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Class:10th
Compiled by: Mudasir Farooq

Control and Co-ordination

Introduction: Control is the power of restrain and regulation by which
something can be started, slowed down, expedited or stopped. Coordination is orderly or harmonious working of different but interrelated parts so as to perform one or more activities very
smoothly .e.g During running leg muscles work extra to provide force
that requires more energy. There is increased rate of breathing for
supply of more oxygen. More blood is sent to provide more glucose
to muscles.
There are two modes of control and co-ordination.
1. Chemicals
2.Nervous.
Plants do not have a nervous system .They possess only
chemical controls and co-ordination. Animals have both chemical and
nervous controls and co-ordination. The two constitute neuroendocrine system.
Stimulus: is an agent, factor, chemical or change in external or
internal environment which brings about a reaction in the organism.
Response: is the reaction of the organism to a stimulus.
Receptors: are cells, tissues and organs which are capable of
receiving particular stimuli and initiate impulse to be picked up by
sensory nerves.
Effectors: are muscles, glands, tissues or cells which act in response
to a message received from the nervous system.
TEXT BOOK QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between reflex action & walking?
Ans. Reflex action is a nerve mediated automatic, involuntary &
spontaneous response without consulting the will. Reflex action
occurs in response to a stimulus where delay can be harmful while as
walking constitutes voluntary actions of muscles of legs under the
conscious control of the brain.
Reflex action
Walking
1. It is inborn and present in an
It is acquired through
individual right from the birth.
learning.
2. It is automatic and
uncontrolled.
It is under the control of
3. It cannot be changed .

cerebellum part of the brain.

It can be changed.

2. What happens at the synapse between two neurons?

Ans. Synapse is a narrow gap containing communicating junction

between two neurons where an axon terminal comes in near contact
with dendrite terminal of next neuron. Axon terminal is expanded to
form a presynaptic knob. The dendrite terminal is slightly broadened
& depressed to form post synaptic depression. A narrow fluid filled
space called synaptic cleft occurs between the two.
As the impulse reaches the presynaptic knob it stimulates release of
neurotransmitter into cleft. A neurotransmitter molecule come in
contact with membrane of postsynaptic depression it functions as
stimulus& produces an impulse in the dendrite part of the second
neuron.
3. Which part of the body maintains posture & equilibrium of body?
Ans. Cerebellum.
4. How do we detect the smell of an Agarbatti (incense stick)?
Ans. Burning of an Agarbatti emits smoke having very large no. of
odorant molecules. They enter the nose along with inhaled air. The
odorant molecules are trapped in mucus present over olfactory
epithelium. Olfactory receptors cells have a no. of non-motile
olfactory hair containing special protein molecules .Contact between
the two generates an impulse in the receptor cells. Nerve fibres
coming out of the cells carry the information to olfactory lobe of
cerebrum for interpretation.
5. What is the role of brain in reflex action?
Ans. Brain functions as a relay centre for transferring impulse from
sensory to motor neuron in several reflex actions called cerebral
reflexes. In spinal reflexes it act as information collecting &
evaluation centre without any direct involvement in reflex action.
6. What are plant hormones?
Ans. Plant hormone or phyto hormone are diffusible chemical
substances other than nutrients produced naturally in plants which
regulate
growth,development,differentiation,responses
to
environment & a no. of physiological process. They are commonly
growth plant growth regulators (P.G.Rs).Since most of them either
stimulate or retard growth.
Five major types of plant hormone are auxins, gibberlins,
cytokinins, abscisic acid & ethylene. Three of them are growth
promoters viz. auxin, gibberlins & cytokinins .Abscisic acid is
present growth inhibitor. Ethylene is gaseous hormone which has
dual function of inhibition & promotion of growth.
7.How is the movement of leaves of sensitive plant different from
movement of shoot towards light?

Ans. Movement in the leaves of sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) is

haptonastic movement which occurs due to turgor changes in the
cells of pulvinules & pulvinus.Movement of shoot towards light is
phototropic movement that is caused by differential growth.
8. Give an example of a plant hormone that promotes growth?
Ans. Indo -3-acetic or IAA.
9. How do auxins promote the growth of a tendril around a support?
Ans. Less auxins occurs on the side of contact as compared to the
free side.More growth occurs on the free side. As a result of more
growth on the free side, the tendrils coil around the support.
10. Design an experiment to demonstrate hydrotropisin?
Ans. Take a porous pot and fill it with water. Keep a few freshly
germinated pea seedlings in a
Dried sand. As the water is not available in sand the root growing
will bend towards porous
Pot filled with water.We will observe a hydrotropic curvature of the
root as it grows towards
Water. This bending of root show the movement as a response
towards water.
11.How does chemical co-ordination take place in animals?
Ans: In animals ,chemical co-ordination is achieved through the
agency of hormones which function as chemical messangers or
informational molecules. Hormones are secreted by ductless glands
in response to specific conditions or nervous stimulation. Timing &
amount of a hormone released are regulated by feedback
mechanism.
After a meal, Sugar level of blood rises. It is detected by
pancrease.Pancrease responds by producing hormone insulin. Insulin
causes glucose to be absorbed by all cells as well as get stored in
liver & muscles in the form of glycogen. As the level of glucose falls
in blood, insulin is reduced .
12: Why is the use of iodised salt advisable?
Ans: iodine is essential for synthesis of hormone thyroxine in thyroid
gland. Thyroxine controls basal metabolic rate, Physical activity,
heartbeat, mental & sexual development. Deficiency of thyroxine
disturbs metabolic, physical& mental activities besides causing

disorders of simple goitre, cretinism & myxedema.Therefore it is

advised to take iodised salt so that there is no deficiency of iodine.
13: how does our body respond when adrenaline is secreted into
blood?
Ans: When adrenaline /emergency hormone/triple-F- hormone is
secreted into blood following actions occurs.
a) Reduces blood supply to peripheral blood vessels &
gastrointestinal tract.
b) More blood flows to skeletal & heart muscles.
c)Increases breathing & gives more oxygen to muscles.
d) Increases heart rate.
e) Mobilises more glucose to muscles for higher activity.
14. Why are some patients of diabetes treated by giving injections of
insulin?
Ans. In insulin dependent diabetes pancreas is unable to produce
required quantity of insulin. As a result blood sugar continues to rise
& part of sugar is excreted through urine resulting in diabetes. This
is kept under check by regular injections of insulin.
15. Which of the following is a plant hormone?
a)Insulin b)thyroxine
c)Oestrogen
d) Cytokinin.
Ans) ( d) cytokinins
16. The gap between two neurons is called
a)Dendrite
b)Synapse
c)Axon
Ans) (b) Synapse
17. The brain is responsible for
a)thinking
b)regulating the heart beat
the above.
Ans) (d) All the above

d)Impulse.

c)Balancing

d)All

18. What is the function of receptors in our body? Think of situation

where receptors do not work properly. what problems are likely to
arise?
Ans. Receptors are specialised cells,tissues,organs& nerve endings
which are able to pick up specific stimuli, for example photo
receptors,gustatoreceptors,statoreceptorsetc,receptors provide
sensory input about external & internal environment without them

an animal will not be able to observe, handle& taste food. It will not
be aware of an approaching enemy. The animal may not be correct
its position & fall down repeatedly if its statoreceptors are damaged.
Therefore the animal will not be able to perform the activities
connected with the defective receptor.
19. Draw a structure of neuron & explain itsfunctions?
Ans. Functions:
a) Neurons or nerve cells are specialised for conducting information
via. Electrical impulses from one part of the body to another part.
b) Dendrites pick up sensation & transmit the same to cell body.
c)Cell body sustains structure & function of dendrites & axon .It also
functions as a way for transmission of sensation or impulse axon.
d)Axon carrys impulse to another neuron,muscle,gland & organ.
20. How does phototropism occur in plants?
Ans. Phototropism is directional growth movement of curvature
which occurs in response to unidirectional exposure to light.
Phototropism is generally caused by increased auxins on the dark
side & lesser auxins on the illuminated side. It causes more growth
on the dark side of stem causing it to bend towards the source of
light.
21.Which signals will be disrupted in case of spinal cord injury?
Ans. In case of spinal cord injury following signals will be disrupted:
a)Sensory impulses from the area innervated by injured portion.
b)Transmission of motor impulses through the injured portion.
c)Reflex actions in the area of injury .Sensations & movements are
restricted.
22. How does chemical co-ordination occur in plants?
Ans. Plants produce a no. of hormones which control & co-ordinate
their functioning. Amount of hormone depends upon the
environment & other stimuli. Its effect is also regulated by its
antagonistic hormone e.g Auxins & Abscisicacid.The effect is
enhanced by synergic presence of another hormone e.g auxins &
gibberellins.
23. What is the need for a system of control & co-ordination in an
organism?
Ans. The body of a multicellular organism consists of a no. of
components & sub-components; each specialised to perform a
particular function .However all the components are not required to

function all the time at the same speed. A system of controls is

required to allow them to perform or not to perform, slow down or
speed up their working. Further most activities require the
simultaneous or sequential functioning of a no. of parts stopping
some & stimulating others. All this is possible only through a system
of co-ordination.

24.How are Involuntary Actions & Reflex Actions different from each
other?
Involuntary Actions
Reflex Actions
a)They involve autonomic
nervous system.
b)They are connected with
functioning of
Internal body parts .
c)They occur in response to
internal stimuli

They involve all parts of voluntary

nervous
system though they do not
consult the will.
They are connected with
emergency.

They operate against harmful

stimuli which are generally
d) They are carried out by
external.
smooth muscles.
They are performed by striated
e) Most of the involuntary
muscles.
functions occur all the time. For Reflex actions occur occasionally.
example beating of heart.
E.g
Peristalsis, closure of eyes when
light is flashed on them.
25.What is the difference between the manner in which movement
in sensitive plant &
Movement in our legs takes place?
Movement in sensitive
Movement in
plant
legs
a) It occurs in response to an
It occurs in response to our
external stimulus like touch &
requirement determined by
shock.
will.
b) No nerves are involved.
Nerves carry the message of
movement of legs.
c) It is brought about by turgor
It is brought about by the
changes in specific cells.
bending & straightening of

legs with the help of muscles

that contract &relax.

26. Compare & contrast Nervous & hormonal mechanism for control
& co-ordination in animals?
Endocrine/hormonal control
a) Passage of information is
through chemicals called
hormones.
b) Sensory receptors are absent.
c) The system is comparatively
slower.
d) The response is slow &
produced by all the cells of target
tissues.
e) It is voluntary.
f) It consists of gland & their
secretions.
g) The effect of chemical
messangers lasts for long period.

Nervous control
It is through electrical
conduction.
Sensory receptors are present.
The system is rapid.
The response is quick and limited
to those cells that are
innervated.
It can be voluntary or
involuntary.
It consists of neurons,nerves and
nervous organs.
The effect of nervous message is
of short duration.

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
Q1.What are the physiological effects of Auxins?
Ans. Auxins are weakly acidic plant hormones which are capable of
promoting cell elongation especially of short segments. The most
common natural Auxin is Indole 3-acitic acid or IAA.It is synthesised
in shoot apices, young developing leaves & seeds.2,4-D,2, 4,5 T
&NAA (Naphthalene acetic acid)are synthetic Auxins. Major functions
of Auxins are as follows:
a) Cell Enlargement: They bring about growth of cells.
b) Root formation: They are essential for root formation on stem
cutting (especially NAA & IBA Indo butyric acid)
c) Apical Dominance : Apical bud does not allow sprouting of nearly
buds due to high concentration of IAA in it.
d)Movements :Several plant movements are mediated by differential
distribution of auxins

e.g Phototropism & Geotropism.

e) Inhibition of Abscission : IAA prevents premature falling of leaves
& fruits.
f) Fruit Growth: Auxins promote fruit growth.
Q.2 what are the physiological effects of Gibberlins?
Ans. Gibberlins are weakly acidic tetracyclic plant hormones which
produce cell elongation of leaves & intact stems in general &
increase intermodal length of genetically dwarf plants in
particular .Gibberlins are formed in leaves of buds, developing
embryos & root tips. The major functions are as follows:
a)Growth: Gibberlins promote growth in stems & leaves. Genetically
dwarf plants grow to normal height.
b)Fruit yield:Gibberlins increase size & no. of fruits.
c)Overcoming Dormancy: They break dormancy of buds & seeds.
d)Flowering: They can replace requirements of cold & long day
conditions for flowering of certain plants.
e) Parthenocarpy: Gibberlins induce Parthenocarpy in many cases e.g
tomato.
f)Malt:There is increased production of malt if Gibberlins are
supplied to germinating Barley seeds.

Q.3 What are the physiological effects of Cytokinins?

Ans.They are mildly alkaline plant hormones which promote cell
division. Major functions of cytokinins are as follows:
a) Cell division: Cytokinins are essential for cell division.
b) Differentiation: They are required for differentiation of cells &
tissues.
c) Prevention of Senescence: They delay ageing of plants organs
including cut flowers, vegetables& fruits.
d) Resistance: Cytokinins increase resistance to disease &
temperature extremes.
e) Phloem transport: They are required for phloem transport.
f)Overcoming Apical dominance: They overcome apical dominance &
allow sprouting of lateral buds.
Q.4 What are the physiological effects of ethylene (ethane)?
Ans. It is a gaseous hormone which promotes transverse growth but
inhibits longitudinal growth. It is formed by all parts but maximum
synthesis occurs during ripening of some fruits e.gApple, Banana.

Major functions are as follows:

a) Growth: Ethylene promotes transverse growth but inhibits
longitudinal growth.
b)Senescence &Abscission: Ethylene promotes senescence &
abscission of leaves & flowers.
c) Dormancy: It breaks dormancy of different plant organs resulting
in sprouting of rhizomes, bulbs, corms etc.
d)Fruit ripening:The hormone is essential for ripening of fleshly fruits
& dehiscence of fruits.
Q.5 what are the functions of Abscisic Acid (ABA)?
Ans. It is mildly acidic general growth inhibitor of plants that counter
acts growth promoting hormone. Abscisic acid is also called stress
hormone or dormin as it induces dormancy for overcoming stress
conditions. The major functions of Abscisic acid are as under:
a)Controlling growth: Abscisic acid keep growth under check by
counteracting the excessive activity of growth promoting hormones.
b) Dormancy: It induces dormancy of buds & seeds.
c) Transpiration: It checks excessive transpiration by causing closure
of stomata.
d)Wilting,Senescence&Abscission:It promotes wilting &senescence of
leaves. Abscisic acid also causes abscission of flowers & fruits.

CO-ORDINATION IN PLANTS
Plants do not have nerves & muscles. Their response to stimulus is
not immediately observed.Plants have only chemical co-ordination
that regulates their movements. Plant movements are of two types:
1. Movements of locomotion: Are changes in position of a whole
organism or cellular components. They are of two types : Autonomic
& Para tonic movements.
Autonomic movements of locomotion occur autonomically due to
intrinsic reason e.g flagellar movements in chlamydomonas or
streaming movement of cytoplasm.
Para tonic movements of locomotion occur as a response to external
stimuli like chemical, lightetc.Locomotory movement in response to
chemicals is called Photo taxis.
2. Movements of curvature: Are changes in orientation of different
plant parts in relation to one another. These are of two types:
a)Plant movements due to turgor changes: These movements occur
in plant organs which have regions of bending where cells shrink due
to loss of turgidity or swell up due to gain of turgidity. These
movements are usually reversible. These are of following types:

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Autonomic turgor movements: Are those movements which

occur due to turgor changes caused by intrinsic factors. They
are found in Telegraph plant(Desmodiumgyrans)where two
lateral leaflets show jerky rising & falling because of rhythmic
turgor changes in cells present at the bare of leaflet stalks.
Nyctinasty movements or Sleep movements: Occur in response
to diurnal turgor changes in the leaves e. g Legumes, here the
leaves fold up at night & open up during the day.
Hydronasty movements: The leaves fall up in scarcity of water &
open up when there is sufficient water.
Haptonasty movements: Shown in response to touch by
sensitive plants.
Seismonasty movements: Shown in response to shock by
sensitive plants.
b)Plant movements due to growth:
The growth movements in plants are of two types:
Autonomic movements of growth: These movements are called
rotations. They are shown by apical regions of stems &
tendrils. These movements help the climbing stems & tendrils
to find support for climbing or clinging.
Para tonic movements of growth: These are growth movements
in response to an external stimulus. These are of two types
nastic movements & tropic movements.
NASTIC MOVEMENTS OF GROWTH: Nastic movements are nondirectional movements of growth which are determined by the
structure of responding organ irrespective of direction of
stimulus .The responding organ is generally flat. Greater growth on
one side causes the organ to bend on opposite side. When greater
growth occurs on lower side, The flat organ bends upwards. This is
called Hyponasty. When flat organ bends downwards it is called
Epinasty.
When the opening & closing of flowers is subjected to light it is
called growth photonasty.When the opening & closing of flowers
occurs due to heat variations, it is termed as thermonasty growth
movement.
TROPIC MOVEMENTS OF GROWTH: Tropic movements of growth are
the Para tonic growth movements of curvature in which the
direction of movements is determined by the direction of stimulus.
Tropic movements generally occur in cylindrical organs like Stems &
Roots. These are of following types.

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Phototropism: The directional growth movements of curvature

in plants which occur response to unidirectional exposure of
light is called phototropism. The region of photo reception is
shoot apex while the region of response is in the area of
elongation. Blue light is most effective in photo response.
Stems are positively phototrophic as they generally bend
towards the source of light. Roots are negatively phototrophic
as they bend away from the direction of light. Leaves are
diaphototrophic as they generally come to lie perpendicular to
light. Phototrophic movements are generally caused by
increased auxins on the dark side & lesser auxins on the
illuminated side.
Geotropism: The directional movement of curvature in plants
which occur in response to force of gravity is called
geotropism. The region of graviperception is root cap in roots
& nodes & apex in shoots. The region of response is the area of
elongation on case of root & stem. Main root is positively
geotropic while main stem is negatively geotropic.
Hydrotropism: The directional growth of curvature in plants
which occur response to unilateral water (or moisture)is called
Hydrotropism. Hydrotropism is generally shown by roots, so
roots are positively hydrotropic.
Thigmotropism: The directional growth movements of
curvature in plants which occur in response to stimuli of
contact is called thigmotropism.This type of movement is
generally found in twiners& tendrils.
Chemotropism: The directional growth movement of curvature
in plants in response to a chemical stimulus is called
chemotropism. It is observed in the growth of pollen tube
inside style , ovary & ovule.
Q. With neat & labelled diagram describe the structure of
Neuron?

Ans. Neuron or nerve cell is a structural & functional unit of

nervous system that is specialised to receive, conduct& transmit
impulses. A neuron has three parts .
a) Cellbody:It is broad, rounded part of the neuron that contains
nucleus, abundant cytoplasm & various cell organelles except

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centrioles.Cell body maintains the neurons through its metabolic

activity & growth.
b) Dendrites: They are five short & branched protoplasmic
process of the cell body that pick up sensations & transmit the
same to the body.
c) Axon it is a long fibre like cytoplasmic process that carries
impulses away from the cell body. Axon is branched terminally.
The terminal branches are called telodendria or terminal
arborisation.
Q) What are different types of Neurons?
A Neuron can be sensory motor or connector sensory or afferent
neuron picks up sensation from receptors & transmits the same
to other parts like central nervous system.
A motor or afferent neuron carries messages to the muscle gland
or an organ to perform its function.
Connector neuron or inter-neurons is special neuron which passes
the message from a sensory neuron to motor neuron.
Passage of Impulse: Impulse is a self propagated electric current
that travels from one end to another of a neuron for the passage
of a message. The pathway is
Stimulus dendrite cell body axon axon terminal
passage of stimulus.
Q. What is Reflex action? Give examples to illustrate your
answer?
Ans. Reflex action is a nerve mediated, automatic involuntary&
spontaneous response to a stimulus acting on a specific receptor
without consulting the will. Reflex action occurs in response to a
stimulus where delay can be harmful, on being pricked or coming
in contact with hot surface or flame, the hand is withdrawn even
before pain is perceived by brain. Other examples of reflex action
are wider opening of pupil in dimlight, narrowing of pupil in
strong light, closing of eyes when flash of light is targeted on
them.
Reflex action requires a stimulus, a receptor organ, sensory
neurons, a part of central nervous system, motor neurons &
effector organs. The pathway taken by a stimulus to travel from
receptor organ to effector organ is known as reflex arc.
Stimulus receptor organ sensory neurons CNS motor
neurons effector neurons response.
Q. How are nervous organs (nervous tissues) protected?
Ans. The nervous tissues, brain & spinal cord are protected from
mechanical injury & shock by bony cases around them. Brain is
covered by brain box or cranium if skull. Spinal cord is covered by

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vertebral column. In addition to these bony cages, there are

protective coverings called menings which occur between brain
or spinal cord & the surrounding skeleton. The menings are three
in no._Duramater, Arachnoid &Piamater.The space between
arachnoid & piamater is filled with a fluid called Cerebro-spinal
fluid.
Q. How does Nervous tissue cause action?
Ans. Nervous system generally operates through muscles. The
terminal part of axon of motor neuron synapsis in the membrane
of muscles & function as motor &plate. When the nerve impulse
from CNS reaches the muscle, the muscle fibres show
movement.Infact the muscles fibres has special proteins that
change their shape & arrangements in response to the nerve
impulse. New arrangement of proteins gives the muscle different
shapes.
Q. What are the hormones? List some important characteristics
of hormones?
Ans. Hormones are chemical messangers or informational
molecules produced by ductless glands which are translocated by
circulatory system to specific target regions for inducing a
specific physiological response. Secretion was the first hormone
discovered by Bayliss& Starling in 1902.The term hormone was
coined by Starling in 1905.
Q. What is a Gland? Discuss various types of glands?
Ans. A gland is a cell, tissue or organ that produces a secretion
for performing particular function. Glands are if four types:
Exocrine gland: The glands which drain out their
secretions through ducts to perform a metabolic activity
e.g gastric gland, salivary glands etc.
Endocrine gland: These are isolated ductless glands which
pour out their secretion into circulatory system for
reaching target sites e.g Pitutiarygland, Throid gland.
Heterocrine gland: It has both exocrine & endocrine
parts.The exocrine part drains out its secretions through
ducts while as the endocrine part pours its secretion into
circulatory system e.g Pancreas.
Mixed organs: Are organs of metabolic or cytogenic
importance which also possess endocrine activity e.g
Testes, Ovaries etc.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

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A system of isolated ductless glands that pour their secretions

directly into circulatory system for passage to different target sites
in order to control their metabolism, permeability, growth&
differentiation.
Components of Human Endocrine System
The human endocrine system comprises of various glands & their
secretions. The various glands are:
1. Hypothalamus: It lies at the floor of diencephalon. It produces
neurohormones to control the activity of pituitary gland. It is
known as master of the master endocrine gland. The
neurohormones are of two types __Releasing hormones (RH) &
inhibitory hormones (IH).Two of its hormones Oxytocin &
vasopressin are directly passed to pituitary for secretion.
2. Pituitary gland: It is known as master endocrine gland because
the no. of its secretions controls the functioning of other
endocrine glands.Pitutary .is a small pea shaped gland attached
to the hypothalamus by a stalk. It has three parts-----Anterior,
Middle& Posterior. Various secretions of pituitary are:
ANTERIOR LOBE:
1. Growth hormone or somatotrophic hormone (GH or SH):It
stimulates body growth. Over secretion produces gigantism
while deficient secretion produces dwarfism.
2. Prolactin hormone or maternity hormone (PH or MH):It
stimulates growth of mammary glands during pregnancy &
then enhances lactation.
3. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH):It stimulates thyroid
gland to release its hormones.
4. Adrenocortico tropic hormone (ACTH): It stimulates adrenal
cortex to release its hormones.
5. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH):Inmales,it stimulates
sperm formation.Infemales,it stimulates growth of ovarian
follicle & secretion of estrogen from them.
6. Luteinising hormone (LH):In females LH ovulation &
secretion of progesterone from corpus luteum.In males it is
called Interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH)which
stimulates secretion of testosterone.
MIDDLE LOBE:
Only one hormone is secreted by middle lobe of pituitary viz.
Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)which causes dispersal of
melanin in skin.
POSTERIOR LOBE:
It produces two neurosecretions of hypothalamus viz.oxytocin&
vasopressin or Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).Oxytocin stimulates

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uterine contraction during child birth & milk ejection during

sucking. Vasopressin (ADH) helps in re absorption of water
during urine formation & produces concentrated urine. Its
deficiency causes diabetics incipidus.
3. Pineal gland: It is small stalked body that lies over
epithalamus.It releases a hormone called Melatonin which
controls mood & sleep & regulates sexual cycle.
4. Thyroid gland: It is bi-lobed gland attached to trachea below
larynx. The largest endocrine gland produces Iodine containing
hormone called thyroxin which controls basal metabolic rate.
Deficiency of thyroxin causes cretinism in children & myxoedema
in adults. Its over secretion leads to exopthalmia, high metabolic
rate & leanness.
5. Parathyroid gland: They are two pairs which lie over two lobes
of thyroid .The gland secretes parathhormone which maintains
optimum level of blood, calcium & phosphorus. Its deficiency
causes spasms & cramps. Over secretion causes softening of
bones.
6.Thymus gland:It is a T-shaped bi-lobed soft gland which lies
near the heart. Its size is max. at puberty but gradually shrinks &
becomes microscopic in old age. It produces a hormone called
thymosin which is required to form lymphocytes.
7.Adrenal gland: These are a pair of yellowish, pyramid like
glands which lie over the upper end of kidney. Each adrenal
cortex releases three types of hormones called Corticoids
required for carbohydrate metabolism & development of external
sex characters. Adrenal medulla produces two hormones
adrenaline & non-adrenaline. Adrenaline is also called
emergency hormone which is produced in response to cold, joy,
fear, anger & emotional stress.
8. Gonads: These are tests in males & ovaries in females.
Tests: The interstitial cells of testes,under the influence of ICSH or
LH,produces the male sex hormone called testosterone.
Overies: Under the influence of FSH ovaries produce mature ova &
they produce female sex hormone called estrogen which is essential
for secondary sex organs & external sex characters.
9. Pancreas: Pancreas is a Heterocrine gland. Its endocrine part is
represented by islets of Langerhans, which produce a no. of
hormones. Two of its hormones are insulin ang glucagon.Deficiency
of insulin leads to disorder called diabetes mellitus.

HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

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The human system has two parts

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Central nervous system has two parts: Brain and Spinal cord.
The peripheral nervous system has two parts: Voluntary peripheral
nervous system which consists of cranial nerve and spinal nerves &
Involuntary (automatic) peripheral nervous system. It has two parts:
Sympathetic nervous system and Parasympathetic nervous system.
Q) Describe the structure and function of Brain?
BRAIN(encephalon):It is the widest & uppermost part of the
CNS.Itweights 1.2 kg to 1.4 kg & constitutes about 98% of the total
nervous system. The brain is differentiated into three parts viz.
Forebrain, Midbrain, hindbrain.The brain is situated inside the cavity
of skull called Cranium or brain box.
1. Forebrain: The forebrain consists of three parts:
a) Olfactory lobes: Forebrain contains a pair of widely separated
club shaped structures on the interior surface of cerebrum. The
lobes relay sense of smell.
b) Cerebrum: It is the largest part of the brain constituting about
80% of the brain. It has two cerebral hemispheres. It is the main
thinking part of the brain. It has sensory motor & association
areas.
c) Diencephalon: It lies on the inferior side of cerebrum. It has
epithalamus on its roof, thalmi on the sides & hypothalamus on
floor.Epithalmus bears pineal body. Each thalamus relays
sensory impulses from medulla. Hypothalamus has control
centres for hunger, thirst, vision, body temperature & emotions.
The hormones secreted by hypothalamus control the functioning
of pituitary gland.
MID BRAIN:
It is a small area having two thick fibrous tracts (cerebral peduncles)
& four swellings called corpora quadrigemina.The peduncles connect
hind brain with forebrain.
HIND BRAIN: It is composed of three parts:
a) Cerebellum: It lies behind cerebrum & above medulla oblongata.
It maintains equilibrium or posture of the body during running,
jumping, walking, bending etc.
b) Pons vorolli:It is broad band of fibres which connects the
cerebrum & medulla oblongata.
c) Medulla oblongata: It is the hindermost part of the brain. It
controls the rate of heart beat, bloodpressure, breathing and
body temperature. It also contains the reflex centre for
swallowing, vomiting coughing etc.

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What are the functions of the brain?

Brain is the controlling centre of all activities of the body.
It is the centre of intelligence, knowledge, consciousness,
memory& emotions.
It maintains the equilibrium of the body & co-ordinates the
working of muscles.
It receives the impulse of pain, touch, pressure, heat and taste.
It receives information from all the sensory receptors & sense
organs of the body.
It has centres for reflexes related to sound, sight& involuntary
functioning of many parts of the body
Describe the structure and function of spinal cord?
It is a tube like structure which forms the lower part of the CNS.Its
length is 43-45cm & weights about 30 gm. It lies inside the vertebral
column that extends from base of the brain up to early part of
lumber region. It arises from medulla oblongata & extends to second
lumber vertebra. The cord is well protected by bony of the vertebral
column. It is also protected by the meninges & the cerebrospinal
fluid. The spinal cord is a series of 31 sections called segments. Each
segment giving rise to a pair of spinal nerves.
FUNCTIONS OF SPINAL CORD:
a) It is a centre of many reflex activities.
b) It conducts sensory & motor impulse to & from brain.