PC37.94 (P1565) Draft #3, 2000.
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Dynamic Testing of Relay by using DOBLE power system model & F6150
Power system simulator:
FRONT-VIEW OF DOBLE F6150 SOFTWARE BASED PROTECTION TESTING SIMULATOR
POWER SYSTEM MODEL IN SOFTWARE:

It is used for automatic calculate a various fault conditions like 3-ph, ph-ph, ph-g, D-L-G
faults.
All Data are taken from generator data-sheet.
Make: Brush Electric Machine, USA
Rated MVA
= 35
Rated V
= 11kV
Fault Current
= 1840A
Number of Machines
= 2.0
Unsaturated direct axis Transient reactance of Machine(Xd')
= 24.3%
Unsaturated Negative sequence reactance of machine(X2)
= 21%
Zero sequence reactance of machine
= 6.5%
Zero sequence resistance of machine
= 0.914%
Consider only One NGR on circuit.
Fault condition is considered as two machines are run in parallel on same bus and fault
is occurred on same bus. So, i have not considered any line data.
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CASE:-1
---->PRIMARY OHMS TAB:
NEAR END
Res. in PU
FAR END
Reactance in PU
Positive Sequence Imp.(Xd') 0.000

Negative Sequence Imp.(X2) 0.000
Zero Sequence Imp.(X0)
0.009
Res. in PU
0.243
0.211
0.065
0.000
0.000
0.009
React. in PU
0.243
0.211
0.065
MVA = 35
kV = 11
CT Ratio : 2000 or 2000 / 1A
PT Ratio : 100 or 11000 / 110V
Method Used for Calculation = Per Unit.
Software calculated value of Base Impedance Value = 3.5 Ohms.
---->RESULT TAB:
Fault Type = 3-PH Fault.
Location = 100%
Grd. Resistance = 0.0
Arc Resistance = 0.0
Load Angle = 0.0
Source voltage consider as a PT secondary Volt:
Near End = 110/1.7325 = 63.5V
Far End = 110/1.7325 = 63.5V
Consider as a Radial Model OFF
Output calculated DATA of Fault voltage and current are;
NEAR END
VA
VB
VC
I1
MAG.
0.00
0.00
0.00
3.779
FAR END
PH.
0.0
0.0
0.0
270.0
MAG.
0.00
0.00
0.00
3.779
PH.
0.0
0.0
0.0
270.0
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I2
I3
3.779
3.779
150.0
30.0
3.779
3.779
150.0
30.0
CASE:-2
Note that I changed Grd. Resistance to 0.0 Ohm.
If you want to use your formulas with a Ground Resistance of 1.0 Ohm secondary, you may use
radio line model:
Fault Type = 3-PH Fault.
Location = 100%
Grd. Resistance = 1.0
Arc Resistance = 0.0
Load Angle = 0.0
Source voltage consider as a PT secondary Volt:
Near End = 110V / 1.732 = 63.51V
Consider as a Radial Model ON
Output calculated DATA of Fault voltage and current are;
NEAR END
VA
VB
VC
I1
I2
I3
MAG.
3.77
3.77
3.77
3.773
3.773
3.773
PH.
273.4
153.4
33.4
273.4
153.4
33.4
Where the 3.773 A comes from:

63.51V / {16.802@90degrees(Xd' secondary) + 1(Grd. Res.)} = 63.51 / 16.832@86.6 = 3.773 @ 86.6 = 3.773A @ 273.4 degrees
THEORETICAL CALCULATION:
Base MVA = 35
Base kV =11
(1)
BASE IMPEDANCE = (BASE KV)^2 / BASE MVA = (11)^2 / 35 = 3.4571 Ohms
(2)
Z in PU on new base = 0.243PU
(3)
Short Circuit or Fault MVA = Base MVA / Z in PU
= 35 / 0.243
= 144.03 MVA
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(4)
Short Circuit Current in kA = ( (Fault MVA) / (1.7325 * Rated kV) )
= (144.03) / (1.7325* 11)
= 7.55kA on Primary side of CT.
(5)
Fault Current Flows in CT secondary is = ( Fault Current on Primary side / CT Ratio )
= (7.55 * 1000) / (2000)
= 3.77 Amp on Secondary side of CT during 3-ph fault
condition.
Above theoretical value of fault current is match with Power System Model software value.
Sample Calculation of L/R VALUE:
Consider a value of X/R of Transformer = 45.
==> X/R = 45
==> (2*3.14*Fn*L) / R = 45
==> L / R = 45 / (6.28*50)
==> L / R = 0.143 = 143.3ms
This value you have to put in "State Simulation" for differential Protection testing.
NOTE:
L/R values are depends on system Impedance (R + jX). So, it may be change to test for
generator, Line, Feeder (OC) protections. But, worst condition you will have to take like L/R =
300ms
135
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References:
1. Protective Relaying, Wan.C.Warrington.
2. Art & Science of Relay, Russell Masson.
3. Power System & Protection, Bhuvnesh Ojha & Date.
4. Engineering Dependable Protection Part-I.
5. IEEE/ANSI Committee Reports.
6. Technical papers, Power system engineering, WA, USA & Cadick Corporation.,
USA.
Thank You
If you need more information Pl. contact to us
KAMIN DAVE:
ORGANISATION: DOBLE ENGG., VADODARA

DESIGNATION: APPLICATION ENGINEER (PROTECTIVE RELAYS)
E-MAIL: kamindave@yahoo.co.in
E-MAIL: info@dobleasia.com
E-MAIL: infokamindave@yahoo.com
E-MAIL: techsupport@doble-asia.com
PH: 98255 68129
KEIL SHAH:
ORGANISATION: PROLINEENG & EXPELPROSYS

DESIGNATION: ENGINEER (Short-Circuit Study, Relay Co-ordination & Testing)
E-MAIL: prolineeng@yahoo.com
PH: 98252 06919
136

32.power System Study-Sc, RC & Dynamic Testing

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POWER SYSTEM STUDY-SHORT CIRCUIT STUDY, RELAY CO-ORDINATION & Dynamic Testing Technique

Power System Study:

MULTIPLICATION OF THIS DOCUMENT IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED

Base Current = {Base kVA (3-ph) / 1.7325*Base kV}

The Ohmic values of resistance and leakage reactance of a transformer depends on

When impedance in ohms is specified in an equivalent circuit, each impedance

Two winding Transformer Parameter Conversions:

Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of a piece of apparatus in percent or per

Znewpu = { (Zoldpu)*(MVAnew / MVAold)*(Rated kVsec / Base kVsec)2 }

Zpu = (Zohms)*(Base MVA / BasekV2)

Star with neutral isolated.

Base Zpri = ( Base kVpri2 / Base MVA ) in Ohm

= (%Z / 100)*(Base MVA / Rated MVA)*(Rated kV / Base kV)2

= (%Z / 100)*(Base MVA / Rated MVA)*(Rated kV / Base kV)2

The neutral impedance values are computed as;

Base Zpri = ( Base kVpri2 / Base MVA ) in Ohm

Rpu neutral sec = ( ROhms neutral sec / Base Zsec )

Base Z pri = ( Base kV pri )2 / Base MVA

= (%Z / 100)*(Base MVA / Rated MVA)*(Rated kV / Base kV)2

= (%Z / 100)*(Base MVA / Rated MVA)*(Rated kV / Base kV)2

= (%Z / 100)*(Base MVA / Rated MVA)*(Rated kV / Base kV)2

The neutral impedance values are computed as;

Base Zpri = ( Base kVpri2 / Base MVA ) in Ohm

Rpu neutral sec = ( ROhms neutral sec / Base Zsec )

Base Z = ( Base kV )2 / Base MVA

Base Z = ( Base kV )2 / Base MVA

= ( 0.32704 / 1600 )*(181 / 1)

= 0.5482 + [{ (0.0077*0.41588*(246.504)2 )} / {(0.41588)2 + ( (0.0077)2 ( 4.2722 + 246.504)2 }]

Series Reactor Parameter Conversions:

Common base MVA = 100, Base Voltage = 11kV.

Shunt Capacitor Parameter Conversions:

R pu = (G pu) / (G2 pu + B2 pu)

X pu = (B pu) / (G2 pu + B2 pu)

G pu = (R pu) / (R2 pu + X2 pu)

V gen pu = (V gen kV) / (Base kV)

Base Z = (Base kV)2 / (Base MVA)

X d = (X old)* (Base kV old / Base kV new)2* (MVA new / MVA old)

Generator technical data-sheet of ALSTOM Electric Machine, UK are as shown below

Short Circuit Ratio

Typical Parameters Considered for fault study:

Per Unit (PU) and Percentage Quantity (%):

Quantity => Voltage, Current, MVA, Impedance

Per Unit Quantity:

Q(PU) = Q (ACTUAL) / Q (BASE)

Choose Base Voltage as 11 kV and Base Power as 100 MVA

On the HT side of Transformer, base voltage is Automatically 132 kV.

On Low voltage side:

In PU, Z = 0.1 on either 11 kV or 33 kV side

Z base = (Base Voltage)2 / Base MVA = (11)2 / 50 = 2.42 Ohms

Z base = (Base Voltage)2 / Base MVA = (33)2 / 50 = 21.78 Ohms

PU = only realistic way to solve big and practical problems.

Basic Considerations of Short-Circuit Calculations:

Is = Asymmetrical RMS Fault Current in kA.

Z base = (Base Voltage)2 / Base MVA = (11)2 / 15 = 8.066 Ohms

= (Z base * Z pu) = (8.066)* (0.2) = 1.613 Ohms.

Single-line to ground fault:

Z base = (Base Voltage)2 / Base MVA = (6.6)2 / 100 = 0.4356 Ohms

= (Z base * Z pu) = (0.4356)* (1.23) = 0.5357 Ohms.

Sudden three-phase short circuit on an unloaded synchronous generator:

View of DOBLE DATC software which is shown a DC OFFSET with L/R=300ms

Symmetrical short-circuit current:

Iac = (Id Id)*(e(2*3.14*f*t)/(Td) ) + (Id Id)*(e(2*3.14*f*t)/(Td) ) + Id-----------(1)

Idc = (1.414)* (Id)* (e(2*3.14*f*t)/(X/R) )

Znewpu = { (Zoldpu)(MVAnew / MVAold)(Rated kVsec / Base kVsec)2 }

= (%Z / 100)(Base MVA / Rated MVA)(Rated kV / Base kV)2

= (%Z / 100)(Base MVA / Rated MVA)(Rated kV / Base kV)2

= (%Z / 100)(Base MVA / Rated MVA)(Rated kV / Base kV)2

= (%Z / 100)(Base MVA / Rated MVA)(Rated kV / Base kV)2

= (%Z / 100)(Base MVA / Rated MVA)(Rated kV / Base kV)2

= 0.5482 + [{ (0.00770.41588(246.504)2 )} / {(0.41588)2 + ( (0.0077)2 ( 4.2722 + 246.504)2 }]

Iac = (Id Id)(e(23.14ft)/(Td) ) + (Id Id)(e(23.14ft)/(Td) ) + Id-----------(1)

Idc = (1.414)* (Id)* (e(23.14f*t)/(X/R) )

(MF) = {1.414(Under root( 1 + (e)-3.14/(X/R)))} / {1.414(Under root( 1 + (e)-3.14/(X/R)TEST))} for