SHENILYN S.

MENDOZA

Medical Entomology take-home exam

SHENILYN S. MENDOZA! !
!

BS.BIO (GEN)

I. HUMANS AS FOOD

A. Skin :Keratin
Flesh eaters:
Scabies Mites ( Sarcoptes scabiei ) - Sarcoptes scabiei is a parasitic mite that lives
within the subcutaneous tissues of skin on humans, causing the condition known as
scabies; similar mites cause what is called "mange" in wild and domestic animals. This
mite is distributed worldwide, and can affect all socioeconomic groups. Scabies mites
are generally host specific and S. scabiei is dependant on humans
for its life cycle. These oval, straw coloured mites are very small,
measuring 0.2-0.4mm in length. Their bodies are covered with fine
lines and several long hairs.
The life cycle of the
Sarcoptes scabiei. The life
cycle starts, when an adult
female gets in contact with
your skin. It crawls to
crevices such as elbows,
feet, fingers and genital area. It penetrates the
skin and burrows a tunnel. It can slice skin with
its sharp front legs and mouthparts. The other
legs it uses for holding on to the skin with
suckers on each leg. It has eight legs in total. It
takes about 30 minutes for it to burrow into the
skin. It then continues to drill horizontally across
the skin laying eggs along the way. The tunnels
are usually shaped in a zigzag on the skin
surface. It lays 23 eggs per day for two
months. Then it dies. Six-legged larvae hatch
from the eggs within a few days. They find hair
follicles where they feed and molt into eightlegged nymphs. In order for the nymph to
become an adult male it molts once. This takes
about ten days. To become a female it has to
molt twice which takes about 17 days. Since the
nymph has more time to eat and grow the females are larger than males. Female

Sarcoptes scabiei is 0.250.35 mm wide and 0.300.45 mm long. Males are about half
of that size. Mature female and male mate only once. The sperm keep the female fertile
for the whole two months that it lays eggs.Males do not usually burrow into the skin but
only crawl and feed on it.
Scabies is spread by skin-to-skin contact with another person who has scabies.
The movement of Sarcoptes scabiei and eggs inside the tunnels cause local
inflammation. This allergic reaction causes very intense rashes. People who have
never been exposed to scabies develop allergic response within six weeks.
Pets and animals cannot spread human scabies. It is also not very likely for scabies to be
spread by:

A swimming pool

Contact with the towels, bedding, and clothing of someone who has scabies, unless the
person
has what
is called
"crusted
scabies"

Parts of the body being affected by scabies:

The fingers and webbing between the fingers

The skin folds around the wrists, elbows, and knees

The armpits

The area surrounding the nipples (particularly in women)

The waist

The male genitalia (penis and scrotum)

The lower buttocks and upper thighs

The sides and bottoms of the feet

The back is usually not affected, nor is the head (except sometimes in infants or very
young children).
Scabies lesions can become more irritated and inflamed with scratching, which may
lead to infection.
Scabies prevention and treatment:

Wash all clothing, towels, and bed linens that you have used in the last three
days. Use hot water. You should use the dryer at high heat rather than air drying.
Since the mites can survive on nonliving objects for several days, place the
objects that are not machine washable (such as coats and stuffed toys) into a
bag and store for a week.
Use the medication as prescribed and instructed. Do not use it more than
instructed because you risk causing chemical irritation of your skin.
You can also treat itching with antihistamine medications such as
diphenhydramine (Benadryl), hydroxyzine(Atarax), cetirizine (Zyrtec), and
promethazine (Phenergan).
Cut your nails, and clean under them thoroughly to remove any mites or eggs
that may be present.
Thoroughly vacuum your rugs, furniture, bedding, and car interior and throw the
vacuum-cleaner bag away when finished.
Try to avoid scratching. Keep any open sores clean.

Chiggers ( Trombicula (Eutrombicula) alfreddugesi(Oudemans) and T. splendens

Ewing ) - are parasitic larvae of mites of the subfamily Trombiculinae and infest
vertebrates exclusively. They are distributed throughout most of the temperature and
tropical regions of the world. Chigger mites are also called "jiggers" and "redbugs." The
parasitic larval stages are very small, requiring a hand lens or microscope to see.
Life cycle of the chiggers. Adult chiggers spend the
winter in protected sites such as cracks in the soil and leaf
litter on the ground. In the spring, they lay eggs that hatch
into the parasitic larval or "chigger" stage. This is the stage
that attaches to humans or animals. After feeding for
several days, the larva dislodges, drops to the ground and
changes into a non-feeding pupa-like second larval stage
(the nymphochrysalis) where it develops into a free-living
nymphal stage. After passing through two nymphal stages
(one feeding, one non-feeding), the mite becomes an adult. Development can be
completed in 40 to 70 days, with up to four generations being produced per year.
Chiggers do not burrow under your skin, as many people believe, nor do they
feed on animal blood. They actually feed on the fluids in skin cells. To get the fluids,
they attach themselves to a skin pore or hair follicle and inject a digestive enzyme that
ruptures the cells. The enzyme also hardens the surrounding skin tissue, forming a sort
of straw for sucking the skin cell fluids. The whole process irritates the skin, causing an
itchy red bump that continues to cause discomfort for several days.
The main symptoms are:

Severe itching

Red pimple-like bumps or hives

Itching usually occurs several hours after the chiggers attach to the skin. The bite is
painless.
A skin rash may appear on the parts of the body that were exposed to the sun. It
may stop where the underwear meets the legs. This is often a clue that the rash is due
to chigger bites.
Many home remedies for chigger bites are based upon the incorrect belief that
chiggers burrow into and remain in the skin. Nail polish, alcohol, and bleach have been

applied to the bites to attempt to "suffocate" or kill the chiggers. But because the
chiggers are not present in the skin, these methods are not effective.
Treatment for chigger bites is directed toward relieving the itching and
inflammation. Calamine lotion and corticosteroid creams may be used to control itching.
Oral antihistamines, such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl), may also be used for
symptom relief.

Screw worms fly - is an insect parasite of warm-blooded animals, including humans.

Related to the blowflies that cause fly-strike in Australian sheep, it prefers hot, humid
climates and cannot survive in frost-prone areas.

Old World screw-worm fly occurs in almost all tropical countries except Central
and South America and Australia, including much of Africa, India, Southeast Asia and
New Guinea. Screw-worm flies are also present in the coastal swamplands of Papua

New Guinea adjacent to the Torres Strait. Because of their proximity to Australia, these
pose the greatest risk of entry through either sea trade or a fly strike wound on animals
or people.
The New World species is found in the western hemisphere, including Central
and South America. Long-distance spread of the insect generally depends on the
movement of infected animals.
The larvae hatch within 12 hours and then burrow or "screw" themselves deep
into the flesh, feeding on the animal's tissue.
Approximately five to seven days after hatching,
the larvae detach from the host to pupate on the
ground. They reach adulthood about seven days
after leaving the host and then mate four to five
days after hatching. The life cycle then begins
again, and a female fly can lay up to 3,000 eggs
during her lifetime. Larvae of screw-worm flies are
obligatory parasites of mammals, including
humans. The disease is due to the larvae of the
flies which causes lesions known as myiasis that
can be fatal and causes serious production losses.
The screw worm larvae have curved teeth and a
voracious appetite. They tear at the flesh of the
host, enlarging the wound and causing potentially
fatal infections.
Clinical signs
Adult female are attracted by
skin wounds or navel of newborns
where they lay hundreds of eggs. The
myiasis occurs when the eggs hatch
and the larvae burrow into body tissue.
Strikes may occur at any site on the
body and range from insidious to large
gaping wounds. In a heavily infested
herd 10-15% of animals may be struck
at any one time. Signs include:
Ragged, foul-smelling lesion
containing SWF larvae (maggots)
Constant licking of the lesion by the
animal
Secondary infections and strikes are

common
Fever
Lethargy and loss of appetite
Debilitation
Decreased growth rate
Mortality rate in newborn calves from navel strike may be as high as 30-50%

Sanitary prophylaxis
For control of screwworms, the implementation of voluntary and regulatory actions
can prevent the introduction of screwworms to pest-free areas
Indirect prevention of screwworm infestation includes the avoidance of wounding
procedures at the times of year when screwworm are numerous, the careful handling of
livestock to minimize wounding, the removal of sharp objects (e.g. wire strands) from
livestock pens, and the use of measures to reduce other wound-causing parasites, in
particular ticks (e.g. by dipping and by insecticide impregnated ear-tags)
Any animals to be transported from screwworm endemic zones should be thoroughly
inspected just prior to embarkation
Immediate treatment of all detected wounds with an approved insecticide
(Organophosphate insecticides, Carbamates and Pyrethroids) should be followed by a
precautionary spraying or dipping of the animals before transport
- animals with screwworm-suspect wounds should be quarantined until treated
and wounds have clearly healed
Any vehicles that have transported screwworm positive or suspect animals should be
sprayed with an appropriate insecticide
The only proven method of eradication of NWS relies on a biological technique, the
sterile insect technique (SIT); also applied experimentally to OWS
-In SIT, male flies sterilised in their late pupal stage by gamma or x-ray irradiation
are released into the wild in vast numbers
- Any of their matings with wild females results in production of only infertile eggs
which leads to a progressive population reduction and, eventually, eradication
In field operations, SIT is supported by:
- insecticide treatment of screwworm-infested wounds in livestock
- strict control of livestock movement
- quarantine of infested animals and
- an active publicity campaign
SIT is very expensive because of the cost of continuous production and aerial
dispersion of sterile
flies
- only considered cost effective when used as an eradication strategy in
situations where the geography would favour such a programme

 To prevent the spread of the screwworms beyond present limits, strict observation of
the requirements for international trade, as set out in the OIE Terrestrial Animal
Health Code, is necessary.

bots and warbles are among the few true insect parasites (a parasite is an organism
that lives in another (the host) without killing it). There are two families: The robust bot
flies (Cuterebrids) which include the tropical human bot fly and the rodent bot fly, and
the warbles and bots (Oestrids) which include the northern cattle grub, sheep bots,
horse bots and several others. Adult bot flies are typically large robust flies that often
resemble bees. The parasitic larvae of bot flies are large, often spiny maggots that live
in various tissues of their specific hosts. Sheep bots, for example, live in the nasal
sinuses. Cattle grubs meander through the animal and eventually finish development
under the skin. When mature, the larvae wriggle out through the skin and drop to the
ground where they pupate. Rodent bot flies have a similar life cycle and are the bots
most often encountered in our area. They typically infest their hosts through nasal
passages or other moist body openings including wounds. Eggs and larvae are usually
found in rodent burrows or other areas commonly used by host animals (typically mice,
rats, squirrels, or chipmunks). Cats and dogs may become infested if they come into
contact with newly-hatched larvae. The larvae typically develop under the skin, but in
cats they may sometimes be found in the brain
or in the trachea (throat), where they can cause
difficulty breathing and swallowing. Usually the
first symptom noticed is the presence of a lump
just beneath the skin with a small breathing hole
opening to the skin surface. Human infestations
are possible but very uncommon.

Clinical Signs and Pathology

The early stages of Cuterebra infection are
rarely evident from external inspection, and
they do not become noticeable until growth
of the warbles can be detected by touch. In
smaller mammals, such as chipmunks, the
larvae often produce an obvious
awkwardness in locomotion, which may
render them more susceptible to predation.
The observed effects of cuterebrid parasites in mammals is still conjectural and varies
considerably with the host species involved and the intensity and incidence of
parasitism. In some instances, secondary
bacterial infection may have a greater detrimental
effect on the host than the primary attack by the
Cuterebrawarbles. It has been observed that,
after larvae dropped from chipmunk hosts, the
resulting wounds, with few exceptions, became
purulent and the host's activity was markedly
reduced.
Diagnosis
Recognition of parasitism involves recovery of
larvae from host tissues or subdermal cysts.
Determination of the species, particularly in mixed
infections, is augmented by rearing the developed
larvae to adult forms.

Treatment:
If the bot fly larva is not in an area that restricts movement or other functions, it can be
left intact and will drop off at maturity. The sight on your animal is gruesome, but in
many cases they only cause mild irritation for the animal. Once the warble drops out,
clean the wound with an antiseptic and apply topical ointment if needed. On very small
mammals such as mice, the warble can be life threatening it may need to be surgically
removed.
If the bot fly is killed while it is living under the skin of the mammal, it can release a
toxin which can cause anaphylactic shock (this is one reason why we don't try to kill it

while it is still there). Oral antibiotic treatment may be indicated if a secondary infection
develops in the warble.
Ivermectin is the treatment of choice for those animals with persistent, debilitating
symptoms. Ive also read that mid-summer dose of garlic in the feed can cut down the
incidence of bots. I dont know the dose for this however.

Blow Flies are one of the most commonly seen insects around the world. Their
relatively large size and gleaming green, blue, purple or coppery color is distinctive.
They usually arrive quickly after an animal dies, especially if bleeding occurred. The
presence of large numbers of blow flies in structures usually indicates an animal has
died in or under the structure, although Pollenia often overwinters in structures. Some
species of myiasis-causing blow flies are economically important because they lay eggs
or larvae in injured areas on livestock (sometimes called blow fly strike). Larvae burrow
into live tissue which can lead to serious injury or death of infested animals. For
example, larvae of Lucilia cuprina kill or injure sheep in Australia costing farmers
millions of dollars annually. In other parts of the world, this widespread species rarely
behaves like those in Australia, suggesting they may actually be a different
species.Blow flies are attracted to fresh meat and are typically the first organisms to
come into contact with dead animals. The meat of dead animals is essential for larval
survival and growth. They are also attracted to plants that give off the smell of rotting
meat and as such, are good pollinators.
Distribution - The species of blow flies covered here occur
throughout the contiguous states and in many other temperate
regions of the world as well.
Feeding Habits - Most blow fly larvae feed in carrion or other
decaying organic matter. They often infest wounds of sheep,
goats, cattle, and other animals. Unkempt sheep are
particularly subject to attack. Adult blow flies are attracted to
nectar, carrion, garbage, and other refuse and soggy, bloody or
soiled hair, fur, or wool.
Damage - Blow flies deposit eggs in castration and dehorning
wounds or on dirty, wet wool. The larvae which soon hatch

feed on decaying flesh or matted hair. Infested wounds often become inflamed and the
hair or wool falls out. Blood poisoning may result.
As a rule, most blow fly larvae do not attack healthy tissue. Mature larvae of greenbottle flies, however, have been known to burrow deep into healthy tissue after
spending earlier developmental stages in superficial wounds.
Maggot Debridement Therapy (MDT)
The use of maggot therapy to treat wounds has been round for hundreds of years;
there is even proof of it being used in ancient Mayan civilization. It was also used
during Europe's Renaissance period. Many of the most notable stories about the use of
maggot therapy, however, come from times of war. The medics during the American
Civil War, during which medical supplies were scarce, made great use of maggots to
treat war wounds, probably saving hundreds of lives. Maggots were also used in both
of the World Wars.
Maggot therapy is the use of maggots, or fly larvae, to clean and promote healing in
open wounds. Also known as Maggot Debridement Therapy (MDT), it is one of the
safest and most effective ways
to treat open wounds that are
either infected or covered in
dead flesh. The larvae used for
maggot therapy are raised in
clean fly farms, and disinfected
prior to use in either humans or
animals. The most common
types of fly larvae used are from
green flies and blow flies,
although other species of flies
may also be used.
Mystery still surrounds the
unique way that maggots
'nurse' wounds as they actively
consume dead tissue and fluids. As they cleanse the wound site the maggots exude an
antibacterial agent that has a wide spectrum of activity against many resistant
pathogens. They also possess diverse proteolytic enzymes, which are capable of

digesting bacteria. The mechanical feeding of the maggots and the reduction of
necrotic tissue changes the wound's environment from an acid to a more alkaline pH,
which assists in stimulating healthy granulated tissue.

When Other Treatments Fail

Maggot medicine isn't applied to just any
case. It's employed on wounds that don't
respond to more conventional methods.
"After two or three failures of
conventional medical or surgical therapy,
maggot therapy should be considered for
non-healing wounds, especially those
which are infected or contain dead tissue
[gangrene]," said Ronald Sherman, a
doctor at the department of pathology at
the University of California at Irvine.
Wounds commonly treated include foot
and leg ulcers, burns, and post-operative wounds that have become infected and reopened.
There is no shortage of patients eager to give the
creatures a try. Suffering the maggots for a few days
is small price to treat messy, painful wounds that
have lingered for months or even years, doctors say.

Goo eaters:
Eye gnat - Members of the genus Liohippelates, formerly Hippelatesare very small true
flies and a common occurrence in much of North and South America. Eye gnats are
readily attracted to man and most animals. Eye gnats feed on mucous or sebaceous
secretions, pus, and blood. These insects do not pierce the skin of the host. Some
species are attracted to discharge from open wounds and excrement. Because of their
propensity for hovering around the eyes, this genus has been referred to commonly as
"eye gnats", but are also known as grass flies, eye flies, and fruit flies.
Adults are a true nuisance; although the do not bite, they are attracted to eyes and any
wet areas on the body such as mucus, pus and blood on and around wounds and
exposed genitals of animals; capable of spreading some diseases of man and animals
such as "pinkeye" (conjunctivitis). Their labium (mouth part)
contains a spine that helps the introduction of pathogenic organisms. In this way, eye
gnats could aid in the transmission of acute bacterial.
CONTROL - Repellents, such as those recommended for mosquitoes, provide
temporary relief from eye gnats. Application of ULV insecticide sprays on a communitywide basis may provide temporary control of adults, but more adults invade the treated
area after the insecticide has dissipated.

Follicle mites - Mites are relatives of ticks, spiders, scorpions and other arachnids.
Demodex folliculorum and Demodex brevis are obligatory parasites in hair follicles and
in pilosebaceous glands of human
skin. Although most people are
infested with these mites, only a
small number develop the clinical
symptoms of skin demodicosis. The
size of demodices varies from 0.1
mm to 0.4 mm. Adult parasites have
four pairs of short legs. They can
slowly move on the skin especially
during the night. In humans, the
infestation is known as 'demodicosis'
and occurs world-wide. The
incidence of demodicosis steadily
increases with the individual's age. The infestation may be frequently free of symptoms.
However, suppurative or glanulomatous reactions and inflammation in acute and
chronic forms may occur due to demodicosis in humans.
Symptoms of mite infestation
For the majority of people, mites cause no symptoms. It seems that in older people,
and those with suppressed immune systems ( caused by stress or illness ), the mite
population can dramatically increase. The infestation causes a condition known as
demodicosis or mite bite, characterised by itching, inflamation and other skin disorders.
Rosacea
Blepharitis ( inflamation of the edge of eyelids )
Large pores
Dilated veins
Redness
Thin hair
Adult acne

 blackheads

For animals like dogs with follicle mite

problems grow and their immune system
develops, many times symptoms related to
the mites disappear on their own. However,
in the meantime, your puppy may be
miserable, as demodectic mange can

cause him to itch uncontrollably. Additionally, lesions may develop throughout the dog's
body, which can result in infection. Thus, follicle mange must be treated.
Possible treatment - Tea Tree oil shampoo are the most effective treatment to kill
mites. For animals possibly your vet will choose a treatment based on the severity of
the problem. Some common treatments are a 1 percent rotenone ointment and a 5
percent benzoyl peroxide solution. More resistant or generalized demodex may be
treated with dips in a medicated solution called Amitraz or with injections and daily oral
administration of Ivermectin, the active ingredient in various heartworm preventative
medications on the market.

B. Body Cavities
Cheese skippers ( flies ) is a shiny black fly, 5 mm (0.2 in) in length, found throughout
the world. It is best known for its problematic larvae (newly hatched wormlike forms)
that live in human foods such as dried or processed meat, fish, and cheese. They are
called cheese skippers not only for their habit of feeding on cheese but also because
the older larvae can jump. They grab the folds of their own abdomen with their mouth
hooks, tense their muscles, and then release their hold, flipping themselves 15 to 20
cm (6 to 8 in) in the air.
Note: People sometimes eat cheese skipper larvae
unsuspectingly because the larvae burrow deep into a
variety of foods. The larvae are extremely hardy and
can survive in the intestines of humans and other
mammals. If accidentally eaten, they may cause a
condition known as enteric myiasis, characterized by
vertigo, violent abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhea with bloody discharge. The fly larvae cause
these symptoms by cutting into the intestinal walls with
their mouth hooks. Other species of flies may cause
enteric myiasis but the cheese skipper is the most
significant cause of this condition in humans.
Medical Importance
Cheese skippers are commonly cited as a cause of enteric (intestinal) myiasis in
humans . Once a female oviposits (lays eggs) on meats, cheese, and other surfaces,
the larvae hatch and penetrate deeply into the substrate. Unintentional human ingestion
of cheese skipper larvae causes the maggots to
pass through the human digestive system, often
leading to serious intestinal lesions that result in
diarrhea, pain, nausea, and other gastric
symptoms. Cheese skippers are cited as one of
the most problematic fly species associated with
accidental myiasis
When myiasis occurs, P. casei larvae are usually
found in the intestines, but larvae sometimes
infest the chests and nasal passages of human
patients. Because of their filth-feeding lifestyles,

the adults are believed to be able to act as mechanical vectors of disease pathogens,
similar to house flies.
Economic Importance
Piophila casei are cited as pests of stored products ranging from salted meats to
overripe cheeses. Damage to the stored products can incur both pest management
costs and possible medical costs from accidental ingestion of the fly larvae.
Forensic Importance
Forensic entomologists have used the presence of P. casei larvae as a tool to assist in
the estimation of time of death for human remains. Though they can appear on remains
less than two months old in geographic locations such as Florida, the flies sometimes
do not appear on an exposed corpse until three to six months postmortem, usually after
the body has completed the "active decay" decomposition stage and is beginning to
dry. Entomologists utilize knowledge of the current instar of collected larvae, coupled
with measurements of weather and temperature conditions, to provide an estimation of
the postmortem interval. Furthermore, unlike some other insects used in forensic
investigation, the presence of drugs such as heroin do not significantly alter the
development of P. caseilarvae .

Soldier flies blowflies - One of

the strangest insects encountered
around the home is the larva of the
stratiomyid, or soldier, fly. The
larval form of the soldier fly is a
segmented, maggot-like creature
that can be quite alarming to the
uninitiated. Both the larva and the
adult, however, are harmless.
The most common species of
soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, is
commonly considered a filth fly
because of its habit of breeding in
manure and garbage. The feeding habits of the larva, however, are not easy to classify. The
larval stage of the soldier fly feeds on decaying organic material including manure and very
moist, rotting vegetable matter. In manure piles these insects are sometimes considered
beneficial because they prey on other insects, like house flies. They are frequently found in
compost piles and are being sold by at least one manufacturer for use in specially designed
containers to quickly decompose kitchen waste (similar to earthworms in earthworm bins).
Occasionally, soldier flies infest animal carcasses. Infestations in homes sometimes occur after
a bees nest has been exterminated in a wall or other inaccessible site. This is because soldier
fly larvae are one of several insects that may scavenge waste materials in bee combs.

Blow flies, Flesh Flies - Blow flies and flesh flies

are very common flies associated with dead
animals. The larvae (maggots) of these flies feed
on dead animal tissue and as such are beneficial
in nature as decomposer of dead animal
carcasses. The appearance of the flies or
maggots in the house typically indicates that an
animal has died within the walls or in the attic.
Blow flies and flesh flies are attracted to recently deceased animals, where they lay
their eggs. The larvae infest the animal carcass for 5-10 days before they leave the
carcass and wander in search of a dry place to pupate. These maggots are unsavory
but harmless. These flies are generally
harmless to people and property,
although because of their unsanitary
habits they do have the potential to
spread filth-related diseases such as
diarrhea and dysentery. On the plus side,
they are helping us out by removing and
recycling organic material.

C. Blood
INSECTS ( or Arachnids ) sucks or lap blood or lymph
Mosquitoes :
Mosquitoes are blood sucking insects that are responsible for the transmission of many
diseases throughout the human and animal populations of the world. Mosquitoes belong to the
family of flies called Culicidae and are small fragile insects that have six delicate legs and

two wings covered in scales. The head of a mosquito is equipped with a projecting
proboscis which conceals and protects the long piercing and sucking mouthparts. These
biting insects have a complex life cycle; the immature stage is totally aquatic and the
adult is terrestrial.
CULEX MOSQUITOES
The West Nile virus is transmitted predominantly by Culex
mosquitoes.Culex are medium-sized mosquitoes that are
brown with whitish markings on the abdomen. These
include the house mosquitoes (C. pipiens and C.
quinquefasciatus) that develop in urban areas, and the
western encephalitis mosquito (C. tarsalis) more commonly
found in rural areas. They typically bite at dusk and after
dark. By day they rest in and around structures and
vegetation.

AEDES MOSQUITOES

The Aedes group of mosquitoes includes many

nuisance mosquitoes, as well as species that
transmit disease to humans. This is a diverse
group that includes the inland floodwater
mosquito (Aedes vexans), the Asian tiger
mosquito (Aedes albopictus) and the tree hole
mosquito (Ochlerotatus triseriatus*) all of
which prefer to feed on the blood of mammals.
Floodwater mosquitoes lay their eggs on soil
that becomes flooded, allowing the eggs to
hatch and larvae to develop in temporary pools.

Asian tiger and tree hole mosquitoes are

container-breeding mosquitoes, laying their
eggs in small, water-filled cavities, including
tree holes, stumps, logs, and artificial
containers, such as discarded tires. They are
often the first mosquito noticed in spring, and
later after heavy rainfall. Adults emerging
together from flooded areas are often so
numerous that natural controls, such as
predators and parasites, are overwhelmed.
The Asian tiger mosquito is capable of
carrying LaCrosse encephalitis and West Nile
viruses, though it is unclear whether the mosquito transmits these to humans.

Disease:
ENCEPHALITIS
Encephalitis in various forms such as St. Louis, Western Equine, La Crosse, Eastern Equine,
and West Nile, which was recently discovered in the Northeast is endemic to the United States
and increasing in incidence. Although extremely rare, Eastern Equine Encephalitis has a 30% 60% mortality rate once contracted. Severe damage to the central nervous system occurs in
those that survive the illness.
Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE) is maintained in nature
through a cycle between the Culiseta melanura mosquito
and birds that live in freshwater swamps. Although
Culiseta melanura do not bite humans, some mosquitoes
will "cross bite"; i.e., bite an infected bird and then bite a
human or animal (horse, emu, and other exotic birds),
thereby spreading the disease. These mosquitoes are also
known as "bridge vectors". A vector is a species that
transmits a disease from one host to another. These
bridge vectors may take a meal from a bird and later take
another meal from a mammal.
Symptoms usually occur within two to ten days after being
bitten by an infected mosquito. These symptoms include
high fever, stiff neck, headache, confusion, and lethargy.
Encephalitis, swelling of the brain, is the most dangerous
symptom. Rhode Island has confirmed five cases of EEE
with two deaths in the last thirteen years. The last death
was reported in 1993.

WEST NILE FEVER

West Nile Virus symptoms include fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, and rash, which are mild
symptoms to severe symptoms that include neck stiffness, stupor, disorientation, tremor, coma,
vision loss, and paralysis. These severe symptoms
could last weeks or could be permanent. The onset
of symptoms usually begins three to 14 days after a
mosquito bite. Unlike Eastern Equine Encephalitis,
80% of the people who are infected with WNV will
show no symptoms at all. 20% will show mild to
serious symptoms. People who are mostly likely to
show symptoms if bitten by an infected mosquito
are infants, the elderly and people with autoimmune difficiencies.

DENGUE FEVER
Dengue fever is primarily a disease of the tropics
that is transmitted by the Aedes aegypti
mosquito. Aedes aegypti is a day-biting
mosquito that prefers to feed on humans. It is
also transmitted by the Aedes albopictus(also
called the "tiger mosquito"). Those infected with
dengue can suffer from a spectrum of illnesses
ranging from a viral flu to severe and fatal
hemorrhagic fever (DHF).
The dengue virus is passed back and forth
between mosquitoes and humans and causes
an extraordinarily painful ailment that exists in
four known strains or serotypes. Dengue is
especially dangerous to children, who generally
have one infection, but if bitten again can get a more serious infection that can lead to dengue
hemorrhagic fever (DHF). DHF causes severe internal bleeding, shock, and circulatory
collapse, and is usually fatal to children.
Until recently, dengue was relatively unknown in the Western Hemisphere. In the 1970's, a
dengue epidemic swept through Cuba and other parts of the Caribbean. In 1981 a second
strain broke out in Cuba, accompanied by hemorrhagic fever. The second epidemic resulted in
more than 300,000 hemorrhagic fever cases, and more than 1,000 deaths. Most were children.
In the summer of 1998 an epidemic broke out on the island of Barbados.
Dengue is increasingly becoming a plague of global proportions and may soon eclipse malaria
as the most significant mosquito-borne viral disease affecting humans.

MALARIA
Malaria is caused by a parasite that is transmitted
from person to person by the bite of an Anopheles
mosquito. Anopheles bite during the nighttime and
are present in almost all countries in the tropics and
subtropics.
Symptoms of malaria include fever, chills, headache,
muscle ache, and malaise. In its early stages it can
resemble the onset of the flu. These symptoms can
develop 6-8 days after being bitten by an infected
mosquito or as late as several months after the
traveler has left the area.
Malaria can sometimes be prevented by the use of
antimalarial drugs and protection against mosquito
bites. Some estimates place 40% of the world's population at risk for malaria. It is estimated
that worldwide, malaria claims over one million lives annually. (World Health Organization
1989)
YELLOW FEVER
Yellow fever is a disease caused by the bite of
the Aedes aegypti mosquito. It does not occur
in the U.S. but is common in parts of Africa and
South America. The symptoms of yellow fever
include fever, chills, headache, backache,
nausea, and vomiting; jaundice can also occur.
More serious cases may affect the blood, liver,
and kidneys. The disease can be fatal.
The disease is spread when an infected
mosquito bites a person with yellow fever and
then transmits it by biting another person.
There is no specific treatment for yellow fever,
other than to relieve the symptoms. Once a
person has had yellow fever, they are immune to further infection. The best way to prevent the
disease is through vaccination and mosquito control.

Ticks:
Ticks are members of the arachnid group, having eight legs in the adult stage
and lacking antennae at all stages. There are two groups of ticks: hard ticks and soft
ticks. The main focus for this website will be on hard ticks, which are encountered much
more frequently than soft ticks; in fact, some people will never encounter a soft tick.
Both groups of ticks are capable of transmitting certain diseases to animals, while the
hard tick is responsible for transmitting diseases to animals and people.

Black Flies:
Black flies, also known as buffalo gnats or turkey gnats can be quite annoying
to people and mammals. What are black flies attracted to? Much like mosquitoes, both
the male and female Black Fly feed on nectar. It is only the female Black Fly who bites
since she requires blood for the development of her eggs. Black flies are most active
around sunset during June and July and act as severe nuisances to backpackers,
hikers and other outdoor enthusiasts. Black flies are not active at night, nor do they live
indoors.

Fleas:
Fleas are similar to cockroaches in that they adapt to their environment. They
become stronger and more immune to the popular commercial flea control chemicals
with each generation. Most of the fleas are living in your pet's environment, rather than
in its fur. Every flea found on your pet may mean that there approximately 30 more
living in your home. A single flea can lay as many as 60 eggs per day. The lifespan of a
flea is about 90 days, but the hibernating cocoon can survive up to year without
feeding. Controlling fleas does require some effort, but there are safer and effective
ways to control fleas than chemical-based commercial flea control products.Outside
every home there are wild rodents, birds, bats and other animals which are parasitized
by fleas. When these nest on or near the home, there is a risk of flea invasion,
particularly when the infested animal dies and the adult fleas seek alternative hosts.
When homeowners keep cats or dogs, the risk is even greater because such pets
easily pick up fleas from wild animal sources outdoors, or when they mix with other pets
at veterinary clinics, pet shows or neighboring homes. However, the fact that fleas are
such a common pest does not mean they should be tolerated. Even if you are not
particularly disturbed or irritated by fleas, control measures are necessary because of
the disease risks and the distress caused to pets and visitors.
Cat Flea:
The most widespread flea in homes. Also attacks dogs, wild
animals and people. Adults are stimulated to emerge by vibration
or an increase in carbon dioxide. They are about one to three mm
in size, reddish-brown to black in color, wingless, and are laterally
compressed. They possess powerful hind legs which allow for
running and jumping through hair, fur, and feathers. Adult cat fleas
require fresh blood to produce eggs.

Human Flea:
Especially common in warm regions,
where it attacks dogs and wildlife, as well
as people. Human blood is the preferred
food of Pulex irritans, but it will feed on
other mammals. Today, this species is
most often found on pigs. Individuals that
work with swine are some of the most
likely people to become infested. In
societies where personal hygiene is important, infestations by human fleas are not as
common.

Rat Flea:
The rat flea is a minute parasite that feeds on the blood of rodents. They are known
carriers of a variety of diseases and are considered the cause for the spread of the
bubonic plague. Infection is transmitted after a flea feeds from an infected rodent and
then bites a human. Through biting,
rats also transmit the diseases
carried by rat fleas.

Sucking lice
!
!
Lice are wingless, flattened insects,
usually 2-4 mm long. The claws of the legs
are adapted for clinging to hairs or feathers.
Mallophaga have ventral chewing mandibles
and they feed on epidermal products,
primarily skin scales and scurf.
Sucking lice have piercing mouthparts,
which they use to suck the blood of their
hosts - mostly mammals, including man.
They hang on to hair with a single large claw
at the end of their strong legs. Lice that feed
exclusively on blood do not get a wellbalanced diet, and make up for this by having
bacteria in their gut that provide the additional nutrients.
Human lice ( Pediculus spp. )
are blood sucking ectoparasites of humans from
the family of lice Pediculidae, and they have world
wide distribution. This common human parasite is
strictly host specific and does not affect other
animals. The claws on each leg enable the lice to
hold on to hairs, and they can run quickly over the
scalp through hair. Head lice live their entire life
(about a month) on the head of their host, and are
often concentrated towards the back of the head
and above/behind the ears.

Body lice ( Pediculus spp. )

Lice feed on human blood and live in the seams
and folds of clothing for up to 1 month. They lay their
eggs and deposit waste matter on the skin and clothing.
You can catch body lice if you come in direct contact with
someone who has lice, or with infected clothing, towels,
or bedding. Body lice are bigger than other types of lice.
You are more likely to get body lice if you have poor
hygiene or live in close (overcrowded) conditions. Infestation is
unlikely to last on anyone who bathes regularly, and who has at
least weekly access to freshly laundered clothing and bedding.
Placing clothes in a hot dryer helps kill any lice on clothing. If the
lice fall off of a person, they die within about 5 - 7 days at room
temperature.
Crab lice ( Pthirus pubis )
These lice are found mostly in the hair of the
pubic area. They may also be found under the armpits, in
the beard or mustache and on the eyebrows and
eyelashes. Their development from egg to adult normally
requires from 30 to 41 days. Adult crab lice live about 30
days. Females deposit 30-50 eggs (in her lifetime).

Sand gnats snd flies

Sandflies or sand flies are minute biting insects in
the order Diptera, which includes the true flies. Sandfly
isn't a technical term, but rather a common name
applied to a very diverse group of flies. These flies are
found in the tropical and
subtropical regions of the
world, typically in sandy areas, and some of them carry
diseases, making them a public health risk in addition to a
nuisance.
Disease organisms transmitted

Leishmania. Protozoan parasites that cause visceral

leishmaniasis and various types of cutaneous leishmaniasis
(e.g. oriental sore, espundia) in people.

Bartonella bacilliformis. A bacterium causing the disease

bartonellosis (Oroya fever, Carrion's disease) in
northwestern South America .

Sandfly Fever Virus. Transmitted by sand flies in North

Africa and the Middle East.

Toscana virus. Occurs in the northern and western Mediterranean.

Chagres and Punta Toro viruses. Occur in the New World.

Control
Spraying of residual insecticides on surfaces in the home.
Killing of reservoir species.
Insecticide spraying of larval habitat.

Horse and Deer flies

Horse and deer flies are annoying biting pests of wildlife, livestock, and humans.
Their blood sucking habits also raise concerns about possible transmission of disease
agents. Tabanus spp (horse flies) and Chrysops spp(deer flies) are large (up to 3.5 cm
long), heavy bodied, robust dipterans with powerful wings and very large eyes. They
are swift fliers. These flies are the largest in the dipteran group in which only the

females feed on vertebrate

blood. Horse flies are larger than deer flies; many horse flies are highly colored. Deer
flies are medium sized; they have a dark band passing from the anterior to the posterior
margin of the wings and a yellow to brown abdomen with black patches and
longitudinal bands.

Tsetse fly
any one of a genus of two-winged flies found in
Africa. These flies are slightly larger than houseflies
and are light brown to near black in color. Unlike most
other flies, tsetse flies do not lay eggs. A single egg
hatches in the female's uterus and emerges as a fully
developed larva. The larva becomes a pupa enclosed
in a hard pupa case, and in three to four weeks an
adult tsetse fly emerges.

Stable Flies

Stable flies bite livestock,

domestic animals and man, but
unlike horn flies remain on their
hosts only when attempting to feed.
Adults average about 8 mm long
and are about the size of a large
housefly.
Blood feeding on cattle by even a
few stable flies causes irritation and
obvious annoyance. Cattle become
restless and spend less time grazing, resulting in lower weight gains and milk yields.
Both males and females use this proboscis to pierce the skin of a host and suck blood.
The bite is painful and outdoor human activity may be curtailed when these flies are
numerous.

Congo floor maggots

Congo floor maggot ( Auchmeromyia luteola ) is one of
the four or five species causing obligatory, temporary myiasis
similar to that
caused by
Protocalliphora
species. They
all occur in
Africa south of
the Sahara, and most are associated with
the burrows of larger mammals such as
warthogs. However, it appears to prefer
humans as a hosts. Adults are yellowbrown in color with markings similar to the
tumbu fly. They feed on rotting fruits and
feces.

Buffalo moth ( vampire moths )

Moths in the genus Calyptra are sometimes
known as vampire moths, a colorful name referring to the
ability of at least some species to pierce mammalian
flesh and feed
on blood. Calyptra species have wingspans
ranging from 35 to 72 mm. They are found
in southern Europe, eastern Africa, subHimalayan southern Asia, Manchuria, and
broadly throughout southeast Asia; a single
species,Calyptra canadensis, is found in
eastern North America . The modified
proboscis of these moths has strongly
sclerotized erectile barbed hooks (at the
distal end of the galeae) used for piercing
both thick and hard-skinned fruits such as peaches, plums, and citrus fruits--and
sometimes the skin of mammals . It is likely that blood-feeding moths engage in this
behavior facultatively, depending on regional
availability of mammalian versus plant hosts.
In subtropical and tropical Asia, Calyptra
moths are considered facultative or
opportunistic blood-feeders, typically feeding
on ungulates (hoofed mammals) such as
tapirs, rhinos, and cattle, and occasionally on
elephants and humans. Interestingly, female
Calyptra adults have not been documented
feeding on blood.

II. INSECTS AND DISEASE: THE BIG PICTURE

A. Arthropods as Direct agents of disease or
discomfort
1. Entomophobia and delusory parasitosis
arachnophobia
Entomophobia is the excessive and persistent
fear of insects. Although most insects are not harmful
to humans and pose no threat, those who suffer with
this phobia experience extreme anxiety at the mere
thought or sight of an insect. To avoid them, they may
always be cleaning rooms, floors, doors and windows.
Entomophobia includes the fear of mites, spiders and
insects.

Treatment of Entomophobia
Like arachnophobia, entomophobia is most commonly
treated by systematic desensitization. This behavior technique was founded on the
principles of classical conditioning and was developed in the 1950s. This is a
therapeutic intervention that reduces the link between anxiety and the objects or
situations that produce the anxiety. The goal is to reduce or eliminate the phobia and to
help the patient cope with the fear. The patient will undergo relaxation techniques that
will help alleviate the tension that is in their daily life. Many other fears are treated with
this technique, including the fear of
flying and public speaking, elevator and
driving phobias, and stage fright.
Delusional parasitosis is a
psychiatric condition where people have
the mistaken belief that they are
parasitized by bugs, worms, or other
creatures.Many physicians have
encountered patients who claim to be
parasitized by mites, fleas, lice, worms,
or other unidentified organisms. While
some patients may have parasitic

infestations, many are suffering from a psychiatric condition known as delusional

parasitosis (DP), also called delusions
of parasitosis. This condition is the
mistaken belief that one is infested by
ectoparasites or infected with internal
parasites. Often, because of the
delusion, it is impossible to convince
the patient that the infestation is not
real.

Different DP cases often describe

similar symptoms and problems, many
of which are unrealistic from a
biological standpoint:

These patients typically complain of sensations of biting (by bugs), itching,

crawling or burning.
The infesting "bugs" are black or white at first, but may change color later. The
"bugs" may also change their shape and appearance. For example, the parasites
may change into inanimate objects.
The "bugs" are capable of moving rapidly such as jumping long distances.
The "bugs" often infest clothing and/or linen or may come out of common
household items such as cosmetics and toothpaste.
The "bug" infestations may be so severe as to force the person to move away
from his/her home. In most cases, the "parasite problem" reappears in the new
home.
Family members will often support the contention of an infestation even though
they are not afflicted and cannot see the insects.

Clinical Management
The most effective management of DP cases is a team approach among healthcare
providers, dermatologists, psychiatrists, and entomologists or parasitologists. The
primary healthcare provider should take the lead in incorporating all of the above
disciplines into the patients care. The provider should take special care in suggesting
to the patient that he or she may be suffering from a mental disorder. While there is
often resistance by patients to seek psychiatric help, many will do so if they are told that
psychiatrists may help them to live better with their parasite problem. Psychiatrists are

needed to confirm the diagnosis and to provide long-term treatment, including therapy
with antipsychotic drugs such as pimozide.

2. Desanguination and exsanguination

Annoyance ( fly worry ) and blood loss from bites
Insects may directly injure an animal host in many ways.
Some types of injury may be caused by insect feeding, however,
other insect activities may also be damaging. These effects
frequently have recognizable economic consequences. However,
direct effects, whether on humans, livestock, or other animals, also
have less quantifiable results, including pain and suffering. There
are six major categories of direct effects from insects:

annoyance (and blood loss) - annoyance comes from disruptive

activities of insects, such as flying around or landing on the head, and from feeding,
possibly causing a blood loss (called exsanguination). Insects usually do not remove
sufficient blood to cause a medical problem, although anemia and significant blood loss
caused by insects have been documented with livestock. Nevertheless, annoyance is
not a trivial effect of insects. Human activities frequently are disrupted by insects, and in
some instances, such as when recreational facilities cannot be used because of
insects, annoyance can cause substantial
economic losses. With livestock,
annoyance is of even greater importance.
Continuous irritation from insects may
reduce weight gain in cattle, may disrupt
milk production, and may contribute to
increased susceptibility to other stresses.

Exsanguination is a term that both

doctors and slaughtermen use to describe

extreme blood loss. Traumatic injuries to the body can result in this type of blood loss.
Certain cultural practices in animal slaughter, such as the halal or kosher methods of
killing an animal, involve exsanguination. This usually means that the person or animal
will die unless the blood loss is stopped.
In human terms, exsanguination may be present if the person loses more than 40
percent of his or her blood. Less severe blood loss may fall under the classification of
hemorrhage. Blood is the transport system the body uses to move essential substances
around to cells that need them.
INSECT that cause exsanguination
Black flies can be annoying biting pests,
but none are known to transmit disease
agents to humans in the U. S. However,
they transmit one parasitic nematode
worm that infects humans in other regions
of the world. Onchocerca volvulus
causes a significant human disease
known as onchocerciasis or "river
blindness" in equatorial Africa and
mountainous regions of northern South
America and Central America.
Besides being a nuisance to humans, black flies can pose a threat to livestock.
They are capable of transmitting a number of different disease agents to livestock,
including protozoa and nematode worms, none of which cause disease in humans. In
addition to being vectors of disease agents, black flies pose other threats to livestock.
For example, when numerous enough, black flies have caused suffocation by crawling
into the nose and throat of pastured animals. On rare occasions, black flies have been
known to cause exsanguination (death due to blood loss) from extreme rates of biting.

3. Accidental injury to sense organs

spine/ fluids in eye, etc.
First, their mere presence or attack, without the transfer of germs, may produce a
disease or harmful condition. Itch mites and screw-worms that invade the tissues are of
this type. Some insects cause accidental injury to sense organs. Others produce
intense itching and allergies, such as are caused by body lice, bee stings, and bites of
chiggers and ticks. Some persons have idiosyncrasies that intensify their reaction to
such attacks.

4. Envenominazation
The act of injecting a poisonous material (venom) by sting, spine, bite, or other venom
apparatus

Insect Stings & Bites

Presentation

Minor local reaction with a

painful pruritic lesion at the
site of the sting
More significant local reactions
with swelling and erythema > 5
cm diameter
Anaphylaxis with laryngeal
oedema, bronchospasm &
hypotension

Treatment
Local reactions
Local ice application, elevation, analgesics & antihistamines.
Splint / sling (if upper limb) if severe.

Systemic reactions

Adrenaline 0.01 ml/kg of 1 in 1,000 sol. s.c.; repeat if response incomplete.

See ANAPHYLAXIS guidelines if necessary.

Removal of the sting

Bee: Scrape off skin eg. with fingernail (don't squeeze).

Tick: Lever out intact, gently, with fine tweezers or blunt forceps under head
(magnification helps eg. colposcope). It is important to completely remove the
tick and to thoroughly look for others.

Spider Bites

Red Back Spider

Found all over Australia. Female has
characteristic red / orange stripe on back. Male
is very small, usually has no stripe, and is
harmless.

Features of Bite:
Local
Pain (often becomes intense)
Erythema

Oedema

Sweating
General (gradual onset over hours or days)

Headache

Nausea

Vomiting

Abdominal pain

Tachycardia / hypertension

Muscle weakness

Treatment
Pressure-immobilisation treatment should not be used. The venom only spreads slowly
and confining it to the tissues can increase local pain and tissue damage.
Pain is often the main treatment issue. Application of cold water can help. Analgesia will
be required.

5. Dermatosis: Living in the skin

Dermatitis is a general term used to describe inflammation of the skin. Most
types of dermatitis are characterized by an itchy pink or red rash.
Contact dermatitis is an allergic reaction to something that irritates the skin and is
manifested by one or more lines of red, swollen, blistered skin that may itch or seep

Mange is a class of skin diseases caused

byparasitic mites. Since mites also infect plants,
birds, and reptiles, the term "mange", suggesting
poor condition of the hairy coat due to the infection,
is sometimes reserved only for pathological miteinfestation of nonhuman mammals. Thus, mange
includes mite-associated skin disease in domestic
animals (cats and dogs), in livestock (such as sheep
scab), and in wild animals (for example, coyotes, cougars, andbears). Since mites
belong to the arachnid subclass Acari (also called Acarina), another term for mite
infestation isacariasis.
Demodectic mange also known as demodex, demodicosis, or red mange is caused
by an over population of demodectic mites. There are a number of different species of this type
of parasitic mite, and they

usually live in

the hair follicles of our

pets.

Sarcoptic also known as canine scabies, sarcoptic

mange is a highly contagious infestation of Sarcoptes

scabiei canis, a burrowing mite. The canine sarcoptic
mite can also infest cats, pigs, horses, sheep and
various other species. The human analog of burrowing
mite infection, due to a closely related species, is called
scabies (the "seven year itch"). Sarcoptic mites are
permanent parasites of the epidermis and live in
tunnels within the epidermis.

6. Myiasis
Myiasis is the infection of a fly larva (maggot) in
human tissue. This occurs in tropical and subtropical areas.

Furuncular myiasis caused by Dermatobia hominis is

endemic throughout Central and South America and
produces boil-like lesions commonly misdiagnosed as a
furuncle. Furuncular myiasis commonly presents as a
small, raised, red, bitelike lesion that evolves into an
enlarging, pruritic, erythematous, tender nodule from which
a sensation of movement and lancinating pain can be felt.

Intestinal myiasis is a condition when the fly larvae inhabit the gastrointestinal tract
and are passed out in faeces. This type of infestation results when eggs or larvae of the
fly, deposited on food are inadvertently taken by man. They survive the unfavourable
conditions within the gastrointestinal tract and produce disturbances, which may vary
from mild to severe. The condition is not uncommon and is often misdiagnosed as
pinworm infestation

7. Allergies and related conditions

An allergy refers to an exaggerated reaction by our
immune system in response to bodily contact with
certain foreign substances. It is exaggerated because
these foreign substances are usually seen by the body
as harmless and no
response occurs in non- allergic people. Allergic
people's bodies recognize the foreign substance
and one part of the immune system is turned on.
Allergy-producing substances are called
"allergens." Examples of allergens include pollens,
dust mite, molds, danders, and foods. To
understand the language of allergy it is important
to remember that allergens are substances that
are foreign to the body and can cause an allergic
reaction in certain people.
With the stinging insects the allergens are venom
proteins and salivary proteins in the other two.
Adverse reactions are confined to the individual
protein; i.e. if a person is allergic to bee stings he/
she would be unlikely to react to wasp or ant
stings.
Dust mites are the leading cause of indoor allergies and are too small to be seen by the
naked eye. They have no respiratory system and no eyes. And these tiny creatures can
create enormous problems on those who suffer from allergies as they are the most
common cause for year-round allergies.

B.Arthropods as vectors
1. Mechanical carriers: mechanical transmission
A fly or other insect that walks over and feeds on filth and then deposits the germ-laden
contaminants on food by crawling over it, vomiting on it, or defecating on it is spoken of
as a mechanical carrier. An insect, such as a horse fly, is also a mechanical carrier
when it picks up germs by biting a diseased animal or person and then carries the germ
on its beak until it bites a healthy individual.
Historically, flea-borne diseases are among the most important medical diseases of
humans. Plague and murine typhus are known for centuries while the last years
brought some new flea-transmitted pathogens, like R. felis and Bartonella henselae.

Dogs may play an essential or an

accidental role in the natural
transmission cycle of flea-borne
pathogens. They support the growth
of some of the pathogens or they
serve as transport vehicles for
infected fleas between their natural
reservoirs and humans.

Equine Infectious
Anaemia (EIA) is a viral disease
that affects horses, mules and
donkeys and is most commonly
spread by biting insects such as
horse flies. There is no
treatment and horses do not
recover from the disease, which
can be fatal. Blood-sucking
insects, such as horse flies, are
the most common transmitters of the virus. It can also be transmitted through the use of
contaminated blood or blood products, instruments or needles. Pregnant mares may
pass the disease to their foals in the womb.

Tularemia is an infectious disease caused by bacteria called Francisella tularensis.

Tularemia is usually a disease of wild animals, but severe illness and death may also
occur in people who are infected with the bacteria. There are many different ways in
which tularemia can be transmitted to people. Most commonly, people get tularemia
through direct contact with infected wild animals, usually rabbits. People may also be

infected if they eat meat from an

infected animal. Tularemia can be
transmitted through the bite of certain
types of ticks--in California, the Pacific
coast tick (Dermacentor occidentalis)
and the American dog tick
(Dermacentor variabilis)--and deerflies
(Chrysops discalis).
House flies occur in practically all inhabited areas of the
world. They are particularly common around moist feces
and decaying organic matter. As they feed and breed in
manure and garbage, these insects are likely to pick up
disease-causing organisms. Such flies contaminate
human food by crawling on the surface and depositing
feces (dark spots) and regurgitated liquid (straw-colored spots). Di seases which have
been carried by house flies include typhoid fever,
tuberculosis, dysentery, polio, anthrax, diarrhea,
yaws, cholera, conjunctivitis, trachoma,
tapeworm, hookworm, and pinworm.

2. Obligatory vectors: biological transmission

In biological transmission, the vector plays an indispensable role in the life cycle of the
agent. Biological transmission takes three forms: cyclodevelopmental,
cyclopropagative, and propagative. In
cyclo-developmental transmission, the
agent undergoes cyclical changes
within the internal tissues of the vector
but does not multiply (e.g., mosquito
transmission of the filariid nematode
Wuchereria bancrofti). In
cyclopropagative transmission, the
agent undergoes cyclical development
and multiplication in the arthropods
body (e.g., zoonotic babesial
piroplasms in their tick vectors or
nonzoonotic malarial plas-modia in
anopheline mosquitoes). In propagative
transmission, the agent multiplies, but
undergoes no cyclical development, within the vectors body (e.g., most bacteria and
viruses).
Regardless of the specific mode of biological transmission, the vector usually
transmits the agent anteriorally via its salivary secretions while ingesting a blood meal
from a vertebrate host. In a few instances, zoonotic agents are transmitted posteriorly
when infectious feces deposited on the host are rubbed into the bite-wound, scarified
skin, or conjunctivae of the eyes (e.g., feces of triatomine bugs infected with
Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease).

VIRAL:
Yellow fever is a potentially fatal viral infection that's transmitted by mosquitoes in
tropical regions. It has both an urban cycle and a
jungle cycle that relies on monkeys as carriers
Yellow fever can cause sudden epidemics, with a
mortality rate of almost 50 per cent. Although a
safe, efficient vaccine has been available for the
last 60 years, epidemics still occur, constituting a
health risk in tropical regions. The most common
types of mosquito that transmit the yellow fever
virus are the Aedes aegypti or Haemagogus spp
(which only occurs in South America).
Dengue is spread by a type of infected
mosquito called the Aedes aegypti mosquito. An
infected human is bitten by a mosquito, the infected mosquito then bites another
human, and the cycle continues.
The equine encephalitis viruses are "Group A"
arboviruses (Alphaviruses in the Togavirus family)
that cause encephalitis and/or febrile disease in both
horses and humans. Mosquitoes are obligatory
biological vectors for transmission of these viruses.

MOSQUITOES DO NOT TRANSMIT AIDS

BACTERIAL:
Lyme disease is an infection that starts with a tick bite. The
disease has a variety of symptoms, including changes
affecting the skin, heart, joints and nervous system.
The bacteria are carried in the tick's gut, and can take some
time to move into its mouthparts and then into your body.
The risk of infection increases the longer the tick is left in
position. Normally, the risk is minimal if the tick is removed or
falls off within 24 hours. However, its possible to be infected
at any time after a bite. A partially fed tick, for example, can
pass on the infection relatively quickly. In any given tick
population, its thought that about 15 to 20 per cent carry
Lyme disease. Only a small percentage of tick bites will lead
to the condition.
Rocky Mountain spotted fever is a tick-borne
bacterial disease that affects the cells in the lining of
your blood vessels, making the vessels leak. This
can eventually cause serious damage to internal
organs, particularly your kidneys. Typical symptoms
include: fever, headache, abdominal pain, vomiting,
and muscle pain. A rash may also develop, but is
often absent in the first few days, and in some
patients, never develops. Rocky Mountain spotted
fever can be a severe or even fatal illness if not
treated in the first few days of symptoms.
Plague is a disease that affects humans and other
mammals. The disease is
caused by a bacterium
named Yersinia pestis. People usually become infected after
being bitten by a flea which lives on rats and carries the bug
although it can be transmitted by direct contact inhalation or
ingestion of infected materila. The typical sign of the most
common form of human plague is a swollen and very tender
lymph gland in the neck. This is known as a bubo - hence the
alternative name for the disease of bubonic plague. Other
symptoms include fever, chills, headache, and extreme
exhaustion.

Epidemic typhus is transmitted to human beings by the body

louse Pediculus humanus corporis. It is an acute disease
passed from human to human by the body louse. Endemic
typhus symptoms can include rash that begins on the body
trunk and spreads, high fever, nausea, malaise, diarrhea, and
vomiting; Epidemic typhus has similar but more severe
symptoms, including bleeding into the skin, delirium,
hypotension, and death (10%-60%).

Cyclopropagative transmission the pathogen undergoes a developmental cycle

(changes from one stage to another) as well as multiplication in the body of the
arthropod. The best example of a disease transmitted in this way is malaria, in which a
single zygote may give rise to >200,000 sporozoites.

Malaria is a potentially fatal tropical disease that's caused by a parasite known as

Plasmodium. It's spread through the bite of an infected female mosquito. The main
symptom of malaria is a fever that occurs in regular episodes, with sweating and
shivers (known as rigors), and exhaustion (because of anaemia). In some cases, it can
affect the brain or kidneys.

Leishmaniasis is a parasitic disease spread through

bites from sandflies.
There are different forms of leishmaniasis.
Cutaneous leishmaniasis affects the skin and mucous
membranes. Skin sores usually start at the site of the
sandfly bite. In a few people, sores may develop on
mucous membranes.
Systemic,
or visceral,
leishmaniasis
affects the entire body. This form
occurs 2 - 8 months after a person
is bitten by the sandfly. Most people
do not remember having a skin
sore. This form can lead to deadly
complications. The parasites
damage the immune system by
decreasing the numbers of diseasefighting cells.
African Trypanosomiasis, also known as "sleeping sickness," is caused by
microscopic parasites of the species Trypanosoma brucei. It is transmitted by the tsetse
fly (Glossina species), which is found only in rural Africa. The disease eventually affects
the central nervous system, causing confusion, daytime sleepiness, and personality
changes. Without treatment, sleeping sickness is fatal.
Chagas disease is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, a parasite related to the
African trypanosome that causes sleeping sickness. Chagas disease is an
inflammatory, infectious disease caused by a parasite found in the feces of the
triatomine bug. It is spread by the bite of reduvid bugs and is one of the major health
problems in South America. Due to immigration, the disease also affects people in the

United States. Treatment of Chagas disease focuses on

killing the parasite in acute infection and managing signs
and symptoms in later stages.

Cyclical transmission trypanosomes are transmitted

through the bite of an infected
tsetse fly. Tsetse flies get the infection when feeding on
an infected animal; after
implementation of the parasitic cycle in the fly (1521
days) it becomes infective and
may remain infective for the rest of its life. Transmission
occurs in the early stage of
the blood feeding, when the fly inject some saliva before sucking the blood of its
host.
River blindness is caused by a parasitic worm that lives for up to 14 years inside the
human body. This disease is called river blindness because the black fly vector lives in
fertile areas near rivers. In addition to visual impairment or blindness, onchocerciasis
causes skin disease, including nodules under the skin or debilitating itching.

Filariasis is a disease group affecting humans and animals caused by nematode

parasites of the order Filariidae, commonly called filariae. Filarial parasites may be
classified according to the habitat of the adult worms in the vertebral host. The
cutaneous group includes Loa loa, Onchocerca volvulus, and Mansonella streptocerca.
The most spectacular symptom of lymphatic filariasis is elephantiasis edema with
thickening of the skin and underlying tissue which was the first
disease discovered to be transmitted by mosquito bites.
Elephantiasis results when the parasites lodge in the
lymphatic system.

3. Arthropods as intermediate hosts:

Dog flea and dog tapeworm - The
common tapeworm of dogs is
Dipylidium caninum. Fleas and lice
serve as intermediate hosts when they
ingest the eggs. A dog must bite or
swallow an infected flea or louse to
acquire the parasite. A human could
also acquire D. caninum if they
accidentally swallow an infected flea.
Life Cycle:

The tapeworm looks a bit like a string of pearls - each pearl being a proglottid
segment. These segments are not complete living things, they are egg cases that move
about on their own for a period of time (until they dry out). Once they have dried out,
they look more like sesame seeds. They burst, showering the animal's fur with
individual tapeworm egg packets, each containing about 20 individual eggs.
When your pet also has fleas, there are flea eggs in its fur - particularly around its rear
and tail. They hatch into larval fleas on your pets skin where they feed on skin debris. In
the process of feeding, these flea larva also eat some of the tapeworm eggs on your
pet. Some flea larva and tapeworm eggs fall off of your pet in areas with nooks and
crannies where the pet spends
considerable time - places like
rugs, sofas, carpeted areas,
cracks in wood flooring,
baseboards and the like. In those
areas, the flea larva also ingest
fallen tapeworm eggs.
Within the flea larva, the
tapeworm egg hatches and
develops into an intermediate
stage (cysticercoid). These persist
in this dormant stage while the
larva pupate and develop into
new adult fleas.

When pets groom themselves, they eat any fleas they catch. When the dead flea
reaches the correct portion of the pet's intestine, the new tapeworm begins to develop
and escape, creating a new adult tapeworm.
It takes about a month from the time your pet catches an infected flea, until you see
new tapeworm segments (proglottids) on its stool. The proglottids that you see are not
infectious to you or your pet. To activate, they must first pass through a flea. So if you
pet has no more fleas, it will not contract new tapeworms. The lifespan of these
tapeworms is thought to be about a year.
There are other tapeworms that affect pets, but they are transmitted by eating raw
meat or rodents. Occasionally, severe diarrhea will cause pets to expel large portions,
or even complete tapeworms. When your veterinarian destroys tapeworms with an
injection or tablet, you will not see the dead worms in its stool. They are simply dissolve
by the digestive enzymes in your pet's intestines.

4. Phoretic carriers of other

offending arthropods
Bot flies are also known as torsalo,
or American warble flies. A bot fly is
in the genusDermatobia and is of the
species D. hominis. It is the only
species in the genus Dermatobia that
attacks humans. Bot flies transfer
their eggs to humans by way of the
mosquito. The female botfly captures
the mosquito and secures her eggs
to the mosquito's body.
When the mosquito bites a human
and begins to feed, the bot fly larvae
enter the person's skin through the bite. The larvae grow underneath the skin of the
person. This process takes about eight weeks, during which that time a large, writhing
bump develops on the person's skin. Botflies are very difficult to remove, as the larvae
has hooked spines that wrap the midsection. If a person attempts to kill the bot fly
larvae, without fully removing it, the area will become infected.

C. Arthtopods as control agents of medically

1. competitors

2. parasites or predators

III.Entomophobia and delusory

parasitosis
A.Entomophobia and arachnophobia

A phobia is an irrational, persistent fear of

things or situations. The source of the fear
can create a strong panic reaction symptoms
of which can include:

Sweating

Increased heart beat

Breathing difficulties.

Light headedness

Dry mouth

Extreme fear

Racing dead end thoughts

Nausea

Increased urination/bowel movements

In time, just thinking about the cause of the fear can provoke those symptoms. Many
people have fears or mild phobias that do not need treatment and do not intrude in their
life or those of people around them, but phobias unlike rational fears, negatively affect
their lives and moderate and severe phobias are likely to require treatment.
Fear is an intense aversion to or apprehension of a person, place, activity, event, or
object that causes emotional distress and often avoidance behavior. Fears are common
in childhood.
Babies fear falling, being dropped, and loud noises. A fear of strangers is also common
in infants starting at the age of seven to nine months and lasting until about 18 months,
when it begins to decrease. Fear symptoms in infants are primarily crying, stiffening,
and sometimes shaking. Fears among toddlers include strangers, animals, bugs,
storms, sirens, large objects, dark colors, darkness, people with masks, monsters, and
"bad" people, such as burglars. Children at
this age also commonly fear being separated
from their parents. Fear symptoms in
toddlers include crying and avoidance of the
feared person or object.
In psychological terms, the name for
the fear of spiders is arachnophobia. Most
people have this fear of spiders that won't
make them approach spiders or in any way

touch spiders. It's not completely irrational since

some spiders are dangerous to humans.

Arachnophobia facts

There are approximately 40,000 species of spiders.

Most spiders are not capable of penetrating human
skin.
Most spiders will bite humans only in self-defence.
Most spider bites have no more effect than a bee sting or mosquito bite.
Recent studies show that the toxic effects of spider bites are often of no medical
relevance.
Most venomous spiders are not capable of injecting enough venom to warrant
medical intervention and of those that can, only a few cases are recorded to be
fatal.
Most researchers agree that the Australian funnel web spider is the one to avoid
because of its aggressive nature, but even so, there are only two recorded bites
(not deaths) a year.
In western society, around 55% of women and 18% of men experience a fear of
spiders to some degree.
In the 20th century there were around 100 reliably recorded deaths from spider
bites (one a year on average), but there were 1500 deaths from jellyfish stings.
The house spider usually spotted during autumn running around our carpets
looking for a female mate is not harmful to us.
Scientists are working with spider venom to create a less toxic pesticide
alternative; spider venom can be deadly to insects but harmless to other animals
such as pets. - So, not only do spiders catch flies and mites, they may help us
further tend to our plants in future too.
Arachnophobia, like many other simple phobias, can be treated very effectively
these days.

B. delusory parasitosis
The term "delusion of parasitosis" has been used to refer to an emotional
disorder in which the patient has an unwarranted belief that live organisms, such as
mites or insects, are present on or in his body. The term was later shortened to
"delusory parasitosis" by W. G. Waldron (1962), public health entomologist for the Los
Angeles County Health Department, who had investigated hundreds of cases of the
disorder and made a thorough and
systematic study of it. Delusory parasitosis
is the erroneous belief that the body is
infested with invisible bugs, mites, worms
or other parasites.

Common symptoms reported by sufferers

of delusory parasitosis include:
The feeling of bugs, worms, fibers, or mites
biting, crawling, or burrowing into, under, or out
of the skin.
Being able to feel and see these bugs or
worms even if no one else can. If someone
else can see them, it is rarely a physician.
Thinking their home or furniture is infested.
The conviction that no one seems to
believe the bugs or fibers exist except
themselves, or maybe a friend, who is
also infested.
Reporting to have seen many doctors,
who either refuse to listen, refuse to see
them, or refer them to someone else.
Trying lots of different remedies, none of
which worked at all or for long.
Offering to show or send you the bugs
or fibers.
Being convinced that the problem is
spreading to family, family pets, and
friends.

In reality, the problem is most

often caused by prescription drugs (especially methamphetamines), psychiatric
disorders, dry skin, stress, medical conditions such as dementia and drug and alcohol
abuse or withdrawal. Because the symptoms feel so real, treatment is difficult; however,
therapy with a psychologist or psychiatrist who specializes in the syndrome may help
alleviate the creeping sensations.

IV. Envenomization
is the introduction of a poison into the body of humans and animals. Few
arthropods have sufficiently toxic poisons to kill humans outright. However, humans and
other animals do die from arthropod venoms, and envenomization: biting, as occurs
with spiders; stinging, as occurs with scorpions and some Hymenoptera (such as ants,
bees, and wasps); contact - passively or inadvertently touching a poisonous feature,
such as urticating hairs (hairs that produce wheals and itching) which are found on
many Lepidoptera larvae and some spiders (such as tarantulas); active projection contacting poisons that are secreted or expelled such as vesicating fluids (acid or
alkaline liquids causing skin irritation or blistering), that occur in blister beetles; and
ingestion - accidentally eating poisonous insects (e.g., horses can be killed by ingesting
hay containing dead blister beetles).
Neurotoxic venom is fast acting and is rapidly absorbed, attacking the
central nervous system. By attacking the nervous system, the nerves that control
breathing are paralysed and death is caused byrespiratory failure. The effects of a
neurological bite usually manifest themselves within minutes after a bite due to the
small molecular weight of the proteins being transported and absorbed rapidly by the
body. The victim experiences progressive weakness. Death usually results between
5-15 hours, in severe envenomations however, death may occur in under an hour.The
majority of neurotoxic snakes usually belong to the family Elapidae.

Cytotoxic venom attacks and kills cells of all sorts. In

humans, bites from snakes with cytotoxic venom produce

severe local and organ related symptoms, bleeding,
swelling and pain. Cytotoxic bites probably account for 80% of
all bites recorded world wide.
This type of venom usually presents itself as
painful progressive swelling.
This venom is slow acting.
Immediate symptoms of a Cytotoxic
venom:
* Intense local pain at the bite site occuring

immediately after envenomation.

* Gradual swelling becoming more pronounced as time goes by.
* Nausea and vomiting.
* A distinct metallic taste occurs shortly after
envenomation.
* Loss of conciousness may occur.
* The body usually goes into a state of shock
as a result of the envenomation which often
leads to panic symptoms in the victim.
Other signs and symptoms of a
cytotoxic venom:
Fang marks. This is usually a good
indication of a potential envenomation. This
could either be distinct puncture marks at the
site, or merely a scratch.
The pain can be best described as an intense burning sensation at the bite site.
Edema (swelling) usually occurs shortly after envenomation, progressing further
along the affected area. Cytotoxic venom destroys, or weakens the capillary walls. This
causes a change in pressure within the capillaries which results in fluids leaking into the
surrounding tissue which causes the swelling. The body then senses the loss of fluid
and signals the kidneys to hold onto water and sodium. This in turn leads to an
increase of fluid volume circulating the blood vessels which leads to additional leakage
and so the swelling spreads.
The swelling usually feels hot to the touch, and is painful and tender.
The speed at which the swelling occurs is usually a good indication as to the severity
of the envenomation.
The victim will begin to display haemorrhagic spots (Ecchymosis) which is caused
by the escape of blood into the tissues from the weakened blood vessels.
Depending on the severity, the victim may also develop a haematoma (blood filled
bruise) around the bite area. Once again this is due to the weakening of the blood
vessels which leads to severe internal bleeding around the bite site.
Blistering around the affected area occurs due to the increased volume of fluid
circulating the blood vessels.
The lymphnodes become enlarged (lymphadenopathy). The accumulation of fluid
as well as the body releasing infection-fighting cells to combat the cytotoxic venom
causes the lymphnodes to enlarge several times their normal size. These become
extremely painful to touch.
Bleeding from the wound.
The victim may also experience an increase, or decease in blood pressure (dilation
or constricting of blood vessels). A decrease in blood pressure means that not enough

oxygenated blood reaches the various body parts which in turn prevents the adequate
removal of waste products in the system which in turn leads to shock. An increased
blood pressure may lead to a heart attack.
Muscle twitching.* Victims may also complain from a dry thoat.
Increased heart rate (Tachycardia). This means that the heart pumps less efficiently
and therefore provides less blood flow to the body. This leads to the decrease of
oxygen to the heart which may cause a heart attack.Conversely a victim may also show
a decreased heart rate (Brachycardia) which may cause dizziness,lightheadedness,
fainting, nausea, and weakness.
Tissue necrosis. The nature of cytotoxic venom prevents phagocytes (white blood
cells that ingest or neutralise foreign particles in the body) from locating the dead cells.
This leads to a build up of dead tissue around the bite site.
Blood in urine (Hematuria).
Red urine (hemoglobinuria).
Death

1 Fire Ants
Fire ants are a variety of stinging ants with over 285 species worldwide. They
have several common names, including ginger
ants,tropical fire ants, and red ants.
A typical fire ant colony produces large
mounds in open areas, and feeds mostly on
young plants, seeds, and sometimes crickets.
Fire ants often attack small animals and can kill
them. Unlike many other ants, which bite and
then spray acid on the wound, fire ants bite
only to get a grip and then sting (from the
abdomen) and inject a
toxic alkaloid venom called solenopsin, a
compound from the class of piperidines. For humans, this is a painful sting, a sensation
similar to what one feels when burned by firehence the name fire antand the after
effects of the sting can be deadly to sensitive individuals. The venom is both insecticidal
and antibiotic.
Although most fire ant species do not bother people and are not invasive, Solenopsis
invicta, known in the United States as the red imported fire ant (or RIFA) is an invasive
pest in many areas of the world, notably
the United States, Australia,
the Philippines,China and Taiwan. In just
seventy years, according to a study
published in 2009, lizards in parts of the
United States have evolved to have longer
legs and new behaviors that aid them in
escaping fire ants.
The venom of fire ants is composed
of alkaloids such as piperidine. Some
people are allergic to the venom, and as
with many allergies, may
experience anaphylaxis, which requires
emergency treatment. Other problems are
concentrated to the site of the sting.
The sting swells into a bump, which can cause much pain and irritation, especially
when several stings are in the same place. The bump often forms into a white pustule,
which can become infected if scratched, but if left alone will usually flatten within a few
days. The pustules are obtrusive and uncomfortable while active and, if they become

infected, can cause scarring.[7] First

aid for fire ant bites includes external
treatments and oral medicines. There
are also many home remedies of
varying efficacy, including urine
immediate applied or aloe vera gel,
the latter of which is also often
included in over-the-counter creams
that also include medically tested and
verified treatments.
External, topical treatments
include the surface
anesthetic benzocaine,
the antihistamine benadryl, and
the corticosteroid hydrocortisone.
Antihistamines or
topical corticosteroids may help reduce the itching. Oral medicines include
antihistamines.
Severe allergic reactions to fire ant stings, including severe chest pain, nausea,
severe sweating, loss of breath, serious swelling, and slurred speech,[9] can be fatal
if not treated.

2. Yellow Jacket
Yellow jacket is the common name in North
America for predatory wasps of
the genera Vespula and Dolichovespula.
Members of these genera are known simply as
"wasps" in other English-speaking countries.
Most of these are black and yellow; some are
black and white (such as the bald-faced
hornet, Dolichovespula maculata), while others
may have the abdomen background
colorred instead of black. They can be identified
by their distinctive markings, small size (similar to a honey bee), their occurrence only
in colonies, and a characteristic, rapid, side to side flight
pattern prior to landing. All females are capable of stinging.
Despite having drawn the loathing of humans, yellow jackets
are in fact important predators of pest insects.
Yellow jackets are sometimes mistakenly called "bees", as
they are similar in size and appearance and both sting, but
they are actually wasps. A typical yellow jacket worker is
about 12 mm (0.5 in) long, with alternating bands on the
abdomen; the queen is larger, about 19 mm (0.75 in) long (the
different patterns on their abdomens help separate various
species). Workers are sometimes confused with honey bees,
especially when flying in and out of their nests. Yellow jackets,
in contrast to
honey bees, are
not covered with
tan-brown dense hair on their bodies, they
do not carry pollen, and do not have the
flattened hairy hind legs used to carry it.
Life Cycle and Habitats
Yellow jackets are social hunters
living in colonies containing workers,
queens, and males. Colonies are annual
with only inseminated
queens overwintering. Fertilized queens are
found in protected places such as hollow

logs, in stumps, under bark, in leaf litter,

in soil cavities, and man-made
structures. Queens emerge during the
warm days of late spring or early
summer, select a nest site, and build a
small paper nest in which they lay eggs.
After eggs hatch from the 30 to 50 brood
cells, the queen feeds the young larvae
for about 18 to 20 days. After that, the
workers in the colony will take over
caring for the larvae, feeding them with
chewed up food, meat or
fruit. Larvaepupate, then emerge later
as small, infertile females called
workers. By midsummer, the first adult
workers emerge and assume the tasks
of nest expansion, foraging for food, care of the queen and larvae, and colony defense
Nest
Yellow jacket nests usually last for only one season, dying off in winter. The nest is
started by a single queen, called the "foundress". Typically, a nest can reach the size of
a basketball by the end of a season. In parts of Australia, New Zealand, the Pacific
Islands, and southwestern coastal areas of the United States, the winters are mild
enough to allow nest overwintering. Nests that survive multiple seasons become
massive and often possess multiple egg-laying queens.[3][4

3. Paper Wasp
Paper wasps are 0.7 to 1.0 inch (1.8 to 2.5 cm)-long wasps that
gather fibers from dead wood and plant stems, which they mix with saliva, and use to
construct water-resistant nests made of gray or brown papery material. Paper wasps
are also sometimes called umbrella wasps, due to the distinctive design of their
nests or other regional variants such as Trinidad & Tobago's use of Jack Spaniard.

Nests
The nests of most true paper wasps
are characterized by having open combs
with cells for brood rearing, and a 'petiole',
or constricted stalk, that anchors the nest
(see image, right).[3] Paper wasps secrete a
chemical which repels ants, which they
spread around the base of the anchor to
prevent the loss of eggs or brood.

Behavior
Unlike yellowjackets and hornets, which can be very aggressive, polistine paper
wasps will generally only attack if they themselves or their nest are threatened.[5] Since
their territoriality can lead to attacks on people, and because their stings are quite
painful and can produce a potentially fatal anaphylactic reaction in some individuals,
nests in human-inhabited areas may present an unacceptable hazard

4. Honey Bee
Honey bees (or honeybees) are
a subset of bees in the
genus Apis, primarily
distinguished by the production
and storage of honey and the
construction
of
perennial, colonial nests out
of wax. Honey bees are the only
extant members of the tribe Apini,
all in the genus Apis. Currently,
there are only seven recognised
species of honey bee with a total
of 44 subspecies, though
historically, anywhere from six to eleven species have been recognised. Honey bees
represent only a small fraction of the approximately 20,000 known species of bees.
Some other types of related bees produce and store honey, but only members of the
genus Apis are true honey bees.

Honey
Honey is the complex
substance made when
the nectar and sweet
deposits from plants
and trees are
gathered, modified
and stored in the
honeycomb by honey
bees as a food source
for the colony. All living
species of Apis have
had their honey gathered by indigenous peoples for consumption, though for
commercial purposes only Apis mellifera and Apis cerana have been exploited to any
degree. Honey is sometimes also gathered by humans from the nests of
various stingless bees.

Bumblebee stingers are not barbed,

so these bees sting multiple times if
threatened. Africanized honeybees are
more aggressive than common
(European) honeybees, but still only
attack when the hive or swarm feels
threatened. Like the common honeybee,
Africanized bees sting only once then
die.
Since bees sting when threatened,
the best way to avoid getting stung is to
avoid nesting areas. Solitary bees that
are gathering pollen normally do not
mind being closely observed as long as
they arent touched or threatened. If a bee
flies close, avoid swatting at it and just move away. Should a swarm takes up residence
on your property, the best course of action is to call professional bee removers and
bring in the pets until the bees are gone.

5. Wingless wasp
The Mutillidae are a family of more than 3,000 species of wasps (despite the
names) whose wingless females resemble large, hairyants. Their common name velvet
ant refers to their dense pile of hair which most often is bright scarlet or orange, but
may also be black, white, silver, or gold. Their bright colours serve
as aposematic signals. They are known for their extremely painful stings, hence the
common name cow killer or cow ant. Unlike a real ant, they do not have drones,
workers, and queens. However, velvet
ants do exhibithaplodiploid sex
determination similar to other members
of Vespoidea.

Description
The exoskeleton of all velvet ants is
unusually tough (to the point that some
entomologists have reported difficulty
piercing them with steel pins when
attempting to mount them for display in
cabinets). This characteristic allows them
to successfully invade the nests of their
prey and also helps them retain moisture.
Like related families in the Vespoidea,
males have wings but females uniformly
are wingless. They exhibit extreme sexual
dimorphism; the males and females are so
different, it is almost impossible to
associate the two sexes of a species
unless they are captured while mating. In a few species, the male is so much larger
than the female, he carries her aloft while mating, which is also seen in the related
family Tiphiidae.
.

Behavior
Mature mutillids feed on nectar. Although some species are strictly nocturnal, females
are often active during the day. Females ofTricholabiodes thisbe are sometimes active
up to two hours before sunset. Guido Nonveiller (1963) hypothesized the Mutillidae are
generally stenothermic and thermophilic; they may not avoid light, but rather are active
during temperatures which usually occur only after sunset.

6. Spider wasp
Wasps in the family Pompilidae are
commonly called spider
wasps or pompilid wasps (in South
America, species may be referred to
colloquially as marabunta or marimbondo,
though these names can be generally
applied to any very large stinging wasps.
Furthermore, in some parts of Venezuela
and Colombia, it is called matacaballos, or
horse-killer). The family is cosmopolitan,
with some 5,000 species in six
subfamilies. All species are solitary, and
most capture and paralyze prey, though
members of the subfamilyCeropalinae are cleptoparasites of other pompilids,
or ectoparasitoids of living spiders
Spider wasps are best distinguished from other vespoid wasps in having (in most
species) a transverse groove dividing the mesopleuron (the mesepisternal sclerite, a
region on the side of middle segment of the thorax above the point where the legs join)
into halves. Like other Vespoidea, they have antennae with 10 flagellomeres in the
female and 11 in the male. Most Pompilidae have the inner margin of the eye straight.
The hind wings do not have a distinct claval lobe, but they have a distinctive jugal lobe.
The hind leg has a tibial spur with a tuft or row of fine hairs. The legs are long and
slender with the tips of the tibia (metatibia) long enough to extend beyond the tip of the
abdomen (metasoma). Sexual
dimorphism is not marked,
although females are often larger
than the males, with coloring and
wing appearance varying greatly
among the many species, though
black is the most common color,
with
contrasting aposematic markings
of orange, red, yellow, or white
also being fairly common.
Larvae can also be identified by
physical examination.

The Pompilidae get their common name, spider wasps, from their notable behavior of
hunting and killing spiders, often larger than themselves, as food for their larvae. They
provide each of their larvae with a single prey/host, which must be large enough to
serve as its food source throughout its development. Pepsis thisbe of the southwestern
United States exhibits a direct correlation between adult wasp body length and the
weight of its host spider, Aphonopelma echina. Because the size of a P. thisbeadult is
determined by the size of the host provided
for it by its mother, the seasonal frequency of
host sizes implicitly will determine the size
variation in adult wasps.

diet
Adult Pompilidae are nectar-feeding insects
and feed on a variety of plants. The female
wasps search for a variety of spiders for their
larva to feed on, including wolf spiders
(Lycosidae), huntsman spiders (Sparassidae),
and baboon spiders (Harpactirinae). As the
larva feeds on its host, it saves the vital
organs, such as the heart and central nervous
system, for last. By waiting until the final larval instar, it ensures the spider will not
decompose before the larva has fully developed.

7. Sphecius speciosus(Cicada
KIller)
Sphecius speciosus, often simply
referred to as the cicada killer, is a large
digger wasp species. Cicada killers are
large, solitarywasps in
the family Crabronidae. The name may
be applied to any species of crabronid
which uses cicadas as prey, though
in North America it is typically applied to a
single species, S. speciosus. However,
since there are multiple species of related
wasps, it is more appropriate to call it
the eastern cicada killer. This species
occurs in the eastern and midwest U.S. and southwards into Mexico andCentral
America. They are so named because they hunt cicadas and provision their nests with
them. In North America they are sometimes called sand hornets, although they are
not hornets, which belong to the family Vespidae. Cicada killers exert a measure of
natural control on cicada populations and thus may directly benefit the deciduous trees
upon which their cicada prey feed.
Adult eastern cicada killer wasps are large, 1.5 to 5.0 centimetres (0.6 to 2.0 in)
long, robust wasps with hairy, reddish and black areas on the thorax (middle part), and
are black to reddish brown marked with light yellow stripes on the abdominal (rear)
segments. The wings are brownish. Coloration superficially resembles that of
some yellowjacket and hornet species. The females are somewhat larger than the
males, and both are among the largest wasps seen in the Eastern United States, their
unusual size giving them a uniquely fearsome appearance.
Interaction with humans
Although cicada killers are large, female
cicada killer wasps are not aggressive and
rarely sting unless they are grasped
roughly, stepped upon with bare feet, or
caught in clothing, etc. One author who
has been stung indicates that, for him, the
stings are not much more than a
"pinprick".[2] Males aggressively defend
their perching areas on nesting sites
against rival males but they have no sting.

Although they appear to attack anything that moves near their territories, male cicada
killers are actually investigating anything that might be a female cicada killer ready to
mate. Such close inspection appears to many people to be an attack, but male and
female cicada killers do not land on people and attempt to sting. If handled roughly,
females will sting, and males will jab with a sharp spine on the tip of their abdomen.
Both sexes are well equipped to bite, as they have large jaws; however, they do not
appear to grasp human skin and bite. They are generally non-aggressive towards
humans and usually fly away when swatted at, instead of attacking.

8.Caterpillar
Caterpillars are the larval form of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order
comprising butterflies and moths). They are mostly herbivorous in food habit, although some species
are insectivorous. Caterpillars are voracious feeders and many of them are considered to be pests in agriculture.
Many moth species are better known in their
caterpillar stages because of the damage they
cause to fruits and other agricultural produce.
The etymological origins of the word are from
the early 16th century, from Middle
English catirpel, catirpeller, probably an
alteration of Old North
French catepelose: cate, cat (from
Latin cattus) + pelose, hairy (from
Latin pilsus).[1]

Urticating hairs protect the caterpillars and their

later stages of development (Pupae, moth, egg)
from predators.

They are tiny: 0.1 0.2 mm (This is only true of the processionary moth the gold tail moth has easily visible golden
brown hairs.)

They are abundant: 600,000 per caterpillar.

They stick: in the nest, on the bark, in the grass, in foliage and on clothes.

They snap off when the caterpillar feels threatened and keep their potency over many years.

How does one come into contact with the hairs?

By being near to or in the general surroundings of infested bushes or trees. The hairs drift in the air and can be blown
over a distance of 200 m.

If the nests or caterpillars are touched.

If work is being carried out and caterpillar hairs which are present on the ground are stirred up: e.g. by raking up
leaves, mowing, or clearing up trimmings.

When bark in which there was once a

processionary moth nest is touched or worked.
(The nest of the oak processionary moth is
mainly to be found on the trunk, whilst the
nests of the pine processionary moth and the
gold tail moths are in the periphery areas of the
crown.)

The urticating hairs of the golden tail moth, although less

aggressive, are however used for protection in every
stage of development: the hairs which are produced only
by the caterpillars are woven into the pupae cocoons the
female then strokes them onto her abdomen from where
they make their way into the egg clutches during egg laying.

Symptoms and precautions

Skin irritations (caterpillar dermatitis)
One reaction after contact with stinging hairs of the gold tail moth may be extreme itching; this can occur hours after contact,
but may continue over several days. Although only a slight rash occurs
after contact with the gold tail caterpillar extreme itching can prevent a
person sleeping. After contact with the stinging hairs of oak
processionary or pine processionary moths the following symptoms may
also occur:

Redness, swelling, inflammation of the skin

Inflammation of the conjunctiva and eyes
Redness, aversion to light, swelling of the eyelids, inflammation of the
inside of the eye (extreme case)

Inflammation of the upper respiratory system

Inflammation of the throat, swelling of the mucus membrane in the
nose, bronchitis, asthma like symptoms, allergic shock reaction (extreme
case)
In the case of processionary moths a further complication is that
increased caterpillar contact increases the sensitivity and therefore the intensity of reaction of the affected person.

Possible results of contact with the stinging hairs of processionary moths.

Immediate measures to be taken when affected

Shower immediately, wash hair (rinse with soap, do not rub), change clothes.

Do not scratch; free possible contaminated areas of skin using adhesive tape.

Contaminated clothes should be stored in an air tight container and

washed separately at 60 C, or even hotter.

The affected areas can be treated with antihistamine (E.g. Fenistil).

Should there be extreme itching or if other conspicuous symptoms

should appear a doctor should be consulted and he should be
informed that the person has been in contact with caterpillar hairs.

In Switzerland health problems caused by caterpillars are treated by health

insurance companies as accidents (analogue with tick bites).

Measures to be taken in infested areas

a) Assessment of the situation

What species is involved? Does it have urticating hairs?

Conflict potential in the area: how often and how urgently must the
area be entered?

After a situation has been assessed and it is clear that there is an infestation of
caterpillars with urticating hairs then a plan of action will be prepared using the following guide lines:

Work should be finished with protective clothing or put on hold

The area should be cordoned off and information made available for probable users

The case should be recorded and documented (map, photos) for the cantonal security representative and as a basis
for long term measures

Control measures for caterpillars or plans for long term preventative measures should be planned together with
experts.

b) Prevention measures
In areas infested by gold tail or pine processionary moths the total removal of all possible winter nests can provide infestation
free areas which should last at least up until the following autumn.

Non dangerous species without urticating hairs

Small eggar.
Photo: B. Wermelinger (WSL)

Ermine moth.
Photo: B. Wermelinger (WSL)

Harmless species which have a similar biology and whose population could be endangered should not be controlled:
a) Small eggar
Wide spread in the canton of Wallis, otherwise sporadic in the cantons of Tessin, Bndner Rhine Valley, the area around
Zrich, and in the Walensee area. Due to its rarity it should be protected. Nests should never be removed!

Feeding plants: Birch, blackthorn, sweet chestnut, sweet cherry

Difference to gold tail moth: the up to 20 cm large nest hangs like a bag

Difference to the pine processionary moth: the species does not go onto pine trees

b) Ermine moths
Nine very similar species, generally very widespread.

Feeding plants: spindle tree, fruit trees, willow and other bushes

Similarities: complete defoliation of bushes (in June)

Differences: after defoliation veil like webs cover whole plants.

9. Brown recluse spider

The brown recluse spider or violin spider, Loxosceles reclusa, Sicariidae (formerly placed in a family
"Loxoscelidae") is a spiderwith a venomous bite.
Brown recluse spiders are usually between 620 mm (14 in and 34 in), but may grow larger. While typically light to
medium brown, they range in color from cream-colored to dark brown or blackish gray. The cephalothorax and
abdomen may not necessarily be the same color. These spiders usually have markings on the dorsal side of their
cephalothorax, with a black line coming from it that looks like a violin with the neck of the violin pointing to the rear
of the spider, resulting in the nicknames fiddleback spider, brown fiddler, or violin spider.

Description
Since the violin pattern is not diagnostic, and other spiders can have similar markings (such as cellar
spiders and pirate spiders), for more assurance in identification it is imperative to examine the eyes. Most spiders
have eight eyes; recluse spiders have six eyes arranged in pairs (dyads) with one median pair and
two lateral pairs. Only a few other spiders have three pairs of eyes arranged in this way (e.g., scytodids).
Recluses have no obvious coloration patterns on the abdomen or legs, and the legs lack spines.[1]The abdomen is
covered with fine short hairs that, when viewed without magnification, give it the appearance of soft fur. The leg
joints may appear to be a slightly lighter color.

Life-cycle
Adult brown recluse spiders often live about one to two years. Each female produces several egg sacs
over a period of two to three months, from May to July, with approximately fifty eggs in each sac. The
eggs hatch in about one month. The spiderlings take about one year to grow to adulthood. The brown
recluse spider is resilient, and can tolerate up to six months of extreme drought and scarcity or absence
of food, most notably observed on one occasion to survive in controlled captivity for over five seasons
without food.[2

Bite
As suggested by its specific epithet reclusa (recluse), the brown recluse spider is rarely aggressive, and
bites from the species are uncommon. In 2001, more than 2,000 brown recluse spiders were removed
from a heavily infested home in Kansas, yet the four residents who had lived there for years were never
harmed by the spiders, despite many encounters with them.[13] The spider usually bites only when
pressed against the skin, such as when tangled within clothes, towels, bedding, inside work gloves, etc.
Many human victims report having been bitten after putting on clothes that had not been worn recently, or
had been left for many days undisturbed on the floor. However, the fangs of the brown recluse are so tiny
they are unable to penetrate most fabric.[14]
The bite frequently is not felt initially and may not be immediately painful, but it can be serious. The
brown recluse bears a potentially deadly hemotoxic venom. Most bites are minor with no necrosis.
However, a small number of brown recluse bites do produce severe dermonecrotic lesions (i.e. necrosis);
an even smaller number produce severe cutaneous (skin) or viscerocutaneous (systemic) symptoms. In
one study of clinically diagnosed brown recluse bites, skin necrosis occurred 37% of the time, while
systemic illness occurred 14% of the time.[15] In these cases, the bites produced a range of symptoms
common to many members of the Loxosceles genus known as loxoscelism, which may be cutaneous and
viscerocutaneous. In very rare cases, bites can even cause hemolysisthe bursting of red blood cells.[16]
49% of brown recluse bites do not result in necrosis or systemic effects. When both types of loxoscelism
do result, systemic effects may occur before necrosis, as the venom spreads throughout the body in
minutes. Children, the elderly, and the debilitatingly ill may be more susceptible to systemic loxoscelism.
The systemic symptoms most commonly experienced include nausea, vomiting, fever, rashes, and
muscle and joint pain. Rarely, such bites can result in hemolysis, thrombocytopenia, disseminated
intravascular coagulation, organ damage, and even death.[17] Most fatalities are in children under the age
of seven[18] or those with a weak immune system.
While the majority of brown recluse spider bites do not result in any symptoms, cutaneous symptoms
occur more frequently than systemic symptoms. In such instances, the bite forms a necrotizing ulcer that
destroys soft tissue and may take months to heal, leaving deep scars. These bites usually become painful
and itchy within 2 to 8 hours. Pain and other local effects worsen 12 to 36 hours after the bite, and the
necrosis develops over the next few days.[19] Over time, the wound may grow to as large as 25 cm
(10 inches). The damaged tissue becomes gangrenous and eventually sloughs away.

Validity of necrosis claims

It is estimated that 80% of reported brown recluse bites have been misdiagnosed.[4] There is now
an ELISA-based test for brown recluse venom that can determine whether a wound is a brown recluse

bite, although it is not commercially available and not in routine clinical use. Clinical diagnoses often
use Occam's razor principle in diagnosing bites based on what spiders the patient likely encountered and
previous similar diagnoses.[4][15][20]
There are numerous documented infectious and noninfectious conditions that produce wounds that have
been initially misdiagnosed as recluse bites by medical professionals, including:

Pyoderma gangrenosum

Toxicodendron dermatitis

Infection by Staphylococcus

Squamous cell carcinoma

Infection by Streptococcus

Localized vasculitis

Herpes

Syphilis

Diabetic ulcers

Toxic epidermal necrolysis

Fungal infection

Sporotrichosis

Chemical burns

Lyme disease[21]

Many of these conditions are far more common and more likely to be the source of necrotic wounds, even in
areas where brown recluse spiders actually occur. The most important of these is methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), a bacterium whose necrotic lesions are very similar to those induced by recluse
bites, and which can be lethal if left untreated. Misdiagnosis of MRSA as spider bites is extremely common (nearly
30% of patients with MRSA reported that they initially suspected a spider bite), and can have fatal consequences.
Reported cases of brown recluse bites occur primarily
in Arkansas, Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Texas. There have been many reports of
brown recluse bites in Californiathough a few related species may be found there, none of these are known to
bite humans. To date, the reports of bites from areas outside of the spider's native range have been either
unverified, or, if verified, the spiders have been moved to those locations by travelers or commerce. Many
arachnologists believe that a large number of bites attributed to the brown recluse in the West Coast are either
from other spider species or not spider bites at all. For example, the bite of the hobo spider, found in the
northwestern United States and southern British Columbia, has been reported to produce similar symptoms as
the brown recluse bite. However, the toxicity of hobo spider venom has been called into question as bites have
not been proven to cause necrosis.
Numerous other spiders have been associated with necrotic bites in medical literature. Other recluse species,
such as the desert recluse (found in the deserts of southwestern United States), are reported to have caused
necrotic bite wounds, though only rarely.[25] The hobo spider and the yellow sac spider have also been reported to
cause necrotic bites. However, the bites from these spiders are not known to produce the severe symptoms that
can follow from a recluse spider bite, and the level of danger posed by these has been called into question.[26]
[27] So far, no known necrotoxins have been isolated from the venom of any of these spiders, and some
arachnologists have disputed the accuracy of spider identifications carried out by bite victims, family members,
medical responders, and other non-experts in arachnology. There have been several studies questioning the
danger posed by some of these spiders. In these studies, scientists examined case studies of bites in which the
spider in question was identified by an expert, and found that the incidence of necrotic injury diminished
significantly when "questionable" identifications were excluded from the sample set.[28][29] (For a comparison of the
toxicity of several kinds of spider bites, see the list of spiders having medically significant venom.)

Bite treatment
First aid involves the application of an ice pack to control inflammation and prompt medical care. If it can be easily
captured, the spider should be brought with the patient in a clear, tightly closed container so it may be identified.
Routine treatment should include elevation and immobilization of the affected limb, application of ice, local wound
care, and tetanus prophylaxis. Many other therapies have been used with varying degrees of success,
including hyperbaric oxygen, dapsone, antihistamines (e.g., cyproheptadine), antibiotics, dextran, glucocorticoids,
vasodilators, heparin,nitroglycerin, electric shock, curettage, surgical excision, and antivenom.[30][31] None of these
treatments have been subjected to randomized controlled trials to conclusively show benefit. In almost all cases,
bites are self-limited and typically heal without any medical intervention.[4]
Cases of brown recluse venom traveling along a limb through a vein or artery are rare, but the resulting tissue
mortification can affect an area as large as several inches and in extreme cases require excising of the wound.

Specific treatments
In presumed cases of recluse bites, dapsone is often used effectively for the treatment of necrosis, but controlled
clinical trials do not demonstrate similar effectiveness.[32] However, dapsone may be effective in treating many
"spider bites" because many such cases are actually misdiagnosed microbial infections.[33] There have been
conflicting reports about its efficacy in treating brown recluse bites, and some have suggested it should no longer
be used routinely, if at all.[34]
Wound infection is rare. Antibiotics are not recommended unless there is a credible diagnosis of infection.[35]
Studies have shown that surgical intervention is ineffective and may worsen outcome. Excision may delay wound
healing, cause abscesses, and lead to scarring.[36]
Anecdotal evidence suggests that the application of nitroglycerin patches can be beneficial.[37] Brown recluse
venom is a vasoconstrictor, and nitroglycerin causes vasodilation, allowing the venom to be diluted into the
bloodstream and fresh blood to flow to the wound, theoretically preventing necrosis (as vasoconstriction may
contribute to necrosis). However, one scientific animal study found no benefit in preventing necrosis, with the
study's results showing it increased inflammation and caused symptoms of systemic envenoming. The authors
concluded the results of the study did not support the use of topical nitroglycerin in brown recluse envenoming. [38]
Antivenom, available in South America for the venom of other species of recluse spiders, appears to be the most
promising therapy. They are most effective if given early. However, the bites, often being painless, usually do not
present symptoms until 24 or more hours after the event, possibly limiting the effect of this intervention.[39]

10. Latrodectus
Latrodectus is a genus of spider, in the family Theridiidae, which contains 32 recognizedspecies. The
common name, widow spiders is sometimes applied to members of the genus due to a behaviour seen in some
species in which the female eats the male after mating.[1]The black widow spider is perhaps the best-known
member of the genus. Its bite is dangerous because of the neurotoxin latrotoxin, which causes the
condition latrodectism, both named for the genus. The female black widow has unusually large venom glands and
its bite is particularly harmful to humans; however, Latrodectus bites rarely kill humans if proper medical treatment
is provided.

Description
Not all adult black widows exhibit the red hourglass on the ventrum underside or top of the abdomen
some may have a pair of red spots or have no marking at all. Female black widows often exhibit various
red markings on the dorsal or top side of the abdomen, commonly two red spots. However, black widow
young are believed to have at least some sort of marking on their abdomens. Adult male black widows are
half the size of the females, and are usually gray or brown rather than black and red; while they may
sometimes have an hourglass marking on their ventral abdomen, it is usually yellow or white, not red.
Variation in specifics by species and by gender is great; any spider exhibiting a red hourglass or a pair of
large red round spots on the ventral abdomen with an otherwise black shiny body is an adult female black
widow. The bright red hourglass and spots are never located on the dorsum, which is the more visible
aspect; the identifying features are on the underside, anatomically known as ventrum; i.e., the spider
must be lying on its back to reveal the markings.

Spiders of the genus Steatoda (also of the Theridiidae family) are often mistaken for widow spiders, and
are known as "false widow spiders"; they are significantly less harmful to humans.

Strength of Latrodectus silk

Silk from L. hesperus spiders is reputed to be particularly strong compared with the silk of other spiders.
[3][4] However, the results of a study show that this is not the case.[5]
The ultimate tensile strength and other physical properties of Latrodectus hesperus (western black
widow) silk were found to be similar to the properties of silk from orb-weaving spiders that had been
tested in other studies. The tensile strength for the three kinds of silk measured in the Blackledge study
was about 1000 MPa. The ultimate strength reported in a previous study for Nephila edulis was b1290
MPa 160 MPa.[6] The tensile strength of spider silk is comparable to that of steel wire of the same
thickness.[7] However, as the density of steel is about six times that of silk,[8] silk is correspondingly
stronger than steel wire of the same weight.

Species
The southern black widow, as well as the closely related western and northern species which were
previously considered the same species, has a prominent red hourglass figure on the underside of its
abdomen. Many of the other widow spiders have red patterns on a glossy black or dark background,
which serve as a warning. Spiders found in multiple regions are listed in their predominant native habitat.
Widow spiders can be found on every continent of the world except Antarctica. In North America, the
black widows commonly known as southern (Latrodectus mactans), western (Latrodectus hesperus), and
northern (Latrodectus variolus) can be found in the United States, as can the "gray" or "brown widow
spiders" (Latrodectus geometricus) and the "red widow spiders" (Latrodectus bishopi).[9] The single
species occurring in Australia is commonly called the redback (Latrodectus hasselti). African species of
this genus are sometimes known as button spiders.

11.Scorpion
Scorpions are predatory arthropod animals of the order Scorpiones within the class Arachnida. They
have eight legs and are easily recognized by the pair of grasping claws and the narrow, segmented tail, often
carried in a characteristic forward curve over the back, ending with a venomous stinger. Scorpions range in size
from 9 mm (Typhlochactas mitchelli) to 20 cm (Hadogenes troglodytes).[1]
Scorpions are found widely distributed over all continents, except Antarctica, in a variety of terrestrial habitats
except the high latitudetundra. Scorpions number about 1,752 described species,[2] with 13 extant families
recognised to date. The taxonomy has undergone changes and is likely to change further, as a number of genetic
studies are bringing forth new information.

Classification
There are thirteen families and about 1,400 described species
and subspecies of scorpions. In addition, there are 111 described taxa
of extinct scorpions.[12]
This classification is based on that of Soleglad & Fet (2003),
which replaced the older, unpublished classification of Stockwell.
[14]
Additional taxonomic changes are from papers by Soleglad et al.
(2005).[15][16]
[13]

Systematics
The following classification covers extant taxa to therankoffamily.
Order Scorpiones

Relationship with humans

Scorpion sting and venom

All known scorpion species possess venom and use it primarily to kill or paralyze their prey so that it can be
eaten. In general, it is fast-acting, allowing for effective prey capture. It is also used as a defense against
predators. The venom is a mixture of compounds (neurotoxins, enzyme inhibitors, etc.) each not only causing a
different effect, but possibly also targeting a specific animal. Each compound is made and stored in a pair of
glandular sacs and is released in a quantity regulated by the scorpion itself. Of the 1000+ known species of
scorpion, only 25 have venom that is deadly to humans; most of those belong to the family Buthidae.[8]
[31] However, all scorpions are able to penetrate human skin and deliver sharp, unpleasant stings, most of which
usually leave redness around the stung area.

First aid
First aid for scorpion stings is generally symptomatic. It includes strong analgesia, either systemic
(opiates or paracetamol) or locally applied (such as a cold compress).Hypertensive crises are treated
with anxiolytics and vasodilators.[32]

Medical use

The key ingredient of the venom is a scorpion toxin protein.

Short chain scorpion toxins constitute the largest group of potassium (K+) channel blocking peptides; an important
physiological role of the KCNA3 channel, also known as KV1.3, is to help maintain large electrical gradients for the
sustained transport of ions such as Ca2+that controls T lymphocyte (T cell) proliferation. Thus KV1.3 blockers
could be potential immunosuppressants for the treatment of autoimmune disorders (such as rheumatoid arthritis,
inflammatory bowel disease and multiple sclerosis).[33]
The venom of Uroplectes lineatus is clinically important in dermatology.[34]
Toxins being investigated include:

Chlorotoxin is a 36-amino acid peptide found in the venom of the deathstalker scorpion (Leiurus
quinquestriatus) that blocks small-conductance chloride channels.[35] The fact that chlorotoxin binds
preferentially to glioma cells has allowed the development of new methods, that still are under
investigation, for the treatment and diagnosis of several types of cancer.[36]

Maurotoxin from the venom of the Tunisian Scorpio maurus palmatus

A number of antimicrobial peptides have also been found in the venom of Mesobuthus eupeus.
Meucin-13 and Meucin-18 exhibited extensive cytolytic effects on bacteria, fungi and yeasts.
[37] Furthermore, Meucin-24 and Meucin-25, first identified from genetic sequences expressed in their
venom gland, were shown to selectively kill Plasmodium falciparum and inhibit the development
of Plasmodium berghei, both malaria parasites, but do not harm mammalian cells. These two venomderived proteins are therefore attractive candidates for the development of anti-malarial drugs.[38]

Iranian researchers have also reported that the venom of M. eupeus has anti-inflammatory properties and is
effective as an anti-arthritis treatment in an experimental species model, but the mechanism of action is unknown.
[39]

V. Dermatosis : infestation of the skin

A.demodex mites
Demodex Folliculorum and Demodex brevis also
know as Demodicids, are a species of tiny mite that
some researchers have recently identified as a
profound contributor to hair loss. While we believe
that there are other factors affecting those with hair
loss, such as diet, genetics, and chemical laden hair
care products, many researchers attribute this
microscopic critter with much more than just a small
role in the plight of hair loss. Demodex has also been
called face mite as it has been commonly associated with various skin complications
of the face, such as Acne Rosacea, blackheads,
and other skin irritations.

Blepharitis means inflammation of the

eyelids. It can be a troublesome and recurring
condition with no one-off cure. However, once
symptoms have improved, daily eyelid hygiene
can usually keep symptoms to a minimum.
Eyesight is rarely affected.

Demodectic mange, also called "demodicosis," is caused by a microscopic mite

of theDemodex genus. Three species of
Demodex mites have been identified in
dogs: Demodex canis, Demodex gatoi,
and Demodex injai. The most common
mite of demodectic mange isDemodex
canis. All dogs raised normally by their
mothers possess this mite as mites are
transferred from mother to pup via
cuddling during the first few days of
life. Most dogs live in harmony with their
mites, never suffering any consequences

from being parasitized. If, however, conditions change to upset the natural equilibrium
(such as some kind of suppression of the dog's immune system), the Demodex mites
may "gain the upper hand." The mites proliferate and can cause serious skin disease.
B. Sarcoptic mites
Sarcoptes scabiei infests a wide range of mammalian hosts, including dogs and
other canids, human beings, horses, and cattle;
cats are rarely infested with this mite. In all hosts,
mites tunnel in the epidermis and produce an
intensely pruritic dermatitis with hyperkeratosis and
alopecia. Infestations between hosts occur, but the
mites tend not to survive for long on hosts other
than those to which they are adapted; thus, they
are considered host-adapted strains of a single
species rather than distinct species.
Adults are approximately 0.5-mm long. The
first two pairs of legs of the eight-legged adult
females end in long and unbranched stalks
(pedicels) that end in a wineglass-shaped
caruncle; the third and fourth pairs of legs end in
long setae. Male mites have setae only on the third
pair of legs, with pedicels and caruncles on the
other legs. Males also have marked thickening of
the cuticle between the various plates on the
ventral surface that appear dark, compared with
the rest of the body.

P revalence

Infestations are relatively rare, or at least, severe cases are rare.

There may be cases where severe skin disease can occur even though repeated
skin scrapings recover no mites.
Infestations appear to occur throughout the range of the dog and are present in
both cool and tropical climates

Sarcoptes scabiei goes through four stages in its life cycle: egg, larva, nymph
and adult. The life cycle starts, when an adult female gets in contact with your skin. It
crawls to crevices such as elbows, feet, fingers and genital area. It penetrates the skin
and burrows a tunnel. It can slice skin with its sharp front legs and mouthparts. The

other legs it uses for holding on to the skin with suckers on each leg. It has eight legs in
total. It takes about 30 minutes for it to burrow into the skin. It then continues to drill
horizontally across the skin laying eggs along the way. The tunnels are usually shaped
in a zigzag on the skin surface. It lays 23 eggs per day for two months. Then it dies.
Six-legged larvae hatch from the
eggs within a few days. They find hair
follicles where they feed and molt into
eight-legged nymphs. In order for the
nymph to become an adult male it
molts once. This takes about ten
days. To become a female it has to
molt twice which takes about 17
days. Since the nymph has more
time to eat and grow the females are
larger than males. Female Sarcoptes
scabiei is 0.250.35 mm wide and
0.300.45 mm long. Males are about
half of that size. Mature female and
male mate only once. The sperm
keep the female fertile for the whole
two months that it lays eggs. Males
do not usually burrow into the skin
but only crawl and feed on it.

C. Chiggers
Chiggers are unique
among mites affecting
humans and animals in that
the immature stage (the
larva) is the only parasitic stage. The six-legged larva may attach itself to a variety of
hosts to feed. Once engorged, it leaves the host to become a nymph and eventually an
adult; both nymph and adult are eight-legged. It is likely that nymphs and adults feed on
insect eggs or small, soft and inactive soil invertebrates.
Eutrombicula alfreddugesi, inhabits
disturbed grassy and weedy upland areas
and may be encountered in overgrown briar
patches and along the edges of wooded
areas. The other, Eutrombicula splendens,
prefers moist habitats such as swamps and
bogs, rotten logs and stumps. Even within
favorable habitats, distribution of chiggers
often is spotty. Chiggers may be
concentrated heavily in one spot while
virtually absent nearby.

Chiggers of the genus Eutrombicula prefer birds, reptiles, rodents or other small
mammals as hosts. Although chiggers readily bite people if given a chance, humans do
not make good hosts.
Chigger mites are typically
found outdoors on low lying
plants near tall grassy wooded
areas or around water. They
attach to clothing and migrate
on the skin to look for an
optimal feeding site. Contrary
to most belief, chiggers do not
burrow into the skin. Chigger
bites typically occur at sites on
the body where clothing is

worn tighter or in areas of skin folds. Some common sites are on the lower legs, ankles,
behind the knees, waistline, groin, and axillae.
Chigger dermatitis can present as a red
flat or raised lesion. A vesicle or pustule
may also be present. Resolution of
chigger dermatitis can take up to two
weeks to completely resolve.
Chiggers feed by inserting their
mouth parts into your skin at a pore or
hair follicle and inject their saliva. Bites
may go unnoticed until 1-3 hours later,
after the mite secretes a digestive
enzyme into the skin which kills skin
cells. These dead skin cells form a tube
called a stylostome which the larva uses
to withdraw digested tissue. It is the
presence of this enzyme that is
responsible for intense itching. The
itching is most intense in the first 24-48
hours then gradually subsides.
Simple treatment
Antihistamines such as oral Benadryl,
anti-itch creams (camphor and menthol,
calamine or pramoxine), or
hydrocortisone ointments give the best
relief from the intense itching associated
with chigger bites. Its also a good idea to
apply an antiseptic ointment to prevent
infection, especially on bites that have been abraded by clothing or scratching

VI. Myiasis
Myiasis is an infestation of the skin by
developing larvae (maggots) of a variety of
fly species (myia is Greek for fly) within the
arthropod order Diptera . Worldwide, the
most common flies that cause the human
infestation are Dermatobia hominis(human
botfly) and Cordylobia anthropophaga
(tumbu fly).
"Accidental myiasis Also called
pseudomyiasis. Caused by flies that have
no preference or need to develop in a host
but that will do so on rare occasions.
Transmission occurs through accidental deposit of eggs on oral or genitourinary
openings, or by swallowing eggs or larvae that are on
food.
Obligatory myiasis involves fly species whose
larvae are always parasitic (screwworms and bot flies).
They require a living host for development. In
obligatory myiasis, the larvae have to spend part of
their life cycle on a living host. Examples are
Cordylobia anthropophaga, Dermatobia hominis,
Cochliomyia hominivorax, Chrysomyia bezzianaand
Wohlfarthia sp.
Screwworms are the larvae (maggots) of a
certain fl y species that feed
on living tissue of animals. The larvae
cause great damage to the hides of
animals as well as have the potential to
cause death in aff ected animals. Adult
females deposit eggs (up to 200 at one
time) onto existing lesions on the hosts
skin. The larvae feed on the necrotic or
damaged tissue, and then bore into
adjoining normal tissue and cause
ulceration. Some larvae migrate
internally. The larval stage lasts for 4 to 8

days, after which the larva drops to the soil, pupates, and produces an adult fly. The
entire life cycle is quite short, being about 24 days in
length
Eradication of a species from an area is distinct
from control. It requires 100 per cent removal of a pest
species from the target area, otherwise it cannot be
deemed successful. Unlike control methods which are
intended to be ongoing, eradication is intended to be a
once-off, or a final resolution to the problems caused
by invasive species.
Dermatobia hominis, the human botfly, has a
distribution ranging from northern Argentina to
southern Mexico, and is usually found in warm, humid
lowland forests. D. hominis causes cutaneous myiasis
in humans and other mammals. Infestation of cattle
has important economic consequences. Adult females
deposit eggs on blood-sucking arthropods, which
transmit the infectious larvae to the host.
Gasterophilus intestinalis, the horse botfly,
causes creeping eruption, a migratory form of
cutaneous myiasis with some resemblance to
migratory helminthiasis.
Oestus ovis, which commonly parasitizes sheep
and goats, and Rhinoestrus purpureus, which usually
infests horses, infrequently cause ocular myiasis in human hosts. The warble flies,
Hypoderma spp., are cattle parasites. The uncommon infestations in human hosts
produce migratory subcutaneous swellings or harmful invasion of the eye.

VII. Arthropods and Allergens

Allergies are abnormal or adverse reactions to a substance. Insect allergies are a
reaction to insect stings or bites. It
can also occur with exposure to such
insects in an environment.
Symptoms
An allergy to biting and stinging
insects can affect the area around the
bite or sting and cause:
Skin rash
Hives
Itching
Swelling
Redness
Hotness

Two common insect associated allergies:

1. house dust mites allergy
House dust mite allergens cause allergy and asthma in sensitized individuals. The
allergens they produce are known to resist decay under natural household conditions
and are thought to accumulate until removed. We sought to evaluate the effects of high
temperature (96 degrees C) generated by a hard surface cleaner on live mite
populations of American house dust mites, Dermatophagoides farinae Hughes and their
allergens in carpet and mattresses. Statistically significant (P < 0.05) mite mortality
(100%) was observed in response to treatment in both textile surfaces.
2. Cockcroach allergy
Cockroach allergens (substances that cause allergy symptoms) come from different
parts of the cockroach. These allergens also can cause asthma. An allergy occurs
when you react to things like cockroaches and dust mites that dont affect most

people. If you are allergic to cockroaches and you come in contact with them, you
may have symptoms. This is called an allergic reaction.

VIII. Arthropods as Vectors

BLOOD SUCKERS THAT TRANSMITS MICROBES

A.Fleas and the Plague

Fleas are small insects, usually about 1/16 to 1/8
inch. Their dark reddish-brown bodies are
flattened side to side which makes them very
thin, and enables them to easily run through the
fur.
FLEA LIFE CYCLE
Fleas feed on the blood of the warm-blooded
animals. The adult female has to suck blood in
order to be able to lay eggs, and in several
weeks that she usually stays on a host, she will
suck its blood two or three times, and lay several
hundred eggs over her life span thats about
20-30 eggs every day. She only needs to mate
once in her lifetime to reproduce.Although fleas
may stay alive for an entire year, its rare and their life cycle usually takes in average no
more than six weeks. During that time, they pass through 4 stages, and, since adult
fleas (the ones that bite) make only about 5% of the entire flea population, an effective
fight against flea infestation and flea bites will aim to interrupt their life cycle.

Flea eggs
They develop best in an environment that is warm and humid, and, because they are
very smooth, they fall from the host animal and end up on the floor, in the carpet or
anywhere in the hosts habitat. They hatch between 6-10 days.

Flea larvae
Larvae hide in dark, sheltered places like carpets and splits in wooden parket. They live
of the organic debris dead skin cells, crumbles or feces from adult fleas. They mind
extreme temperatures and light.

Flea pupae
After two to three weeks
begins the development to
adult flea in the silk cocoon
that larva spins. The pupa can
remain dormant for long
periods, even for several
months, until they percept a
favorable trigger in the
environment, like a raise in
temperature, vibrations or
change in light pattern,
anything that will suggest that
theres a meal passing by.
Then, within seconds, they
crawl out of the cocoon and
jump to the host.

Adult flea
Once it feeds for the first time and leaves those wretched flea bites on our pets or on
us a flea undergoes a metabolic change which turns it into an obligate parasite,
meaning it will need regularly new meals to survive. Fleas pierce the skin of their host
with their mouth, and then inject saliva to prevent blood from clotting, and their saliva is
what can trigger allergic reactions in some animals. They can consume about 15 times
their own body weight of blood daily.

PLAGUE
Plague is a disease that affects humans and other mammals. It is caused by
the bacterium, Yersinia pestis. Humans usually get plague after being bitten by a
rodent flea that is carrying the plague bacterium or by handling an animal infected
with plague. Plague is infamous for killing millions of people in Europe during the
Middle Ages. Today, modern antibiotics are effective in treating plague. Without
prompt treatment, the disease can cause serious illness or death. Presently,
human plague infections continue to occur in the western United States, but
significantly more cases occur in parts of Africa and Asia.

The Black Death was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history. It was
never overcome, as it mysteriously disappeared after 1670. The Black Death got its
name from its symptoms-black specks on the skin and was responsible for wiping out a
large percentage of Europe.
With rural reservoirs of plague in so many parts of the world, epidemics
spreading into populations of city rats are always a possibility. Outbreaks in India in
1994 resulted in people fleeing to other parts of the country. In some areas of India, rats
are revered and are even fed by people.

Decline of the Church and nobles

The Black Death also created problems for the nobles and clergy in two main
ways. First, the huge population loss in the cities' caused a virtual collapse of the urban
grain markets, a major source of income for noble and church landlords with surplus

grain to sell. This especially hurt the nobles and clergy, whose incomes were still based
on land and who relied on selling surplus grain in the towns for badly needed cash.
There were two main strategies for making up for this lost income.

B. Lice and Typhus

The sucking lice, Anoplura, are
parasites of mammals. Of the
approximately 500 species of sucking
lice, about 2/3 are parasites of rodents.
They feed exclusively on blood and
heavy infestations can cause severe
debilitation, anemia, and weakness of
the host. Lice are parasitic insects that
must live, feed, and reproduce on the
body of a living host. Numerous
information sources discuss the lice that are
parasites of humans, their public health risk,
methods of personal protection, and approaches to
control. You are encouraged to learn more about the
biology of human lice to help you make more
informed decisions about health risks, how to
prevent infestations, and where to find information
about the control of human lice.
Head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis) are not known to transmit any disease
organisms. However, their feeding activity irritates the scalp, causing intense itching,
and a secondary infection may result if the skin is broken by repeatedly scratching the
area. The most notable impact of head lice is the personal embarrassment experienced
with being identified publicly as having lice (e.g., in a
classroom). Children, particularly those of elementary
school age, are most likely to get head lice because of
their close contact and social interactions with each
other (e.g., sharing hats, combs and brushes) creates
opportunities for the lice to be spread among them.
Children who become infested in school will carry lice
home and may infest family members who unknowingly
become a source for recurring louse problems in the
home.
Body lice (P. h. humanus) are most common during the
winter months, when people tend to wear layers of
clothing, creating a warm, moist environment that is
ideal for louse development. An important point to note
is that body lice spend most of their life on clothing and

crawl onto the host to feed for short periods. Although as many as 1,000 body lice have
been removed from heavily infested clothing, ten lice per person is probably more
typical. Body louse problems are more likely to occur in situations where the same
clothing is worn constantly for several days or weeks. Since body lice can survive away
from a person for 24-48 hours, they can survive in clothing that is removed nightly but
worn again the following day.Although body lice can transmit certain disease
organisms, this problem is generally confined to underdeveloped countries where poor
sanitation and overcrowding are major contributing factors. Feeding activity by the lice
causes significant skin irritation, swelling and the formation of red welt-like marks.
Severe infestations can lead to allergic reactions and skin disorders, such as impetigo
and eczema. Treatment for body lice is virtually identical to the procedures for head
lice.

Pubic lice (Pthirus pubis) are usually

found on the hairs in the pubic areas;

however, they can be found among the
coarser hairs of the chest, armpits,
eyebrows, eyelashes, moustaches and
beards. Unlike body lice, crab lice are
dark gray-to-brown in color. The name
"crab lice" comes from their flattened,
oval crab-like shape. Their second and
third pairs of legs have thumb-like
projections that aid in grasping the
host's hair. Eggs of pubic lice are dark
brown and smaller than those of head
and body lice. The female lays about
30 eggs during her 3-4 week lifespan, usually on the hairs of the pubic region. Crab lice
are more sedentary than body and head lice, and usually pass their entire life cycle in
the same area where the eggs were deposited.

C. Mosquitoes: malaria, arboviruses and filarial

worms
Mosquitoes that inhabit freshwater habitats play an important role in the ecological food
chain, and many of them are vicious biters and transmitters of human and animal
diseases. Relevant information about mosquitoes from various regions of the world are
noted, including their morphology, taxonomy, habitats, species diversity, distribution,
endemicity, phylogeny, and medical importance.
Mosquitoes have diverse habitats that allow them to
colonize different kinds of environments. The immature stages of mosquitoes are found
in a variety of aquatic habitats e.g., ponds,streams, ditches, swamps, marshes,
temporary and permanent pools, rock holes, tree holes, crab holes,
lake margins, plant containers (leaves, fruits, husks, tree holes, bamboo nodes),
artificial containers (tires, tin cans, flower vases, bird feeders), and other habitats. The
enormous importance of diverse habitats on the increasing populations of mosquitoes
has been well recognized by aquatic ecologists and public health personnel.

Furthermore, knowledge of larval habitats is important in determining vector control, as

well as for disease prevention purposes.
Mosquitoes and the diseases they spread have been responsible for killing more people than all the wars
in history. Even today, mosquitoes transmitting malaria kill 2 million to 3 million people and infect
another 200 million or more every year. Tens of millions more are killed and debilitated by a host of
other mosquito-borne diseases, including filariasis, yellow fever, dengue and encephalitis.
But for millions of Americans, malaria is something other people get somewhere else. The fact is that
nearly half of the worlds population is at risk for malaria. Residents of the United States are not
immune. Malaria has occurred in the United States, and still does on rare occasions. Mosquitoes capable
of carrying and transmitting malaria still inhabit most parts of this country. And an influx of malariainfected persons has produced localized malaria transmission in some areas of the United States.
Today, however, the threat of developing encephalitis from mosquitoes is far greater than the threat of
malaria in the United States. Encephalitis, meningitis and other diseases can develop from the bites of
mosquitoes infected with certain viruses. These include the viruses of West Nile, St. Louis encephalitis,
LaCrosse (California) encephalitis, and Eastern equine and Western equine encephalitis.

Mosquitoes as vectors
Vectors are organisms that transmit disease. Therefore, mosquitoes are vectors.
Diseases they transmit include:

Dengue fever (rare in the U.S.; 100 million cases worldwide)

Eastern equine encephalitis (eastern U.S., but rare; 33% mortality)
Heartworm (threat to dogs throughout continental U.S.)
Japanese encephalitis (rare outbreaks in U.S. territories in the Pacific)
La Crosse encephalitis (about 100 U.S. cases annually)
Malaria (in the U.S., acquired mainly in FL; 1 million deaths annually worldwide)
Rift Valley fever (endemic to Africa)
St. Louis encephalitis (4,651 U.S. cases from 1964-2005; 5%-30% mortality rate)
West Nile virus (663 cases and 30 deaths in the U.S. in 2009)
Yellow fever (last U.S. epidemic was in New Orleans in 1905)

LIFE CYCLE
Egg Stage
After the female has obtained her blood meal she will
find a quiet place to rest and develop her eggs. It may
take several days for this to happen. Once she is ready
to lay her eggs she will seek out an appropriate place.
The site selected and the way the eggs are laid largely
depends on the genus. If she is in the genus Aedes
she will most likely lay her eggs singly on the edge of a
drying puddle or near the surface of water in a
container. If she is in the genus Culex or Culiseta she
will lay her eggs in a raft on the surface of the water.
Each raft will contain several hundred eggs. She will
repeat this cycle of obtaining blood meals and laying
eggs until she dies.
The duration of the egg stage is largely dependent on
the species and on environmental conditions. The egg
stage could last from one day to 9 months. Some
mosquitoes
overwinter as an
egg. These eggs
usually must
experience a cold
season and a specific day length to trigger hatching. For
most species the eggs will hatch in one to seven days.
When the larvae are ready to hatch they use a small
temporary "tooth" on their head to break open the egg
along a
suture.
Larval Stage
Because the larva's skeleton is located on
the outside (exoskeleton), similar to that of a
crab, they must shed their exoskeleton in
order to grow. All mosquito larvae shed their
exoskeleton, or molt, four times; the stages
between molts are called instars. Newly
hatched larvae are called first instar
larvaeand they are always very small and
hard to see.
Mosquito larvae typically float at the surface

of the water. Here they can obtain food and breathe through their siphon. The siphon is located
at the base of their abdomen and is similar to a snorkel. The larvae feed on bacteria and other
organic matter in the water. Brushes that are located in front of their mouths collect the food.
Pupal Stage
After the larvae have completed their fourth instar
stage they become pupae. This is the stage in which
they undergo metamorphosis to become an adult
mosquito. The process is similar to a caterpillar
becoming a butterfly. The pupae are very active and
look like commas. The mosquito will be a pupa for
only a couple of days. While most insect pupae are
inactive., mosquito pupae are unique because they
are very active and can move quickly through the
water. The pupae are transparent and the developing
adult can be seen inside the pupal case.
Adult Stage
After one to three days the adult mosquito is ready to
emerge. The pupal skin splits along the top of the
case. The adult mosquito slowly and carefully works
its way out of the pupal case. After emerging it will
float on the surface of the water and rest there until its body and wings harden. Once the body
has hardened the mosquito will fly off to begin its new life. One of the first things newly
emerged mosqitoes do is seek out nectar for a sugar meal to provide energy for flying and
mating.
Generally male mosquitoes emerge a few days before female mosquitoes. This gives the
males a chance to mature before the females
emerge. The males then use their feathery
antennae to hear the wings of the newly emerged
females. Each mosquito species has a different
sound to its wings so the males can find females of
the same species. After they mate the female will
look for a blood meal. Only the adult female
mosquito blood feeds. She needs the protein from
the blood to develop her eggs. She obtains energy
for herself from nectar. The male mosquito feeds
only on nectar. All mosquito species do not blood
feed on people. Some exhibit host preferences for
birds or reptiles and amphibians while others do not
blood feed at all.
Most females die before they obtain their second

blood meal but some may blood feed two or three times. Those females that obtain two or
more blood meals transmit diseases since they have come in contact with several different
hosts.
The first line of defense against mosquitos is to seal their point of entry. Mosquitos are most active in the
early morning and early evening. They seek areas of still air because they are hampered by breezes.
Close windows and doors on the side of your house which are opposite the breeze. Then try:

The most important measure you can take is to remove standing water sources. Change birdbaths,
wading pools and pet's water bowl twice a week. Keep your eaves-troughs clean and well-draining.
Remove yard items that collect water.
Campers often report that the very best mosquito repellent is Herbal Armor, a nontoxic DEET-free
repellent which is also recommended by National Geographic.
If you're using the barbeque, throw a bit of sage or rosemary on the coals to repel mosquitos.
An effective natural bug repellent, mix one part garlic juice with 5 parts water in a small spray bottle.
Shake well before using. Spray lightly on exposed body parts for an effective repellent lasting up to 5 - 6
hours. Strips of cotton cloth can also be dipped in this mixture and hung in areas, such as patios, as a
localized deterrent. Commercially available garlic based, all natural mosquito repellent and larvae killer
will repel mosquitoes up to 4 weeks
Neem oil is a natural vegetable oil extracted from the Neem tree in India. The leaves, seeds and seed
oil of the Neem tree contain sallanin, a compound which has effective mosquito repelling properties.
Neem oil is a natural product and is safe to use.
Planting marigolds around your yard works as a natural bug repellent because the flowers give off a
fragrance bugs and flying insects do not like.
Safe, nontoxic pheromone-based mosquito traps
are now commercially available.
For outdoor mosquito control, bat houses are
effective. Some bat species can eat 500 - 1000
mosquitoes each per might.
For broad application outdoor mosquito control,
electric mosquito traps are commercially available.
These traps do not use chemicals or propane gas.
If you're stung, Ditch the Itch is a nontoxic cream
which takes the itch out of bites.

D. Ticks and Lyme Disease

Lyme disease is an infection spread by the bite of an infected tick. It is caused by a
bacteria called Borrelia burgdorferi. Ticks can get the bacteria by biting small animals
that are infected. In the eastern U.S., Lyme disease is transmitted by black-legged ticks
(lxodes scapularis), also called deer ticks. Lyme disease may afect the skin, heart,
nerves, or joints.
Patients treated with antibiotics usually recover completely.
Deer ticks, also known as blacklegged ticks, are just one of thirteen known tick species
in Minnesota. They are most common in the east and central areas of the state and are
found in hardwood forests and wooded and brushy areas. Deer ticks are potential
carriers of Lyme disease, human anaplasmosis and
babesiosis.

Dermacentor variabilis (Say), also known as the

American dog tick or wood tick, is found
predominantly in the United States, east of the
Rocky Mountains, and as its name suggests, is
most commonly found on dogs as an adult. The
tick also occurs in certain areas of Canada, Mexico
and the Pacific Northwest of the U.S. (Mcnemee et
al. 2003). Dermacentor variabilis is a 3-host tick,
targeting smaller mammals as a larva and nymph
and larger mammals as an adult. Although it is
normally
found on
dogs, this tick will readily attack larger animals,
such as cattle, horses, and even humans. The
8-legged adult is a vector of the pathogens
causing Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF)
and tularemia, and can cause canine tick
paralysis. While the American dog tick can be
managed without pesticides, when necessary a
recommended acaricide is an effective way of
eliminating an existing tick infestation near
residences.

Ehrlichiosis is the general name used to describe several bacterial diseases that affect
animals and humans. Human ehrlichiosisis a disease caused by at least three different
ehrlichial species in the United States: Ehrlichia chaffeensis,Ehrlichia ewingii, and a third
Ehrlichiaspecies provisionally called Ehrlichia muris-like (EML). Ehrlichiae are transmitted to
humans by the bite of an infected tick. The lone star tick (Amblyomma americanum) is the
primary vector of both Ehrlichia chaffeensis and Ehrlichia ewingiiin the United States. Typical
symptoms include: fever, headache, fatigue, and muscle aches. Usually, these symptoms
occur within 1-2 weeks following a tick bite. Ehrlichios is is diagnosed based on symptoms,
clinical presentation, and later confirmed with specialized laboratory tests. The first line
treatment for adults and children of all ages is doxycycline. Ehrlichiosis and other tickborne
diseases can be prevented.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_jacket
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