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Operational Amplifier
A combination of transistors, resistors, and (sometimes)
capacitors that Amplifies the difference between two input
voltages and produces a single output
Original application analog computers
Original construction discrete components
Vacuum tubes
Transistors
Now an integrated circuit
Operational Amplifier
Notch
Counterclockwise numbering
Input
#2 V-; #3 V+
Output
#6 Vout
Power supply
#4 VDD; #7 +VCC
Operational Amplifier
Operational Amplifier
Op-Amp Parameters
Aod = differential or open-loop
gain
Output:
180 out of phase with v1
(inverting)
In phase with v2 (noninverting)
Op-amp Parameters
Inverting Amplifier
Non-inverting Amplifier
Adder
Used to add analog
signals
Voltage averaging
function into summing
function
Calculate closed loop gain for each input
Subtractor
Used to subtract analog
signals
Output signal is
proportional to difference
between two inputs
Integrator
Replace feedback resistor of
inverting op-amp with
capacitor
A constant input signal
generates a certain rate of
change in output voltage
Smoothes signals over time
Differentiator
Input resistor of inverting
op-amp is replaced with a
capacitor
Signal processing method
which heighten noise over
time
Output signal is scaled
derivative of input signal
Non-Ideal Characteristics
Offset
DC input is zero but output is not zero
Adjust using pins 1 and 5
10 k
1 k
DM
10 k pot
-15 V
Non-Ideal Characteristics
Finite input impedance
Leakage current
Symmetric input
Common input
No gain
OpAmp non-idealities I
Nonideal properties in the linear range of operation
Finite input and output impedance
Finite gain and bandwidth limitation
9 Generally, the open-loop gain of OpAmp as a function of frequency
is
Aol ( f ) =
A0ol
, A0ol is open loop gain at DC ,
1 + j ( f / f bol )
A0cl
A0ol
R1
, A0cl =
, f bcl = f bol (1 + A0ol ), =
1 + j ( f / f bcl )
1 + A0ol
R1 + R2
9 Gain-bandwidth product:
OpAmp non-idealities II
Output voltage swing: real OpAmp has a maximum and minimum
limit on the output voltages
OpAmp transfer characteristic is nonlinear, which causes
clipping at output voltage if input signal goes out of linear range
The range of output voltages before clipping occurs depends on
the type of OpAmp, the load resistance and power supply
voltage.
Output current limit: real OpAmp has a maximum limit on the output
current to the load
The output would become clipped if a small-valued load
resistance drew a current outside the limit
Slew Rate (SR) limit: real OpAmp has a maximum rate of change of
the output voltage magnitude
dv
limit dto SR
SR can cause the output of real OpAmp very different from an
ideal one if input signal frequency is too high
Full Power bandwidth: the range of frequencies for which the
OpAmp can produce an undistorted sinusoidal output with peak
amplitude equal to the maximum allowed voltage output
f FP =
SR
2 vo max
Slew Rate
IB
Voff
Ideal
I off / 2
IB
10
Noninverting amplifier
Av = R2 / R1
Av = 1 + R2 / R1
Z in = R1
Z in =
Z out = 0
Z out = 0
Summing amplifier
Av = R f / R A / B
Z in1 = RA for v A
Z in 2 = RB for vB
Z out = 0
Howland voltage-to-current
converter for grounded load
Z in = R3 + R4 for v1
Z out = 0
G m = 1 / R2
Z in = R1 R2 /( R2 + RL )
Z out =
Current-to-voltage amplifier
Z in =
Rm = R f
Z out = 0
Z in = 0
Z out = 0
Voltage-to-current converter
Current amplifier
G m = io / vin = 1 / R f
Avi = (1 + R2 / R1 )
Z in =
Z in = 0
Z out =
Z out =
Graphs from Prentice Hall
11
12