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Neutron star
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A neutron star is a type of stellar remnant that can

result from the gravitational collapse of a massive star
during a Type II, Type Ib or Type Ic supernova event.
Such stars are composed almost entirely of neutrons,
which are subatomic particles without net electrical
charge and with slightly larger mass than protons.
Neutron stars are very hot and are supported against
further collapse by quantum degeneracy pressure due to
the phenomenon described by the Pauli exclusion
principle. This principle states that no two neutrons (or
any other fermionic particles) can occupy the same place
and quantum state simultaneously.

Neutron stars contain 500,000 times the mass of

the Earth in a sphere with a diameter no larger than
that of Brooklyn, United States

A typical neutron star has a mass between about 1.4

and 3.2 solar masses[1][2][3] (see Chandrasekhar Limit),
with a corresponding radius of about 12 km if the
AkmalPandharipandeRavenhall equation of state
(APR EOS) is used.[4][5] In contrast, the Sun's radius is
about 60,000 times that. Neutron stars have overall
densities predicted by the APR EOS of 3.7 1017 to
5.9 1017 kg/m3 (2.6 1014 to 4.1 1014 times the
density of the Sun),[6] which compares with the
approximate density of an atomic nucleus of
Video about two neutron stars colliding
3 1017 kg/m3.[7] The neutron star's density varies from
below 1 109 kg/m3 in the crust, increasing with depth
to above 6 1017 or 8 1017 kg/m3 deeper inside (denser than an atomic nucleus).[8] This density is
approximately equivalent to the mass of a Boeing 747 compressed to the size of a small grain of sand.
In general, compact stars of less than 1.44 solar masses the Chandrasekhar limit are white dwarfs, and
above 2 to 3 solar masses (the TolmanOppenheimerVolkoff limit), a quark star might be created; however,
this is uncertain. Gravitational collapse will usually occur on any compact star between 10 and 25 solar masses
and produce a black hole.[9] Some neutron stars rotate very rapidly and emit beams of electromagnetic radiation
as pulsars.

Contents
1 Formation
2 Properties
3 Structure
4 History of discoveries
5 Rotation
6 Population and distances
7 Binary neutron stars
8 Subtypes
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9 Giant nucleus
10 Examples of neutron stars
11 See also
12 References
13 External links

Formation
As the core of a massive star is compressed during a supernova, and collapses into a neutron star, it retains
most of its angular momentum. Since it has only a tiny fraction of its parent's radius (and therefore its moment of
inertia is sharply reduced), a neutron star is formed with very high rotation speed, and then gradually slows
down. Neutron stars are known to have rotation periods from about 1.4 ms to 30 seconds. The neutron star's
density also gives it very high surface gravity, up to 7 1012 m/s2 with typical values of a few 1012 m/s2 (that
is more than 1011 times of that of Earth). One measure of such immense gravity is the fact that neutron stars
have an escape velocity of around 100,000 km/s, about a third of the speed of light. Matter falling onto the
surface of a neutron star would be accelerated to tremendous speed by the star's gravity. The force of impact
would likely destroy the object's component atoms, rendering all its matter identical, in most respects, to the rest
of the star.[citation needed]

Properties
The gravitational field at the star's surface is about 2 1011 times
stronger than on Earth. Such a strong gravitational field acts as a
gravitational lens and bends the radiation emitted by the star such that
parts of the normally invisible rear surface become visible.[10]
A fraction of the mass of a star that collapses to form a neutron star is
released in the supernova explosion from which it forms (from the law
of mass-energy equivalence, E = mc2). The energy comes from the
gravitational binding energy of a neutron star.
Neutron star relativistic equations of state provided by Jim Lattimer
include a graph of radius vs. mass for various models.[11] The most
likely radii for a given neutron star mass are bracketed by models
AP4 (smallest radius) and MS2 (largest radius). BE is the ratio of
gravitational binding energy mass equivalent to observed neutron star
gravitational mass of "M" kilograms with radius "R" meters,[12]

Gravitational light deflection at a

neutron star. Due to relativistic light
deflection more than half of the
surface is visible (each chequered
patch here represents 30 degrees by
30 degrees). [10] In natural units, the
mass of the depicted star is 1 and its
radius 4, or twice its Schwarzschild
radius. [10]

Given current values

[13]

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and star masses "M" commonly reported as multiples of one solar mass,

then the relativistic fractional binding energy of a neutron star is

A two-solar-mass neutron star would not be more compact than 10,970 meters radius (AP4 model). Its mass
fraction gravitational binding energy would then be 0.187, 18.7% (exothermic). This is not near 0.6/2 = 0.3,
30%.
A neutron star is so dense that one teaspoon (5 milliliters) of its material would have a mass over 5.5 1012 kg,
about 900 times the mass of the Great Pyramid of Giza.[14] Hence, the gravitational force of a typical neutron
star is such that if an object were to fall from a height of one meter, it would only take one microsecond to hit
the surface of the neutron star, and would do so at around 2000 kilometers per second, or 7.2 million
kilometers per hour.[15]
The temperature inside a newly formed neutron star is from around 1011 to 1012 kelvin.[8] However, the huge
number of neutrinos it emits carry away so much energy that the temperature falls within a few years to around
106 kelvin.[8] Even at 1 million kelvin, most of the light generated by a neutron star is in X-rays. In visible light,
neutron stars probably radiate approximately the same energy in all parts of visible spectrum, and therefore
appear white.
The pressure increases from 31033 to 1.61035 Pa from the inner crust to the center.[16]
The equation of state for a neutron star is still not known. It is assumed that it differs significantly from that of a
white dwarf, whose EOS is that of a degenerate gas which can be described in close agreement with special
relativity. However, with a neutron star the increased effects of general relativity can no longer be ignored.
Several EOS have been proposed (FPS, UU, APR, L, SLy, and others) and current research is still attempting
to constrain the theories to make predictions of neutron star matter.[4][17] This means that the relation between
density and mass is not fully known, and this causes uncertainties in radius estimates. For example, a 1.5 solar
mass neutron star could have a radius of 10.7, 11.1, 12.1 or 15.1 kilometres (for EOS FPS, UU, APR or L
respectively).[17]

Structure
Current understanding of the structure of neutron stars is defined by existing mathematical models, but it might
be possible to infer through studies of neutron-star oscillations. Similar to asteroseismology for ordinary stars,
the inner structure might be derived by analyzing observed frequency spectra of stellar oscillations.[4]
On the basis of current models, the matter at the surface of a neutron star is composed of ordinary atomic nuclei
crushed into a solid lattice with a sea of electrons flowing through the gaps between them. It is possible that the
nuclei at the surface are iron, due to iron's high binding energy per nucleon.[18] It is also possible that heavy
element cores, such as iron, simply sink beneath the surface, leaving only light nuclei like helium and hydrogen
cores.[18] If the surface temperature exceeds 106 kelvin (as in the case of a young pulsar), the surface should be
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fluid instead of the solid phase observed in cooler neutron stars (temperature <106 kelvins).[18]
The "atmosphere" of the star is hypothesized to be at most several micrometers thick, and its dynamic is fully
controlled by the star's magnetic field. Below the atmosphere one encounters a solid "crust". This crust is
extremely hard and very smooth (with maximum surface irregularities of ~5 mm), because of the extreme
gravitational field.[19]
Proceeding inward, one encounters nuclei with ever increasing numbers of neutrons; such nuclei would decay
quickly on Earth, but are kept stable by tremendous pressures. As this process continues at increasing depths,
neutron drip becomes
overwhelming, and the
concentration of free
neutrons increases
rapidly. In this region,
there are nuclei, free
electrons, and free
neutrons. The nuclei
become increasingly
small (gravity and
pressure overwhelming
the strong force) until
the core is reached, by
definition the point
where they disappear
altogether.
Cross-section of neutron star. Densities are in terms of the saturation nuclear matter

0
The composition of the
density, where nucleons begin to touch.
superdense matter in
the core remains
uncertain. One model describes the core as superfluid neutron-degenerate matter (mostly neutrons, with some
protons and electrons). More exotic forms of matter are possible, including degenerate strange matter
(containing strange quarks in addition to up and down quarks), matter containing high-energy pions and kaons in
addition to neutrons,[4] or ultra-dense quark-degenerate matter.

History of discoveries
In 1934, Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky proposed the existence of the neutron star,[20][21] only a year after the
discovery of the neutron by Sir James Chadwick.[22] In seeking an explanation for the origin of a supernova,
they proposed that the neutron star is formed in a supernova. Supernovae are suddenly appearing dying stars in
the sky, whose luminosity in visible light outshine an entire galaxy for days to weeks. Baade and Zwicky
correctly proposed at that time that the release of the gravitational binding energy of the neutron stars powers
the supernova: "In the supernova process, mass in bulk is annihilated".
In 1965, Antony Hewish and Samuel Okoye discovered "an unusual source of high radio brightness temperature
in the Crab Nebula".[23] This source turned out to be the Crab Nebula neutron star that resulted from the great
supernova of 1054.
In 1967, Iosif Shklovsky examined the X-ray and optical observations of Scorpius X-1 and correctly concluded
that the radiation comes from a neutron star at the stage of accretion.[24]

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In 1967, Jocelyn Bell and Antony Hewish discovered regular radio

pulses from CP 1919. This pulsar was later interpreted as an isolated,
rotating neutron star. The energy source of the pulsar is the rotational
energy of the neutron star. The majority of known neutron stars (about
2000, as of 2010) have been discovered as pulsars, emitting regular
radio pulses.
In 1971, Riccardo Giacconi, Herbert Gursky, Ed Kellogg, R. Levinson,
E. Schreier, and H. Tananbaum discovered 4.8 second pulsations in an
X-ray source in the constellation Centaurus, Cen X-3. They interpreted
this as resulting from a rotating hot neutron star. The energy source is
gravitational and results from a rain of gas falling onto the surface of the
neutron star from a companion star or the interstellar medium.
In 1974, Antony Hewish was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics "for
his decisive role in the discovery of pulsars" without Jocelyn Bell who
shared in the discovery.

The first direct observation of a

neutron star in visible light. The
neutron star is RX J185635-3754.

In 1974, Joseph Taylor and Russell Hulse discovered the first binary pulsar, PSR B1913+16, which consists of
two neutron stars (one seen as a pulsar) orbiting around their center of mass. Einstein's general theory of
relativity predicts that massive objects in short binary orbits should emit gravitational waves, and thus that their
orbit should decay with time. This was indeed observed, precisely as general relativity predicts, and in 1993,
Taylor and Hulse were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery.
In 1982, Don Backer and colleagues discovered the first millisecond pulsar, PSR B1937+21. This objects spins
642 times per second, a value that placed fundamental constraints on the mass and radius of neutron stars.
Many millisecond pulsars were later discovered, but PSR B1937+12 remained the fastest-spinning known
pulsar for 24 years, until PSR J1748-2446ad was discovered.
In 2003, Marta Burgay and colleagues discovered the first double neutron star system where both components
are detectable as pulsars, PSR J0737-3039. The discovery of this system allows a total of 5 different tests of
general relativity, some of these with unprecedented precision.
In 2010, Paul Demorest and colleagues measured the mass of the millisecond pulsar PSR J16142230 to be
1.970.04 solar masses, using Shapiro delay.[25] This was substantially higher than any previously measured
neutron star mass (1.67 solar masses, see PSR J1903+0327), and places strong constraints on the interior
composition of neutron stars.
In 2013, John Antoniadis and colleagues measured the mass of PSR J0348+0432 to be 2.010.04 solar
masses, using white dwarf spectroscopy .[26] This confirmed the existence of such massive stars using a different
method. Furthermore, this allowed, for the first time, a test of general relativity using such a massive neutron star.

Rotation
Neutron stars rotate extremely rapidly after their creation due to the conservation of angular momentum; like
spinning ice skaters pulling in their arms, the slow rotation of the original star's core speeds up as it shrinks. A
newborn neutron star can rotate several times a second; sometimes, the neutron star absorbs orbiting matter
from a companion star, increasing the rotation to several hundred times per second, reshaping the neutron star
into an oblate spheroid.
Over time, neutron stars slow down because their rotating magnetic fields radiate energy; older neutron stars
may take several seconds for each revolution.
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The rate at which a neutron star slows its rotation is usually constant and very small: the observed rates of
decline are between 1010 and 1021 seconds for each rotation. Therefore, for a typical slow down rate of
1015 seconds per rotation, a neutron star now rotating in 1 second will rotate in 1.000003 seconds after a
century, or 1.03 seconds after 1 million years.
Sometimes a neutron star will spin up or
undergo a glitch, a sudden small increase of its
rotation speed. Glitches are thought to be the
effect of a starquake as the rotation of the
star slows down, the shape becomes more
spherical. Due to the stiffness of the "neutron"
crust, this happens as discrete events as the
crust ruptures, similar to tectonic earthquakes.
After the starquake, the star will have a smaller
equatorial radius, and since angular momentum
is conserved, rotational speed increases. Recent
work, however, suggests that a starquake
would not release sufficient energy for a neutron
star glitch; it has been suggested that glitches
may instead be caused by transitions of vortices
in the superfluid core of the star from one
metastable energy state to a lower one.[27]

NASA artist's conception of a "starquake", or "stellar quake".

Neutron stars have been observed to "pulse" radio and x-ray emissions believed to be caused by particle
acceleration near the magnetic poles, which need not be aligned with the rotation axis of the star. Though
mechanisms not yet entirely understood, these particles produce coherent beams of radio emission. External
viewers see these beams as pulses of radiation whenever the magnetic pole sweeps past the line of sight. The
pulses come at the same rate as the rotation of the neutron star, and thus, appear periodic. Neutron stars which
emit such pulses are called pulsars.
The most rapidly rotating neutron star currently known, PSR J1748-2446ad, rotates at 716 rotations per
second.[28] A recent paper reported the detection of an X-ray burst oscillation (an indirect measure of spin) at
1122 Hz from the neutron star XTE J1739-285.[29] However, at present, this signal has only been seen once,
and should be regarded as tentative until confirmed in another burst from this star.

Population and distances

At present, there are about 2000 known neutron stars in the Milky Way and the Magellanic Clouds, the
majority of which have been detected as radio pulsars. The population of neutron stars is concentrated along the
disk of the Milky Way although the spread perpendicular to the disk is fairly large. The reason for this spread is
due to the asymmetry of the supernova explosion process, which can impart high speeds (400 km/s) to the
newly created neutron star.
Some of the closest neutron stars are RX J1856.5-3754 about 400 light years away and PSR J0108-1431 at
about 424 light years.[30] Another nearby neutron star that was detected transiting the backdrop of the
constellation Ursa Minor has been catalogued as 1RXS J141256.0+792204. This rapidly moving object,
nicknamed "Calvera" by its Canadian and American discoverers, was discovered using the ROSAT/Bright
Source Catalog. Initial measurements placed its distance from Earth at 200 to 1,000 light years away, with later
claims at about 450 light-years.

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Binary neutron stars

About 5% of all known neutron stars are members of a binary system. The formation and evolution scenario of
binary neutron stars is a rather exotic and complicated process.[31] The companion stars may be either ordinary
stars, white dwarfs or other neutron stars. According to modern theories of binary evolution it is expected that
neutron stars also exist in binary systems with black hole companions. Such binaries are expected to be prime
sources for emitting gravitational waves. Neutron stars in binary systems often emit X-rays which is caused by
the heating of material (gas) accreted from the companion star. Material from the outer layers of a (bloated)
companion star is sucked towards the neutron star as a result of its very strong gravitational field. As a result of
this process binary neutron stars may also coalesce into black holes if the accretion of mass takes place under
extreme conditions.[32] It has been proposed that coalescence of binaries consisting of two neutron stars may be
responsible for producing short gamma-ray bursts.

Subtypes
Neutron star
Protoneutron star (PNS), theorized.[33]
Radio-quiet neutron stars
Radio loud neutron star
Single pulsarsgeneral term for neutron stars that emit directed pulses of radiation towards
us at regular intervals (due to their strong magnetic fields).
Rotation-powered pulsar ("radio pulsar")
Magnetara neutron star with an extremely strong magnetic field (1000 times
more than a regular neutron star), and long rotation periods (5 to 12 seconds).
Soft gamma repeater (SGR)
Anomalous X-ray pulsar (AXP)
Binary pulsars
Low-mass X-ray binaries (LMXB)
Intermediate-mass X-ray binaries (IMXB)
High-mass X-ray binaries (HMXB)
Accretion-powered pulsar ("X-ray pulsar")
X-ray burstera neutron star with a low mass binary companion from which
matter is accreted resulting in irregular bursts of energy from the surface of the
neutron star.
Millisecond pulsar (MSP) ("recycled pulsar")
Sub-millisecond pulsar[34]
Exotic star
Quark starcurrently a hypothetical type of neutron star composed of quark matter, or
strange matter. As of 2008, there are three candidates.
Electroweak starcurrently a hypothetical type of extremely heavy neutron star, in which the
quarks are converted to leptons through the electroweak force, but the gravitational collapse
of the star is prevented by radiation pressure. As of 2010, there is no evidence for their
existence.
Preon starcurrently a hypothetical type of neutron star composed of preon matter. As of
2008, there is no evidence for the existence of preons.

Giant nucleus
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A neutron star has some of the properties of an atomic nucleus, including density and being composed of
nucleons. In popular scientific writing, neutron stars are therefore sometimes described as giant nuclei. However,
in other respects, neutron stars and atomic nuclei are quite different. In particular, a nucleus is held together by
the strong interaction, whereas a neutron star is held together by gravity. It is generally more useful to consider
such objects as stars.

Examples of neutron stars

PSR J0108-1431 closest neutron star
LGM-1 the first recognized radio-pulsar
PSR B1257+12 the first neutron star discovered with planets (a millisecond pulsar)
SWIFT J1756.9-2508 a millisecond pulsar with a stellar-type companion with planetary range mass
(below brown dwarf)
PSR B1509-58 source of the "Hand of God" photo shot by the Chandra X-ray Observatory.

See also
Magnetar
Millisecond pulsar
Neutron
Neutronium, Neutron-degenerate matter
Preon matter, Preon-degenerate matter
Pulsar
Quark matter, Quark-degenerate matter
Radio quiet neutron stars
Rotating radio transients
The Magnificent Seven (neutron stars)

References
1. ^ Bulent Kiziltan (2011). Reassessing the Fundamentals: On the Evolution, Ages and Masses of Neutron Stars.
Universal-Publishers. ISBN 1-61233-765-1.
2. ^ Bulent Kiziltan; Athanasios Kottas; Stephen E. Thorsett (2010). "The Neutron Star Mass Distribution".
arXiv:1011.4291 (http://arxiv.org/abs/1011.4291) [astro-ph.GA (http://arxiv.org/archive/astro-ph.GA)].
3. ^ "Nasa Ask an Astrophysist: Maximum Mass of a Neutron Star"
(http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/010607a.html).
4. ^ a b c d Pawe Haensel, A Y Potekhin, D G Yakovlev (2007). Neutron Stars. Springer. ISBN 0-387-33543-9.
5. ^ A neutron star's density increases as its mass increases, and, for most equations of state (EOS), its radius
decreases non-linearly. For example, EOS radius predictions for a 1.35 M star are: FPS 10.8 km, UU 11.1 km,
APR 12.1 km, and L 14.9 km. For a more massive 2.1 M star, radius predictions are: FPS undefined, UU 10.5
km, APR 11.8 km, and L 15.1 km. (NASA mass radius graph
(http://ixo.gsfc.nasa.gov/old_conx_pages/images/science/neutron_stars/ns_mass_radius.gif))
6. ^ 3.7 1017 kg/m3 derives from mass 2.68 1030 kg / volume of star of radius 12 km; 5.9 1017 kg m3
derives from mass 4.2 1030 kg per volume of star radius 11.9 km
7. ^ "Calculating a Neutron Star's Density" (http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/xte/learning_center/ASM/ns.html).
Retrieved 2006-03-11. NB 3 1017 kg/m3 is 3 1014 g/cm3
8. ^ a b c "Introduction to neutron stars" (http://www.astro.umd.edu/~miller/nstar.html). Retrieved 2007-11-11.
9. ^ [1] (http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l2/black_holes.html), a ten stellar mass star will
collapse into a black hole.
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10. ^ a b c Zahn, Corvin (1990-10-09). "Tempolimit Lichtgeschwindigkeit" (http://www.tempolimitlichtgeschwindigkeit.de/galerie/galerie.html) (in German). Retrieved 2009-10-09. "Durch die gravitative
Lichtablenkung ist mehr als die Hlfte der Oberflche sichtbar. Masse des Neutronensterns: 1, Radius des
Neutronensterns: 4, ... dimensionslosen Einheiten (c, G = 1)"
11. ^ Neutron Star Masses and Radii (http://www.ns-grb.com/PPT/Lattimer.pdf), p. 9/20, bottom
12. ^ J. M. Lattimer and M. Prakash (http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/550/1/426/fulltext), "Neutron Star
Structure and the Equation of State" Astrophysical J. 550(1) 426 (2001); http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0002232
13. ^ Measurement of Newton's Constant Using a Torsion Balance with Angular Acceleration Feedback
(http://www.npl.washington.edu/eotwash/publications/pdf/prl85-2869.pdf) , Phys. Rev. Lett. 85(14) 2869
(2000)
14. ^ The average density of material in a neutron star of radius 10 km is 1.1 1012 kg cm3. Therefore, 5 ml of
such material is 5.5 1012 kg, or 5500000000 metric tons. This is about 15 times the total mass of the human
world population. Alternatively, 5 ml from a neutron star of radius 20 km radius (average density
8.35 1010 kg cm3) has a mass of about 400 million metric tons, or about the mass of all humans.
15. ^ Miscellaneous Facts (http://en.allexperts.com/q/Astronomy-1360/Neutron-Stars-2.htm)
16. ^ Neutron degeneracy pressure (http://www.physicsforums.com/archive/index.php/t-209796.html) (Archive).
Physics Forums. Retrieved on 2011-10-09.
17. ^ a b NASA. Neutron Star Equation of State Science
(http://ixo.gsfc.nasa.gov/old_conx_pages/science/neutron_star/index.html) Retrieved 2011-09-26
18. ^ a b c V. S. Beskin (1999). "Radiopulsars". . T.169, 11, p.1173-1174
19. ^ neutron star (http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/N/neutronstar.html)
20. ^ Baade, Walter and Zwicky, Fritz (1934). "Remarks on Super-Novae and Cosmic Rays". Phys. Rev. 46 (1):
7677. Bibcode:1934PhRv...46...76B (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1934PhRv...46...76B).
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.46.76.2 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.46.76.2).
21. ^ Even before the discovery of neutron, in 1931, neutron stars were anticipated by Lev Landau, who wrote
about stars where "atomic nuclei come in close contact, forming one gigantic nucleus" (published in 1932:
Landau L.D. "On the theory of stars". Phys. Z. Sowjetunion 1: 285288.). However, the widespread opinion
that Landau predicted neutron stars proves to be wrong: for details, see P. Haensel, A. Y. Potekhin, & D. G.
Yakovlev (2007). Neutron Stars 1: Equation of State and Structure (New York: Springer), page 2
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007ASSL..326.....H
22. ^ Chadwick, James (1932). "On the possible existence of a neutron". Nature 129 (3252): 312.
Bibcode:1932Natur.129Q.312C (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1932Natur.129Q.312C). doi:10.1038/129312a0
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F129312a0).
23. ^ Hewish and Okoye; Okoye, S. E. (1965). "Evidence of an unusual source of high radio brightness
temperature in the Crab Nebula". Nature 207 (4992): 59. Bibcode:1965Natur.207...59H
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1965Natur.207...59H). doi:10.1038/207059a0
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F207059a0).
24. ^ Shklovsky, I.S. (April 1967). "On the Nature of the Source of X-Ray Emission of SCO XR-1". Astrophys. J.
148 (1): L1L4. Bibcode:1967ApJ...148L...1S (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967ApJ...148L...1S).
doi:10.1086/180001 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F180001)
25. ^ Demorest, PB; Pennucci, T; Ransom, SM; Roberts, MS; Hessels, JW (2010). "A two-solar-mass neutron
star measured using Shapiro delay". Nature 467 (7319): 10811083. arXiv:1010.5788
(http://arxiv.org/abs/1010.5788). Bibcode:2010Natur.467.1081D
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Natur.467.1081D). doi:10.1038/nature09466
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature09466). PMID 20981094 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20981094).
26. ^ Antoniadis, J (2012). "A Massive Pulsar in a Compact Relativistic Binary". Science 340 (6131).
arXiv:1304.6875 (http://arxiv.org/abs/1304.6875). Bibcode:2013Sci...340..448A2010
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013Sci...340..448A2010). doi:10.1126/science.1233232
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1233232).
27. ^ Alpar, M Ali (January 1, 1998). "Pulsars, glitches and superfluids"
(http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/1756). Physicsworld.com.
28. ^ [astro-ph/0601337] A Radio Pulsar Spinning at 716 Hz (http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0601337)
29. ^ University of Chicago Press Millisecond Variability from XTE J1739285 10.1086/513270
(http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?doi=10.1086/513270)
30. ^ Posselt, B.; Neuhuser, R.; Haberl, F. (March 2009). "Searching for substellar companions of young isolated
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34.

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neutron stars". Astronomy and Astrophysics 496 (2): 533545. arXiv:0811.0398

(http://arxiv.org/abs/0811.0398). Bibcode:2009A&A...496..533P
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009A&A...496..533P). doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200810156
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%2F200810156).
^ Tauris & van den Heuvel (2006), in Compact Stellar X-ray Sources. Eds. Lewin and van der Klis, Cambridge
University Press http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006csxs.book..623T
^ Compact Stellar X-ray Sources (2006). Eds. Lewin and van der Klis, Cambridge University
^ Neutrino-Driven Protoneutron Star Winds
(http://www.astro.princeton.edu/~burrows/eos.wind.thermal/wind.html), Todd A. Thompson.
^ Nakamura, T. (1989). "Binary Sub-Millisecond Pulsar and Rotating Core Collapse Model for SN1987A".
Progress of Theoretical Physics 81 (5): 1006. Bibcode:1989PThPh..81.1006N
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989PThPh..81.1006N). doi:10.1143/PTP.81.1006
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1143%2FPTP.81.1006).
"ASTROPHYSICS: ON OBSERVED PULSARS" (http://scienceweek.com/2004/sb040806-1.htm).
scienceweek.com. Retrieved 6 August 2004.
Norman K. Glendenning, R. Kippenhahn, I. Appenzeller, G. Borner, M. Harwit (2000). Compact Stars (2nd
ed.).
Kaaret; Prieskorn; in 't Zand; Brandt; Lund; Mereghetti; Gotz; Kuulkers et al. (2006). "Evidence for 1122 Hz XRay Burst Oscillations from the Neutron-Star X-Ray Transient XTE J1739-285". The Astrophysical Journal
657 (2): L97. arXiv:astro-ph/0611716 (http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0611716). Bibcode:2007ApJ...657L..97K
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External links
Introduction to neutron stars (http://www.astro.umd.edu/~miller/nstar.html)
Neutron Stars for Undergraduates (http://arxiv.org/abs/nucl-th/0309041) and its Errata
(http://t16web.lanl.gov/Silbar/NStarErrata.html)
NASA on pulsars (http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l2/pulsars.html)
"NASA Sees Hidden Structure Of Neutron Star In Starquake
(http://spacedaily.com/reports/NASA_Sees_Hidden_Structure_Of_Neutron_Star_In_Starquake.html)".
SpaceDaily.com. April 26, 2006
"Mysterious X-ray sources may be lone neutron stars (http://newscientistspace.com/article.ns?
id=dn9397&feedId=online-news_rss20)". New Scientist.
"Massive neutron star rules out exotic matter (http://space.newscientist.com/article/dn9428-massiveneutron-star-rules-out-exotic-matter.html)". New Scientist. According to a new analysis, exotic states of
matter such as free quarks or BECs do not arise inside neutron stars.
"Neutron star clocked at mind-boggling velocity (http://space.newscientist.com/article/dn9730-neutronstar-clocked-at-mindboggling-velocity.html)". New Scientist. A neutron star has been clocked traveling
at more than 1500 kilometers per second.
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Categories: Neutron stars Neutron Star types Exotic matter
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