COASTAL FACILITY

Engineering

Concentrate Management

Subsurface/Alternative Discharge Technologies

Summary of Issues | Strategies | Benefits & Costs | Key Uncertainties | Additional Resources
KEY POINT: Alternative methods for SWRO concentrate disposal include subsurface
discharge, discharge to coastal rivers and brackish canals, and the beneficial use of concentrate.
The feasibility of these methods is highly site specific.
SUMMARY OF ISSUES

Alternative methods for SWRO concentrate disposal have not been implemented on a
large scale (particularly beneficial use of concentrate) and are in need of further testing
and demonstration.

Subsurface concentrate disposal. Subsurface discharge methods include beach well

injection, percolation basins, and seabed infiltration systems. Beach wells and percolation
galleries allow for mixing of concentrate with ocean water within the sand. These
technologies also take advantage of turbulence from wave action for additional mixing
(Jordahl 2006).

Discharge to coastal rivers and canals. Some coastal RO facilities discharge

concentrate to nearby rivers or canals that lead to the sea.

Beneficial use of brine from coastal desal facilities. A recent study conducted by
Jordahl (2006) investigated the viability of beneficial and nontraditional uses of
concentrate, including: oil well field injection, solar ponds, land application and irrigation
(including halophyte irrigation), zero liquid discharge (ZLD) and near-ZLD, aquaculture,
salt marsh discharge, wetlands treatment, and separation and recovery (and sale) of
individual salts. A survey of water utilities confirmed that various utilities are considering
some of these options for concentrate management (Xu et. al. 2009). In general, however,
these uses are not well proven or have found to be not cost-effective. Most of these
methods are also more applicable to inland facilities.

Concentrate minimization/volume reduction. Technologies for increased water

recovery result in a reduced volume of concentrate with very high levels of salinity. This
can complicate challenges associated with ultimate disposal.

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COASTAL FACILITY

Engineering

Concentrate Management

Subsurface/Alternative Discharge Technologies

STRATEGIES
Subsurface discharge
Underground ocean discharge facilities require extensive feasibility assessment and careful study
of the hydrogeological conditions of the outfall sites. The feasibility study should include the
impact of subsurface outfall operations on adjacent fresh water aquifers and beach erosion, and
evaluation of natural catastrophes that would affect the operation of submerged outfalls.
The Marina Coastal District seawater RO plant near Monterey, California, used this method for
concentrate disposal (Campbell and Jones 2005, MCWD 2004). This involved injecting the brine
(TDS 43 g/L) into a shallow dune sand aquifer via a conventional well. The brine was blended
with native groundwater and ultimately diffused into the turbulent surf zone. Four years of
monitoring of the sea near the discharge point observed no identified impacts on benthic life
(MCWD 2004). However, severe scaling problems occurred in the injection well and an adjacent
percolation basin was used as back-up for injection at the desal facility (Voutchkov 2006,
MCWD 2004).
An under ocean floor seawater intake and discharge system is currently being tested by Long
Beach Water District (LBWD website: http://www.lbwater.org/desalination/under.html).
Discharge to coastal rivers and canals
Facilities in Virginia near Chesapeake Bay discharge concentrate to Elizabeth River. Likewise,
facilities in Florida discharge concentrate to Indian River estuaries or to brackish canals that feed
it (Jordahl 2006). The Javea desal plant on the Mediterranean coast of Spain discharges
concentrate to a canal (Malfeito et al. 2005). Reported benefits include the input of saline water
to the canal to bring the density and temperature more inline with that of seawater before it
reaches the sea. This effect has been enhanced by the incorporation of a novel concentrate
dilution system (Malfeito et al. 2005).
Beneficial use of brine from coastal desal facilities
Wetland Restoration. This method is site-specific and suitable for conditions where the
concentrate quality is compatible with the native flora and fauna of the saltwater marsh or
wetland. Typically, wetlands or marshes used for concentrate discharge are hydraulically
interconnected with the ocean or a brackish water body. The wetland therefore serves as a
filtering system prior to discharge into the waterbody. Wetland vegetation may assimilate some
of the nitrate and selenium in the concentrate thereby providing effective reduction of these
contaminants (Bays, Frank and Ortega 2007).

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COASTAL FACILITY

Engineering

Concentrate Management

Subsurface/Alternative Discharge Technologies

The City of Oxnard in California has proposed a combination of a discharge/beneficial reuse

project to investigate the feasibility of conveying desal concentrate to a local tidal wetland and
using it to supplement tidal flows and mitigate neglected areas of the wetland (Bays, Frank and
Ortega 2007). Californias coastal wetlands occur in estuaries where freshwater streams meet the
sea. There is a pronounced salinity gradient in these estuaries that overlaps membrane
concentrate ionic strength and composition. Therefore, membrane concentrate could be used for
beneficial creation of coastal marshes or for enhancing flow to existing marshes.
Salt Recovery. Desal concentrate is often viewed as an undesirable residual that requires
disposal. If the chemical components in the concentrate can be solidified and recovered for
additional applications, the overall recovery of the system will be greatly enhanced and the
concentrate stream minimized.
In Israel, Mekorot Water Company owns and operates a dual purpose SWRO plant in Eilat for
the production of 2.64 mgd (10,000 m3/d) of desalinated water and high-quality table salt
(Ravizky and Nadav 2007). The feed to the desal plant is a blend of 80 percent seawater and 20
percent BWRO concentrate from adjacent BWRO plants. The concentrate from the SWRO plant
is blended with seawater, and this stream is fed to a series of evaporation ponds, and thereafter to
the salt processing factory of the salt company.
Tanaka et al. (2003) reported that using the concentrate from the SWRO plant as raw material for
salt production might be more advantageous than using seawater for salt production, and might
save 20 percent of the energy.
Davis and Koop (2006) investigated a ZLD process for SWRO with enhanced freshwater yield
and production of salable sodium chloride, magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH) 2 ), and bromine (Br 2 )
from the SWRO discharge. The process used electrodialysis to reduce the salinity of the reject
stream from SWRO so that the salt-depleted concentrate stream could be recycled to the SWRO
to improve the yield of freshwater. The approach of this ZLD study was to remove in sequence
the most accessible amounts of abundant constituents in seawater, water, and NaCl and leave
remaining valuable constituents in a concentrated solution. After recovery of the most accessible
portions of water (NaCl, Br 2 , and Mg(OH) 2 ), the residual solutions can be evaporated to dryness
to produce road salt, but ultimately minor constituents might be recovered from that residue.
The positive attribute of salt solidification is the recovery of salts, potential for revenue
generation through resale, and near ZLD. The sale of products from the facilities might provide
revenues that could offset some of the costs involved in installing and running the full-scale
facilities. The economics and market of products, however, require further investigation (Xu et
al. 2009).

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COASTAL FACILITY

Engineering

Concentrate Management

Subsurface/Alternative Discharge Technologies

Technologies for Water Recovery Improvement and Concentrate Volume Minimization

One of the driving forces for the development of alternative desal technologies is to improve
water recovery, thus reducing the volume of concentrate. Alternative and emerging technologies
under different stages of development aim to improve the efficiency of desal processes. These
new technologies can be classified under four categories (Xu et. al. 2009):

Thermal - e.g., dewvaporation (Hamieh et al. 2001, Hamieh and Beckman 2006),
membrane distillation (Cath et al. 2004, Sirkar and Li 2003), wind-aided enhanced
evaporation (Gilron et al. 2003)

Physical - e.g., forward osmosis (Cath et al. 2005a, 2005b, 2006, McCutcheon et al.
2005)]

Chemical - e.g., capacitive deionization (Xu et al. 2008, Farmer et al. 1996, Tran et al.
2002, Pekala et al. 1998, Gabelich et al. 2002))

Hybrid configurations

Physical-chemical or biological treatment of primary RO concentrates (Williams

et al. 2002, Williams and Pirbazari 2003, Gabelich et al. 2007a)

Seeded slurry processes to remove scaling compounds in a controlled fashion

(Juby and Schutte 2000)

Electromagnetic field for scaling control (Pelekani et al. 2005, Palmer et al. 2005)

Membrane filtration enhanced by vibratory shear process (Madole and Peterson

2005, New Logic Research Inc.)

RO/ED or RO/EDR (Davis 2006, Tanaka et al. 2003, Xu et al. 2007, Gabelich et
al. 2007b).

Although these emerging technologies have merit in increasing recovery, the associated
reduction in concentrate volume (which results in a much higher salinity concentrate) eliminates
the use of most conventional disposal options (Mickley 2005). The high saline concentrate
associated with concentrate volume minimization can make it difficult to utilize traditional nontraditional disposal options due to potential impacts to receiving waters (this is particularly true
for inland brine disposal).
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COASTAL FACILITY

Engineering

Concentrate Management

Subsurface/Alternative Discharge Technologies

BENEFITS & COSTS

Benefits

Underground outfalls can reduce negative environmental impacts on marine life through
enhanced mixing of concentrate with ambient seawater.

The use of salt recovery has the potential for revenue generation through resale.
However, the economics and market for recovered salts requires further investigation.

Costs

The costs for underground ocean discharge are mainly determined by: concentrate
conveyance costs from the desal membrane plant to the ocean discharge outfall; costs for
construction and operation of underground outfall infrastructure (these costs are highly
site specific, depending on the type and size of the outfall); and requirements for
concentrate treatment prior to discharge.

Costs associated with environmental monitoring can be significant for all methods.
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KEY UNCERTAINTIES

Key uncertainties associated with using beach wells for concentrate discharge are similar
to those associated with using them for intake:

Useful Life of Beach Wells. Beach erosion and scaling may damage the well
collectors and impact the useful life of the wells.

Experience in Designing Subsurface Facilities. The knowledge and experience

in designing subsurface outfall facilities are far less than surface water supply
systems. Extensive pilot testing is required to avoid poor design and even failure
of outfall systems.

Beneficial use of concentrate is subject to numerous and critically important site-specific

considerations including climate, markets, and regulatory issues as well as ecological
risks.
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COASTAL FACILITY

Engineering

Concentrate Management

Subsurface/Alternative Discharge Technologies

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Engineering

Concentrate Management

Subsurface/Alternative Discharge Technologies

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Engineering

Concentrate Management

Subsurface/Alternative Discharge Technologies

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