Mathematics For Calculus Study Guide

SSS009
Mathematics for Calculus

ACADEMIC SUPPORT
Study Guide
201375
*SSS009*
Mathematics for Calculus

SSS009 Study Guide
Academic Support
Written and compiled by

Author
S. Smith
J. Scott
H. Barton
Produced by Division of Student Learning, Charles Sturt University, Albury - Bathurst - Wagga
Wagga, New South Wales, Australia.
Printed at Charles Sturt University

Charles Sturt University
Previously published material in this book is copied on behalf of Charles Sturt University pursuant
to Part VB of the Commonwealth Copyright Act 1968.
ii
Contents
Page
Topic 1 Order of operations
1. Basic rules
Topic 2 Signed numbers
1. Adding and subtracting signed numbers
2. Multiplying and dividing signed numbers
Topic 3 Fractions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Converting improper fractions to mixed numerals

Equivalent fractions
Multiplying fractions
Dividing fractions
Adding and subtracting fractions
Topic 4 Index numbers

1.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
What does the index mean?

Dividing index numbers
The power of zero
Numbers with a negative index
Powers of powers
Fractional powers
More fractional powers
Topic 5 Algebra
Simplifying
1. Adding and subtracting algebraic numbers
2. Multiplying algebraic numbers
3. Dividing algebraic numbers
4. Algebraic fractions
5. Expanding algebraic expressions
6. Binomial expansion
7. Factorising algebraic expressions
8. Factorising quadratic expressions
Topic 6 Equation solving
1. Overview
2. Solving equations with fractions
Topic 7 Functions
Using rules
The more general case
Different ways of representing data
Composite functions
Identifying functions
2
2
5
5
7
9
10
11
12
13
15
17
17
19
20
21
22
23
24
26
26
26
28
30
31
36
37
40
42
45
45
48
57
57
58
60
61
64
iii
Topic 8 Graphing functions

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The straight line

The Parabola
Exponential functions
Logarithmic functions
Trigonometric functions
Other examples of where asymptotes occur
Topic 9 Introductory Calculus

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Differentiation
Function notation
The gradient of a tangent
Differentiation the easy way
Finding the gradient of a tangent at a point
Topic 10 Further differentiation

1.
2.
3.
4.
Other important derivatives

The product rule
The quotient rule
The chain rule
Topic 11 Integration
1. Antidifferentiation
iv
65
65
72
78
80
82
88
89
89
89
91
94
101
102
102
103
106
109
115
115
The following Study Guide consists of the subject

notes, guidance to the practice questions in the
tutorial manual and some live links where a video
may help explain some topics.
There is no need to print off this Study Guide in full
however feel free to print off a section if it helps you
to better understand any topic or concept.
Please follow up with me on anything you would like
help with.
SSS009 Study Guide
Topic 1 Order of operations

Topic objectives
At the end of this topic you will be able to:
Understand and apply order of operations.
1. Basic rules
The order of operations is a set of rules used in maths to ensure that only one right
answer is possible for any sum. This is really important when there is more than
one type of operation involved in a calculation.
For example:
To find the answer to 8 + 3 2

Do we add 8 and 3 and then multiply by 2 to get 22
or do we multiply the 3 and 2 and then add the 8 on
to get 14?
This set of rules need to be followed every time you have to evaluate (find the
answer to) a problem.
Step 1:
If there are any brackets, work out the part inside the
brackets
Step 2:
Proceed using the following order:

a. First work out any powers (such as squares and square
roots).
b. Next work out any multiplication and division, from
left to right.
c. Lastly work out any addition and subtraction, from left
to right.
So the above example has an answer of 14. The multiplication must be done
before the addition.
Note:
If there is more than one operation inside the brackets, follow Step 2.
If there are brackets inside brackets, evaluate the innermost brackets
first.
SSS009 Study Guide
Sometimes a fraction bar occurs in a calculation, this means to divide.

The whole of the numerator (top line) needs to be divided by the
whole of the denominator (bottom line). Evaluate the numerator and
the denominator and then as the last step divide the numerator by the
denominator.
Example 1.1
22 3 5 + 8 4
(There are no brackets or powers, so do the

multiplication and division first, from left to
right.)
= 22 15 + 2
(Now complete the calculation by doing the

addition and the subtraction, working again from
left to right.)
=9
Example 1.2
(5 1) 8 15 3
(The brackets need to be evaluated first.)
= 4 8 15 3
(The multiplication and division need to be

evaluated next, from left to right.)
= 32 5
(Lastly, the subtraction needs to be calculated.)
= 27
Example 1.3
12 + 9 {(18 6) 2 5}
(The brackets need to be evaluated first,

starting with the innermost brackets.)
= 12 + 9 {32 5}
(The curly brackets need to be evaluated

next, following the rules in Step 2.
Powers first.)
= 12 + 9 {9 5}
= 12 + 9 4
= 12 + 36
(Multiplication is evaluated before the

addition.)
(Lastly, the addition is calculated.)
= 48
SSS009 Study Guide
Example 1.4
(12 + 67) 2
17 26 13
2
(The fraction line means that both the numerator and

the denominator need to be worked out separately
before the numerator is divided by the denominator.
Start with the brackets in the numerator.)
79 2
17 26 13
(Now finish evaluating the numerator by completing

the multiplication.)
158
17 26 13
(The denominator needs to be evaluated, starting

with the power.)
158
289 26 13
(The division is next.)
158
289 2
(Lastly, the subtraction.)
158
287
(Now divide the numerator by the denominator.)
= 0.550522648
Work through Topic 1, Set 1 in the tutorial manual
SSS009 Study Guide
Topic 2 Signed numbers

Topic objectives
Add and subtract signed numbers

Multiply and divide signed numbers.
A signed number can be a positive or a negative number, for example 2, +3 or

11.7. Usually the positive sign is omitted so +3 would simply be written as 3
however the negative sign is always needed. The sign of a number or term is
always in front of the number or term.
1. Adding and subtracting signed numbers
When adding numbers you move to the right along the number line.
When subtracting numbers you move to the left along the number line.
Example 1.1
2+5
add 5
-10
Starting at 2, move 5 places to the right: 2 + 5 =7

Example 1.2
2 + 5
add 5
-2
10
Starting at 2, move 5 places to the right: 2 + 5 = 3
SSS009 Study Guide
Example 1.3
2 5
subtract 5
-7
-2
Starting at the 2, move 5 places to the left: 2 5 = 7

Example 1.4
25
subtract 5
-3
Starting at 2, move 5 places to the left: 2 5 = 3

Special case: Subtracting a negative number
If you consider a positive number as having money in the bank and a negative
number as owing a debt, then taking away a debt means you are moving in a
positive direction.
Example 1.5
If you owe $20 (20) then take away the debt you are moving 20 places to the
right.
Taking away the debt
-20
0 (no longer owe $20)
Example 1.6
3 (7)
Starting at 3, move 7 places to the right: 3 (7) = 3 + 7 = 10
10
SSS009 Study Guide
Subtracting a negative number is the

same as adding that number.
2. Multiplying and dividing signed numbers

Consider the following number pattern:
2 2= 4
2 1 =2
2 0=0
2 1 =
The answers are decreasing by 2 each time. Therefore 2 1 = 2 (by following
the same pattern).
A positive number multiplied by a
negative number always results in a
negative number as the answer
Again following the number pattern:
2 2= 4
2 1 =2
2 0=0
2 1 =
The answers are increasing by 2 each time. Therefore, 2 1 = 2 (by following
the same pattern).
A negative number multiplied by a negative
number always results in a positive number
as the answer
Example 2.1
8 (2) = 16
Example 2.2
3 (4) = 12
SSS009 Study Guide
Division follows the same two rules as

multiplication.
A positive number divided by a negative number
gives a negative answer
and a negative number divided by a negative
number gives a positive answer.
Example 2.3
20 5 3
20 5 3
= 4 3
= 12
The following link will look at some language and shortcuts when
working with signed numbers.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4sRy7_usYI&feature=endscreen
&NR=1
References
Mums the word, Module 1 (1995). Macquarie University Mathematics Skills.
SSS009 Study Guide
Topic 3 Fractions
Topic objectives
Add and subtract fractions

Multiply and divide fractions
Present an answer in simplest form.
4
can be demonstrated by shading 4
5
portions of a whole that has been split into 5 equal parts.
A fraction is part of a whole. The fraction
There are three types of fractions:
a proper fraction has the top number less than the bottom so it represents a
1
fraction less than one whole: for instance
2
an improper fraction has the top number bigger than the bottom so it
11
represents a fraction more than one whole: for instance
3
a mixed numeral has a whole number as well as a fraction part for instance
2 13
One whole represents any fraction where the top and the bottom are the same
5
13
number. For instance
or
both equal 1.
5
13
The top number in a fraction is called the numerator and the bottom number is
called the denominator.
numerator
denominator
2
The fraction reads as 2 over 5 or two fifths. It means the same as 2 5.
5
SSS009 Study Guide
Note: If your calculator has a fraction function then it will have an a b c button or
for recent Casio models x
To enter
2
5
To enter 3 19
use 2 a b c 5 or 2 x 5
use 3 a b c 1 a b c 9 or 3 x 1 x 9
1. Converting improper fractions to mixed numerals

Answers to fraction questions should be shown as proper fractions or as mixed
numerals. Answers should not be left as improper fractions, unless the fraction is
part of an algebraic expression.
To convert from an improper fraction to a mixed numeral divide the numerator by
the denominator to work out the number of wholes and the remainder.
Example 1.3
15
4
4
4
Divide 14 by 4 to find how many

3r 3
4 15
so
15
= 3 34
4
Example 1.4
8
5
divide 8 by 5
1r 3
58
so
10
8
= 1 53
5
1 whole
4
15
s (or wholes) in
4
4
SSS009 Study Guide
2. Equivalent fractions
Equivalent fractions have the same value as each other
1
3
2
6
They can be formed by multiplying or dividing both the numerator and

denominator of a fraction by the same number.
Remember that any number over itself is equal to 1 so multiplying or dividing by
1 doesnt change the value only the appearance of the fraction.
For example
1
1
=
3
3
2
2
1
=
or
6
2
3
10
10
=
30
10
Example 2.1
Find the missing value if
3 ?
=
8 40
For 8 to become 40 we need to multiply by 5
3 5 15
=
8 5 40

To simplify a fraction divide by a common factor.
Example 2.2
Simplify
20
25
20
=
25
20
5
25
5
4
5
A common factor is a number that divides evenly into

both the numerator and denominator.
11
SSS009 Study Guide
3. Multiplying fractions
When you multiply fractions you are finding a portion of a portion. For example
1
1
1 1
of .
means find
2
2
2 2
The rule when multiplying fractions is to multiply the numerators and

multiply the denominators. Then simplify the answer if possible.
Any numerator and denominator that have a common factor can be
simplified before the multiplying takes place.
Example 3.1
2 1
7 3
2 1 2 1 2
= =
____ 7 3 7 3 21
Example 3.2
2 3
5 8
2 3 2 3 6 2 3
= =
=
5 8 5 8 40 2 20
or
2 3 2/ 1 3 1 3 3
== =
5 8 5 8/ 4 5 4 20
Example 3.3
3
7
12
3
1
7 3 7 3 7 21 3 7
3
3 = =
=
= =1
12 1 12 112 12 3 4
4
or
7 3 7
3/ 1 7 1 7 7
3
3 = =
=
= =1
12 1 12 112/ 4 1 4 4
4
Write. 3 as
12
SSS009 Study Guide
4. Dividing fractions
To divide
1
by 2 you share it between 2
2
1
1
2 =
2
4
Note: the same result is obtained for
To divide 6 by
1
you find the number of
2
1 1
2 2
portions in 6
m
6 metres
6
1
6 1
=
12 or =
12
2
1 2
Note: the same result is obtained for
6 2
1 1
Rule: To divide by a fraction invert (flip) the

fraction you are dividing by and
multiply.
(To flip a whole number eg 5, first make it into a fraction
5
1
1
then turn it upside down: .)
5
Example 4.1
1 2
2 3
1 2 1 3 3
= =
____ 2 3 2 2 4
Note: the division rule needs to be applied before any simplifying takes
place.
13
SSS009 Study Guide
Example 4.2
5 1
8 4
5 1 5 4 5 4 20 4 5
= =
=
= = 2 12
8
4
8
1
8
1
8
4
2
____
Example 4.3
1
3
9
11
1
9
1
11
11
=
=
=
11
3
11
3
9
27
Note: To multiply and divide mixed

numerals you must first convert each
fraction to its improper form.
14
SSS009 Study Guide
5. Adding and subtracting fractions

Adding and subtracting fractions is a process of collecting together like fractions.
Like fractions have the same denominator.
If the denominators are the same then just add or subtract the numerators.
Example 5.1
3 2 5
+ =
8 8 8
Example 5.2
7 3 4
=
11 11 11
When the denominators are different, first form equivalent fractions to make
the denominators the same.
Example 5.3
1 1
+
2 4
First find the common multiples of the denominators

1
1
This enables us to break and
into smaller portions in
2
4
order to find a portion that is common to both.
2: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...... 4: 4, 8, 12, .
convert both fractions to 4ths
1 1
+
2 4
1 2 1 1
=
+
2 2 4 1
2 1
=
+
4 4
2 +1 3
=
=
4
4
Example 5.4
3 1
4 6
Multiples 4: 4, 8, 12, 16, ....

6: 6, 12, ...
convert both fractions to 12ths
15
SSS009 Study Guide
3 1
4 6
3 3 1 2
=
4 3 6 2
9 2
=
12 12
92 7
=
=
12
12
Example 5.5
5 4
+
6 9
Multiples 6: 6, 12, 18, 24 ....

9: 9, 18, ...
5 4
+
6 9
5 3 4 2
=
+
6 3 9 2
15 8
=
+
18 18
15 + 8 23
5
=1
= =
18
18
18
16
SSS009 Study Guide
Topic 4 Index numbers

Topic objectives
Understand the notion of an index number

Apply index rules to multiply and divided terms of the same base
Interpret a zero power
Convert to an alternative form a negative power and a fractional power.
An index number is any number that has a base number raised to some power.
index or power
an
Base number
All numbers can be considered to be index numbers. When there is no index

written, the index is actually one (1).
The following numbers have been written in index form:
2 = 21
10.5 = 10.51
m = m1
1
1 1
=
2 2
1. What does the index mean?

Example 1.1
23
The index three (3) means you multiply the base number by itself three times:
23 = 2 2 2
4
And 5 = 5 5 5 5
17
SSS009 Study Guide
2. Multiplying index numbers

To multiply terms that are in index form which have the same base: add the
indices.
a m a n = a m+n
Example 2.1
27 25 = 27 +5 = 212
Example 2.2
4 2 43 = 4 2 + 3 = 45
Notice the base number always stays the same. Lets have a look why this
happens:
Example 2.3
22 = 2 2
23 = 2 2 2
2 2 23 = ( 2 2 ) ( 2 2 2 )
= 2 2 2 2 2
= 25
Example 2.4
42 = 4 4
45 = 4 4 4 4 4
4 2 45 =
( 4 4) ( 4 4 4 4 4)
= 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
= 47
18
SSS009 Study Guide
3. Dividing index numbers

To divide terms that are in index form which have the same base: subtract the
indices.
a m a n = a mn
Example 3.1
2 7 2 4 = 2 7 4 = 23
Example 3.2
35 33 = 353 = 32
Once again the base number remains the same, this is how it works:
Example 3.3
35 = 3 3 3 3 3
33 = 3 3 3
35
35 33 =3
3
3/ 3/ 3/ 3 3
=
3/ 3/ 3/
= 3 3
= 32
Example 3.4
66 = 6 6 6 6 6 6
63 = 6 6 6
66
66 63 =3
6
6/ 6/ 6/ 6 6 6
=
6/ 6/ 6/
= 6 6 6
= 63
Example 3.5
Evaluate 911 95 92 94 leaving answer in index form
911 95 92 94 =
9115+ 2+ 4 = 912
Recall orders of operation covered in topic 1
19
SSS009 Study Guide
Work through Topic 4, Set 2 and Set 3 in the tutorial manual
4. The power of zero

In all the previous exercises there have been index numbers to the power of zero.
What do these numbers actually mean?
34 30 = 34+ 0 = 34
This must mean that 30 has a value of 1.

25 2 0 = 25 0 = 25
Again this must mean that 20 has a value of 1.
Any number to the power of zero (0) is

equal to one (1).
This is a really important rule that you will need to know and will use time and
time again.
Example 4.1
80 = 1
Example 4.2
t0 =1
Example 4.3
(98 x )0
20
=1
SSS009 Study Guide
5. Numbers with a negative index

The index may be positive or negative. What does a negative index mean?
Example 5.1
20 1
2 2 = 3 = 3
2
2
0
(Section 4 showed us that 2 0 = 1 )
Or using index laws 20 23 = 203 = 23

Therefore 23 =
1
23
The general rule for negative indices is
a n =
1
an
Example 5.2
Evaluate 2 2
22 =
1 1
=
22 4
Example 5.3
Evaluate 5 3
53 =
1
1
=
3
5 125
21
SSS009 Study Guide
6. Powers of powers
What happens when we raise an index number to a power?
Example 6.1
Find the square of 43.
(4 )
3 2
= 43 43
= 43 + 3
= 423
= 46
Example 6.2
Evaluate (25 )3
(2 )
5 3
= 25 25 25
= 25 + 5 + 5
= 235
= 215
The general rule is:
(a )
m n
= a m a m ..... a m
{ n times }
= a n m
= a mn
Example 6.3
Evaluate (34 )6
(34 )6 = 346 = 324
22
SSS009 Study Guide
7. Fractional powers
We now know that when we have two numbers with the same base multiplied
together - we add the index numbers. If we had two identical index numbers
multiplied together a ? a ? , what do the question marks have to be for the answer
to equal a1 or just a?
Just looking at the index numbers we have: ? + ? = 1
So ? =
1
2
Therefore,
a =a
1
2
Likewise, a ? a ? a ? =
a
The index numbers,
?+?+?=1
1
So ? =
3
1
a = a3
More generally, we have:

1
n
a =na
Example 7.1
Express 4 16 in index form
4
16 = 16 4
1
Example 7.2
1
Express 100 5 in root form

100 5 = 5 100
1
23
SSS009 Study Guide
Work through Topic 3, Set 6 and 7
8. More fractional powers

5
What does the term 9 2 represent?

The rule: ( a m ) = a mn is used to simplify fractional indices.
n
Example 8.1
5
Evaluate 9 2
1
9 = 92

5
2
( 9)
= 35
= 243
1
9 2 can be written as 9 2
1
5
2
and using the rule above
1
2 5
5
5
9 = (9 )= ( 9)=
3=
243
Example 8.2
Evaluate 32
12
5
12
12
12
12
12
32 5 = 32 5 = (32 5 )=
( 5 32)=
2=
4096
Calculator step: to find

5 shift
24
32 =
32
(the
key is above the power ( y x on x ) key)
SSS009 Study Guide
The following video may provide some help with the topic of
fractional indices
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uGiJVje41Q0
25
SSS009 Study Guide
Topic 5 Algebra
Topic objectives
Add and subtract algebraic terms

Multiply and divide algebraic terms
Add, subtract, multiply and divide algebraic fractions
Expand and simplify algebraic expressions
Expand binomial terms
Factorise by taking a common factor
Factorise quadratic expressions.
All of the previous topics have relevance when working with algebraic expression.
Many different skills will be looked at in this topic and they are all important
when calculus and harder topics are attempted.
Simplifying
1. Adding and subtracting algebraic numbers
We can only add or subtract like algebraic terms. These are terms with identical
letters attached.
a and 4a, 5xy and 11xy, b2 and 3b2, 2xy2 and 16xy2 are like terms.
3x and x2 are not like terms and can not be collected together.
It sometimes helps to think of the variable x as an apple and the variable y as an
orange to start with.
Example 1.1
Simplify 3 x + 2 y
3 x + 2 x = (3 apples + 2 apples)
= (5 apples)
= 5x
Example 1.2
Simplify 5 y 3 y
5 y 3 y = (5 oranges 3 oranges)
= (2 oranges)
= 2y
26
SSS009 Study Guide
The numbers in front of the variable, called the coefficients, are added or
subtracted but the variable itself does not change.
For a variable such as a or b2 as shown above the coefficient is 1. This needs
to be remembered when adding and subtracting terms.
Example 1.3
Simplify 4 7 x 2 + 2 x
4 7x 2 + 2x =
7 x + 2 x + 4 2
=
5x + 2
or 2 5 x
When writing answers: The variables are written

first (in alphabetical order) followed by straight
numbers (called constants). The only time this does
not happen is if the first coefficient is negative, when
the order can be reversed.
Example 1.4
Simplify 2 x + 3 y + 5 x 2 y
2 x + 3 y + 5x 2 y =
2 x + 5x + 3 y 2 y
= 7x + y
The last answer is written as 7x + y rather
than 7x +1y
27
SSS009 Study Guide
2. Multiplying algebraic numbers
1.
Multiply the numbers first (dont forget to include

the sign).
2.
Multiply each letter, grouping like letters or symbols

together (it is best to start with the first one and work
methodically through the expression).
3.
Simplify your answer where ever possible.
Example 2.1
Simplify 3 x 4 y
3x 4 y =
12 x y
= 12 xy
Example 2.2
Simplify 2a 3b 5c
2a 3b 5c =
30 a b c
= 30abc
When algebraic numbers are multiplied
together, no symbol is written between the
numbers or symbols.
Example 2.3
Sometimes you may see an expression written:
3a.4b
The dot (fullstop) means to multiply the numbers together.
The answer would be:
3a.4b =
12 a b =12ab
28
SSS009 Study Guide
When multiplying and dividing you need to remember the index laws.
Example 2.4
Simplify 2 x 3 x 2 2 y
12 x x 2 y
2 x 3 x 2 2 y =
= 12 x1+ 2 y
= 12 x 3 y
Example 2.5
Simplify a 4 ab3
a 4 ab3 =
a 4 a b3
= a 4+1b3
= a 5b 3
Example 2.6
Simplify 4 x 2 2 xy 3 x 2 y
4 x 2 2 xy 3 x 2 y = 4 2 1 x 2 x y 3 x 2 y
= 8 x 2+1+ 2 y 3+1
= 8 x5 y 4
The last term in the expression ( x 2 y ) reads as 1x 2 y so that the preceding

negative sign can be evaluated when the numbers are multiplied out.
29
SSS009 Study Guide
3. Dividing algebraic numbers

When dividing algebraic numbers, firstly write them as a fraction, cancel common
factors and then simplify all the numbers and variables.
Example 3.1
Simplify 18 x 2 y 2 xy
18 x 2 y
18 x y 2 xy =
2 xy
2
18 x 2 y

2 x y
9
y
18
x2
=
21
x1
y1
9 x 1
1
= 9x
=
x 2 xx
note: = =
x
x
xx x
= = x
1
x
Example 3.2
Simplify 4abc 2a 3c5
4abc
2a 3c 5
c
4 a
= 3 b 5
c
2 a
4abc 2a 3c5 =
4
a
b
c
=
3 5
2 1 a a2 1 c c4
2 1 b 1

1 a2 1 c4
2b
= 2 4
ac
=
30
a
c
,
)
aaa ccccc
SSS009 Study Guide
Example 3.3
Simplify x 4 y 5 x 5 y 6
x 4 y 5 x5 y 6 =
x4 y
5 x5 y 6
1 x4 y
= 5 6
5 x y
1 1 1
= 5
5 x y
1
=
5 xy 5
4. Algebraic fractions
4.1 Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions
Algebraic fractions are added and subtracted using the same method as for
arithmetic fractions. The denominators must be the same before these operations
can be carried out.
Example 4.1.1
Simplify
5y y
+
6 10
5y y
+
6 10
(LCD = 30)
5y y 5y 5 y 3
+ =
+
6 10 6 5 10 3
25 y 3 y
=
+
30 30
25 y + 3 y
=
30
28 y 2
=
2
30
14 y
=
15
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SSS009 Study Guide
Example 4.1.2
Simplify
x 1
+
4 3
x 1
+
4 3
(LCD = 12)
x 1 x 3 1 4
+ = +
4 3 4 3 3 4
3x 4
=
+
12 12
3x + 4
=
12

The same rules apply if there is an algebraic expression in the denominator. When
finding the lowest common denominator, care needs to be taken with the letters.
The lowest common denominator will have the common multiple of the numbers
in the denominators and the biggest power of each letter in each of the
denominators.
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SSS009 Study Guide
Example 4.1.3
Simplify
1 1
+
6a a
The LCD (lowest common denominator) must contain 6 and a, so LCD is 6a.
1 1 1 1 6
+ = +
6a a 6a a 6
1
6
=
+
6a 6a
1+ 6
=
6a
7
=
6a
Example 4.1.4
Simplify
a 7
5 4c
The LCD must contain the first common multiple of 4 and 5 i.e. 20, and must
have c in it, so LCD is 20c.
a 7 a 4c 7 5
=
5 4c 5 4c 4c 5
4ac 35
=
20c 20c
4ac 35
=
20c
Example 4.1.5
Simplify
5
7
+
3a 2b
The LCD must contain the common multiple of 3 and 2 i.e. 6, and must have both
a and b in it. So LCD is 6ab
5
7
5 2b
7 3a
+
=
+
3a 2b 3a 2b 2b 3a
10b 21a
=
+
6ab 6ab
10b + 21a
=
6 ab
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SSS009 Study Guide
Example 4.1.6
Simplify
10 2
a a2
The LCD has to be the highest power of the a term i.e. a 2

10 2 10 a 2
=
a a2 a a a2
10a 2
=
a2 a2
10a 2
=
a2
Work through topic 4, set 6

W
4.2. Multiplying and dividing algebraic fractions
Algebraic fractions are multiplied and divided using the same method as for
arithmetic fractions:
To multiply, multiply numerators and denominators then simplify

To divide, invert and multiply, then simplify.
Example 4.2.1
Simplify
w 12
18 y
w 12 12w
=
18 y 18 y
2w
=
3y
Example 4.2.2
Simplify
34
be de
d 3b
6
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SSS009 Study Guide
be de bde 2
=
d 3b 3bd
1 b d e2
=
3 b d 1
1
e2
1 b
d
=
3 b1 d 1 1
e2
=
3
Example 4.2.3
a a2
Simplify
5 5
a a2 a 5
=
5 5 5 a2
5a
= 2
5a
5 a
=
5 a2
1
5
a
=
2
51 a
=
1
a
Example 4.2.4
Simplify
3ab 8a 2 6a 2 b 2
4a 12b
5a
3ab 8a 2 6a 2b 2 3ab 8a 2
5a
=
2 2
4a 12b
5a
4a 12b 6a b
3 8 5 a a2 a
b
=
2
4 12 6
aa
b b2
1
3 8 5
b
a a2 a
=
4 1 12 6 6 2
b 1 b2
a 1 a2 1
5 a 1
=

12 1 b 2
5a
=
12b 2
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SSS009 Study Guide
5. Expanding algebraic expressions

Consider the expression 2 x ( 3 x + 4 ) . To expand this expression (or remove the
brackets) we need to multiply each term inside the bracket by the term outside the
bracket.
This is applying the distributive law of mathematics: a (b + c) = ab + ac
So expanding 2 x ( 3 x + 4 ) becomes
2 x(3 x + 4) = 2 x 3 x + 2 x 4
= 6 x 2 + 8x
Example 5.1
Expand 2( x 2 3 x + 4)
2( x 2 3 x + 4) = 2 x 2 2 3 x + 2 4
= 2x2 6x + 8
Example 5.2
Expand 4 x(3 x + 1)
4 x(3 x + 1) =
4 x 3 x + 4 x 1
= 12 x 2 4 x
Example 5.3
Expand (4 x + 3)
(4 x + 3) =
1(4 x + 3)
= 4 x 3
Example 5.4
Expand 3(4 x 2)
3(4 x 2) =
3 4 x 3 2
= 12 x + 6
(Always take care when there is a negative before the brackets.)
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SSS009 Study Guide
Example 5.5
Expand and simplify 2a (3b + 4c) ab
2a (3b + 4c) ab =
2a 3b + 2a 4c ab
= 6ab + 8ac ab
= 5ab + 8ac
(remember ab means 1ab)
Example 5.6
Expand and simplify 4(9 x 2) 5(6 x 2)
4(9 x 2) 5(6 x 2) =
36 x 8 30 x + 10
= 6x + 2
6. Binomial expansion
A binomial consists of two numbers e.g. x + 3. It is often written in brackets
(x + 3).
A set of two binomials multiplied together such as (x + 3)(x - 2) is called a
binomial product or binomial expansion.
To expand two binomials every term must be multiplied by every other term.
To do this we can separate the first binomial into its two separate terms in order to
make the multiplications easier.
Example 6.1
Expand ( x + 2)( x + 5)
Separate (x + 2) into x and 2.
then multiply each with (x + 5)
( x + 2)( x + 5) =
x( x + 5) + 2( x + 5)
= x 2 + 5 x + 2 x + 10
= x 2 + 7 x + 10
Notice that we have four products because we are multiplying 4 terms together.
The two middle terms however are like terms so they can be collected
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SSS009 Study Guide
Some students like to set this out as a long multiplication instead.

x+5
x+2
+2x + 10
x2 + 5x
x2 + 7x + 10
Example 6.2
Expand ( y + 4)( y + 2)
( y + 4)( y + 2) =
y ( y + 2) + 4( y + 2)
= y2 + 2 y + 4 y + 8
= y2 + 6 y + 8
Example 6.3
Expand (2a + 5)(a 3)
(2a + 5)(a 3) =
2a (a 3) + 5(a 3)
= 2a 2 6a + 5a 15
= 2a 2 a 15
Example 6.4
Expand ( x 3)( x 2)
( x 3)( x 2) =
x( x 2) 3( x 2)
= x 2 2 x 3x + 6
= x2 5x + 6
Notice the format of the answers - because there were like terms, the answer has
only 3 parts. This type of expression is called a trinomial.
The highest power of the trinomial is 2. Expressions like this
( x 2 + 2 x 3, y 2 18, 2a 2 4a ) are also called quadratics.
Example 6.5
Expand ( x + 7) 2
( x + 7) 2 = ( x + 7)( x + 7)
= x( x + 7) + 7( x + 7)
= x 2 + 7 x + 7 x + 49
=x 2 + 14 x + 49
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SSS009 Study Guide
This trinomial x2 + 14x + 49 is called a perfect square because it is the expansion

of a binomial that has been squared. Notice the pattern.
x2
14x
49
1st term squared

2 lots of x 7
last term squared
Example 6.6
Expand ( x 4)( x + 4)
( x 4)( x + 4) = x( x + 4) 4( x + 4)
= x 2 + 4 x 4 x 16
= x 2 16
These binomials (x - 4) and (x + 4) are known as the difference of two squares.

Again notice the pattern. As the last terms are the same except for the signs the
middle term will always disappear after expanding we end up with a quadratic
expression but it is not a trinomial.
Work through Topic 5, Set 9
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SSS009 Study Guide
7. Factorising algebraic expressions

Factorising is the opposite of expanding; we want to make brackets.
To do this you must find the highest common factor of the terms in the expression.
1.
Find the highest common factor of the terms

in the expression - the highest number that
will divide into all of the numbers and the
lowest power for each letter that occurs in
every term.
2.
Write the number and the terms down and

then write in the brackets.
3.
The expression inside the bracket is the term

that you need to multiply the outside term, the
common factor, by to get the original number.
Example 7.1
Factorise 2 xy 2 + 6 y
2 xy 2 + 6 y = 2 y ( xy + 3)
2 is the highest common factor of 2 and 6.

x does not occur in both terms so is not a common factor
y is the lowest power of y and y2
we need to multiply 2y by xy to get 2xy 2 and 2y by 3 to get 6y
Example 7.2
Factorise 10a 2b 2ab
Common factor 2ab
10a 2b 2ab =
2ab(5a 1)
Example 7.3
Factorise 6 x 2 y 5 + 9 x 3 y 3
Common factor 3x2y3
6 x 2 y 5 + 9 x3 y 3 = 3 x 2 y 3 (2 y 2 + 3 x)
Example 7.4
Factorise 4de 2 8e
Common factor -4e
4de 2 8e =
4e(de + 2)
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SSS009 Study Guide
Example 7.5
Factorise 8 + 7x
When there is no common factor use 1
8 + 7x =
1( 8 + 7 x )
Example 7.6
Factorise 8 + 7x
8 + 7 x =
1( 8 7 x )
Be really careful of the positive and negative numbers.
You can always check your answer by expanding. You should end up with
the original expression.
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SSS009 Study Guide
8. Factorising quadratic expressions

We have found that when we expand two binomials the result is a quadratic
expression, usually a trinomial. When factorising a quadratic we want to find the
two original binomial expressions.
The method to achieve this is called the PSF method:
P:
the product of the first and last terms
S:
the sum (middle term)
F:
the factors of the product (P) that

add/subtract to give the sum (S).
Example 8.1
Factorise x 2 + 5 x + 6
P: x 2 6 =
6 x2
S: 5x
F: All signs are positive so both factors are positive
The factors of 6x 2 are 6x, x and 2x, 3x.
Only 2x, 3x add together to give 5x
Therefore () F: 2x, 3x.
Replace the sum (5x) with the factors (2x, 3x) in the original trinomial.
x 2 + 2 x + 3x + 6
Looking at x 2 + 2 x + 3 x + 6 take the first two terms and factorise these

x( x + 2) + 3 x + 6
Now factorise the last two terms:

x( x + 2) + 3( x + 2)
Notice that the binomial expression (in the brackets) is exactly the same. This
will always be the case.
(x + 2) is now a common factor and can be factorised as follows:

( x + 2)( x + 3)
Therefore, x 2 + 5 x + 6 =
( x + 2)( x + 3)
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SSS009 Study Guide
Expand to check your answer.
Example 8.2
Factorise x 2 8 x + 7
x2 7 =
7 x2
8x
the product is positive but the sum is negative. Therefore
the two factors must both be negative.
The factors of 7x2: -x, -7x
F: x, 7x.
P:
S:
F:
Replace the sum ( 8x) with the factors ( x, 7x).

x2 x 7 x + 7
Factorise the first two terms.

x( x 1) 7 x + 7
Factorise the last two terms - careful with the signs.

x( x 1) 7( x 1)
(x-1) is common to both factors so the two binomial factors are (x-1) and (x-7)
x2 8x + 7 =
( x 1)( x 7)
Example 8.3
Factorise x2 - 36
P: -36x
S: 0 there is no middle term
F: Product is negative so the terms must have opposite signs. The
sum is zero so the terms must be the same
-6x and 6x.
x 2 36 =
x 2 6 x + 6 x 36
= x( x 6) + 6( x 6)
=
( x 6)( x + 6)
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SSS009 Study Guide
Example 8.4
Factorise 8 x 2 10 x 3
P: 8x2 -3 = -24x2
S: -10x
F: the product is negative so factors must have opposite signs
with the bigger factor being negative.
Factors of -24x2:
-24x, x
-12x, 2x
-8x, 3x
-6x, 4x
The combination that gives a sum of -10x is -12x and 2x

8 x 2 10 x 3 = 8 x 2 12 x + 2 x 3
= 4 x ( 2 x 3) + 1( 2 x 3 )
= (2 x 3)(4 x + 1)
The following video will provide some further instructions and

examples on factorising quadratics
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N30tN9158Kc&list=PL7AF1C14AF
1B05894&index=35&feature=plpp_video
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SSS009 Study Guide
Topic 6 Equation solving

Topic objectives
Solve an equation
Solve an equations with fractions involved
Solve a quadratic equation by factorising or by formula.
1. Overview
An equation is a balanced system with the equal sign being the balancing point.
Any operation performed on one side of an equation must be balanced by the same
operation on the other side of the equal sign.
When solving an equation a numerical answer is needed for the unknown variable.
Example 1.1
Solve 3x 2 = 4
x is the variable for which we need to find a numerical answer.
Clear all numbers from the x side.
3x
2=4
The 2 needs to be moved from the left hand side by performing the opposite
operation.
Add 2 to both sides of the equal sign
3x 2 + 2 =
4+2
3x + 0 =
6
3x = 6
(remember 3x means 3 x or x 3)
The 3 needs to be removed from the left hand side by performing the
opposite operation.
Divide both sides by 3.
3x 6
=
3 3
x=2
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SSS009 Study Guide
Equations need to be worked out down the

page to be able to follow the steps required
to solve the equation.
Example 1.2
Solve
4y 3 = 8y + 21
y is the pronumeral for which we need the numerical answer. All ys must
be gathered to one side and the numbers on the other side of the equal
sign. It is often easier to work with the variable on the left of the equal sign
and numbers on the right.
4y 3 =
8 y + 21
remove +8y from right hand side
4 y 8 y=
3 8 y 8 y + 21
4 y 3 = 0 + 21
4 y 3 = 21
remove -3 from left hand side
4 y 3 + 3 = 21 + 3
4 y + 0 =
24
4 y =
24
4 y 24
=
4
4
y = 6
To check your answer:
Substitute 6 for y in the original equation
left hand side: 4y-3 = 4 6 3 = 24 3 = 27
right hand side: 8y+21 = 8 6 + 21 = 48 + 21 = 27
The left hand side equals right hand side so 6 is the solution for the equation.
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SSS009 Study Guide
Example 1.3
Solve 2(3 x + 7 ) = 6 ( x 1)
2(3 x + 7) =6 ( x 1)
expand
6 x + 14 = 6 x + 1
simplify RHS
6 x + 14 =7 x
solve
6 x + x + 14 =7 x + x
7 x + 14 =7 + 0
7 x + 14 =
7
7 x + 14 14 =
7 14
7 x + 0 =7
7 x = 7
7 x 7
=
7
7
x = 1
Check
LHS: 2(3x+7) = 2(3x-1 +7) = 2(-3 + 7) =2(4) = 8
RHS: 6 (x 1) = 6 (-1 -1) = 6 (-2) = 6 + 2 = 8
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SSS009 Study Guide
2. Solving equations with fractions

If the equation involves fractions then each term needs to be multiplied by the
lowest common denominator (LCD).
Example 2.1
Solve
m
1
4 =
3
2
The two denominators here are 3 and 2

Multiples: 3: 3, 6, 9, 2: 2, 4, 6, 8, so 6 is the LCD.
Multiply each term be 6
m
1
4 =
3
2
m
1
6 46 =
6
3
2
simplify - the denominators will always cancel out
3
2
1
m
6 4 6 = 6
21
31
multiply numerators
2m 24 = 3
now proceed as before
2m 24 + 24 =
3 + 24
2m + 0 =
27
2m = 27
2 m 27
=
2
2
m = 13.5
Check your answer as shown in previous section
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SSS009 Study Guide
Example 2.2
Solve
x +1
+
3
x
4
= 5
Note: x + 1 is a binomial. Each binomial must be

put in brackets at the start.
LCD = 12: multiply each term by 12
x
( x + 1)
+
=
5
3
4
x
( x + 1)
12 + 12 =
5 12
3
4
simplify by cancelling
4
3
( x + 1)
x
12 +
12 = 5 12
31
41
multiply numerators and simplify
4( x + 1) + 3 x =
60
4 x + 4 + 3x =
60
7 x + 4 = 60
solve
7 x + 4 4 = 60 4
7x + 0 =
56
7 x = 58
7 x 56
=
7
7
x =8
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SSS009 Study Guide
Example 2.3
Solve
y +1 y 2 5
=
5
3
6
LCD = 30: multiply each term by 30

( y + 1) ( y 2) 5
=
5
3
6
( y + 1)
( y 2)
5
30
30 =
30
3
5
6
6
5
10
( y + 1)
( y 2)
5
30
30 =
30
51
31
61
6( y + 1) 10( y 2) =
25
6 y + 6 10 y + 20 =
25
4 y + 26 =
25
25 26
4 y + 26 26 =
4 y + 0 =
1
4 y =
1
4 y 1
=
4
4
y = 0.25
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SSS009 Study Guide
3. Solving quadratic equations

Quadratic equations are in the form ax 2 + bx + c =
0
If ax 2 + bx + c = y is graphed on the number plane the resulting graph is
always a parabola, and can look like:
20
15
18
36
16
33
30
14
27
12
24
10
21
18
10
15
6
0
-4
-2
12
-5
0
-10
Figure 1
-4
-2
8
-6
Figure 2
-4
-2
Figure 3
When solving ax 2 + bx + c = 0 we want to know the value/s of x when y = 0

(or where the parabola passes through / touches the x-axis the horizontal axis)
As can be seen from figure 3 the parabola does not touch or pass through the xaxis, so not every quadratic equation can be solved.
The parabola in figure 2 touches the x-axis, so there is only one numerical value
for x that solves the equation.
The parabola in figure 1 crosses the x-axis twice so there are two numerical values
for x that solve the equation.
As there are different powers involved in ax 2 + bx + c = 0 the equation
solving technique is different from the examples in the previous sections. There
are two methods that can be used.
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SSS009 Study Guide
Method 1: Factorisation method

Example 3.1
x2 + x 6 = 0
Solve
Using the PSF method, find the binomial factors.

P:
S:
F:
x 2 6 = 6x 2
x
The product is negative so factors have opposite signs
The sum is positive so the larger factor is positive
2x and 3x are the factors
x 2 2 x + 3x 6 = 0
x ( x 2) + 3( x 2) = 0
( x 2 )( x + 3)
=0
x 2 and x + 3 are both numbers. When multiplying two numbers together the
only way that the product can equal zero is if one or both numbers are equal to
zero.
So
or
Therefore
if x 2 = 0 then 0 (x + 3) = 0
if x + 3 = 0 then (x 2) 0 = 0
x2=0
x2+2=0+2
x=2
or
x+3=0
x + 3 3 = 0 3
x = 3
Checking the solutions:
52
when x = 2
x2 + x 6 = 0
22 + 2 6 = 4 + 2 6 = 0
when x = 3
x2 + x 6 = 0
(3) 2 + (3) 6 = 9 3 6 = 0
SSS009 Study Guide
Example 3.2
3a 2 14a + 8 = 0
Solve
3a 2 8 = 24a 2
14a
the product is positive, so both factors have the same sign
and as the sum is negative both are negative
The factors are 2a, 12a
P:
S:
F:
3a 2 2a 12a + 8 = 0
a (3a 2) 4(3a 2) = 0
(3a 2)(a 4) = 0
3a 2 = 0
3a 2 + 2 = 0 + 2
3a = 2
3a 2
=
3 3
a = 2 or 0.67
3
a= 2
Solutions:
Check:
or
a4=0
a4+4=0+4
a=4
or 4
3 2 3 2 14 2 3 + 8 = 3 4 9 28 3 + 8 = 12 9 28 3 + 8 = 12 9 84 9 + 72 9 = 0
3 4 2 14 4 + 8 = 48 56 + 8 = 0
Example 3.3
Solve
y2 7y = 0
This is not a trinomial so finding the common factor is all that is needed.
y(y 7) = 0
y=0
Solutions:
Check:
or
y7=0
y7+7=0+7
y=7
y = 0 or 7
02 7 0 = 0 0 = 0
7 2 7 7 = 49 49 = 0
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SSS009 Study Guide
Example 3.4
x 2 16 = 0
Solve
This should be recognisable as a difference of two squares.

(x 4)(x + 4) = 0
x4=0
x4+4=0+4
x=4
or
x+4=0
x+44=04
x = 4
Solutions: x = 4 or -4
Check:
4 2 16 = 16 16 = 0
(4) 2 16 = 16 16 = 0
Example 3.5
Solve
x 2 6x + 9 = 0
x 2 6x + 9 = 0
P = 9x2
S = -6x
F = -3x, -3x
x 2 3x 3x + 9 =
0
x ( x 3) 3 ( x 3) =
0
0
( x 3)( x 3) =
x 3 =
0
x=3
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SSS009 Study Guide
Method 2: Quadratic formula

The general quadratic equation can be written as
ax2 + bx + c = 0
Quadratic equations that are not readily factorised can be solved using the
quadratic formula.
The formula used:
x=
b b 2 4ac
2a
Where a is the number and sign in front of the x 2 (the x2 coefficient)

b is the number and sign in front of the x (the x coefficient)
c is the number and sign on its own, that is, the constant term.
Example 3.6
2x 2 9x + 3 = 0
Solve
Here a = 2, b = 9 and c = 3
b b 2 4ac
x=
2a
(9) (9) 2 4 2 3
x=
2 2
9 81 24
x=
4
9 57
x=
4
9 57
9 + 57
or
x=
4
4
x = 0.36 or 4.14
Calculator step:
9or
9 + 57
57 = 4 =
(newer calculators)
= 4=
(older calculators)
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SSS009 Study Guide
References
Groves, M. (1995). Maths in Focus - Three unit mathematics book. Roseville:
McGraw Hill Book Company.
Jones, S.B., Couchman, K.E. (1983). 2 unit mathematics book 1. Burwood:
Shakespeare Head Press.
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SSS009 Study Guide
Topic 7 Functions
Topic objectives
Understand what a function is

Understand alternative ways of describing a function
Recognise a domain and a range
Recognise a composite function.
Functions are the key to describing the real world in mathematical terms. A
function can be considered as a way to link two different variables together. Let
us call one X and the other Y. Traditionally the X value is called the input value
and the Y value is called the output value.
Using rules
Suppose we know that two variables are linked by the rule that Y = 2X
When given a rule we can think of it in terms of the following.
Suppose we have a function machine
IN
Function
machine
RULE
APPLIED
OUT
Example 1
For our rule of Y = 2X . The function of X being applied here is 2X.
When X = 1
We put in a 1
The rule applied is 2 1
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SSS009 Study Guide
So out comes a 2
Similarly if we put in a 2
The rule applied is 2 2
So out comes a 4
Hence a table could be built showing the outputs from any number of inputs
X ( in )
1
2
3
X
Y ( out)
2
4
6
2X
Now we are able to become more technical in the language used to describe these
functions.
The actual function in this case is the rule linking the two variables Y =2X. It can
also be written as f(X) = 2X where f(X) means the function of X.
In sections of this book and in the mathematics work that you will do these are
interchangeable.
The Input variable X can be said to be the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE as it can
be chosen arbitrarily.
The set of all x values used for a function are called the DOMAIN of the function.
So in the above example the Domain = {1,2,3,}
The Output variable Y can said to be the DEPENDENT VARIABLE as its value
does depend on the X value that has been input.
The set of all Y values for a function is called the RANGE of the function.
So in the above example the Range = {2,4,6}
Another way of describing the function is that all Real numbers in the Domain
(the x values) are being mapped onto all the Real numbers in the Range (the
y values) according to the rule y = 2x.
The more general case

Before we start this section we may need to review the notion of a Real number.
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SSS009 Study Guide
Real numbers are numbers that can be expressed as decimals. For example:
3
= 0.75000
4
1
= 0.333333.....
3
2 = 1.4142.....
The dots in each case indicate that the sequence of decimal digits goes on for ever.
The real numbers can be represented geometrically as points on a number line
called the Real Number line. The symbol R denotes the set of all real numbers.
Back to the functions:
Let us consider the above function of X i.e.
f(x) = 2x
in the general case.
It could take any input of X from the real number field (R) hence we could say in
general terms the Domain = R all real numbers. Technically this can be written as
x R i.e. x is an element of all Real numbers.
If that were the case that any real number could be an input then once the rule is
applied the output will also be any real number.
Hence the Range = R all real numbers. Technically this can be written as y R
i.e. y is an element of all Real numbers.
So in general terms we could describe the function as:
f : R R where f(x) = 2x and x R
In plain English this reads:
f is a function such that all real numbers are mapped onto all Real numbers where
the rule f(x) = 2x is applied to all x values in the Real number field.
Another example:
Consider the function f(x) =
Remember the square root can never be taken of a negative number. So this is
going to restrict our input numbers to the positive real numbers including zero.
Hence the Domain is going to be x R + where x 0 .
When the square root is taken of a number the result is always the positive or
negative answer, for example 25 =
5 because ( + 5) 2 =
25 and (-5) 2 =
25 .
So this implies that the range for the square root function will be y R
So in general terms the square root function could be written as:
f : R + R where f(x) = x and x 0
Source: Weir, M, Hass, J, Giordano, F. (2008). Thomas calculus Media upgrade (11th edn). Pearson
Education.
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Different ways of representing data

Suppose we consider the set of data representing the function f(x) = 2x and look at
the various ways it is able to be represented.
We could represent it as a table of information
X
1
2
3
X
Y
2
4
6
2xX
Notice that the Y column is always double the X column.

Hence we could also express this data as the set of numbers that follow the rule
f : R R where f(x) =2x and x R
If we were to draw a picture of this data with the X values on a horizontal axis and
the Y values on the vertical axes we would have a graph of Y = 2X
Note: it is always the case that the X axis is the horizontal axis and the y axis is
the vertical axis.
7
6
Y value
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
X value
Each of these ways is a legitimate way of presenting the information. We need to

determine in each case which is the best way to show the information.
So you can see there are four possible ways to represent a function:
1.
2.
3.
4.
60
verbally
numerically
visually
algebraically
a description in words
a table of values
a graph
by a formula
SSS009 Study Guide
If a function can be represented in all four ways it is often useful to go from one
representation to the other to gain additional insight into the function.
Source: Stewart, J. (2003). Calculus, early transcendentals. Thomson.
Composite functions
Sometimes we are able to make a composition of two functions. Remember the
function machine on page 107 where it accepts x as an input and produces y as an
output dependent on the rule in the machine?
A composite function can be thought of as putting two machines in tandem to
make a more complicated function.
Consider the combination of two functions f(x) and g(x) in the form of g(f(x))
(read as g of f(x))
IN
X value
f
f(x)
OUT
g(f(x))
As a matter of notation this is sometimes described as (g f)(x) = g(f(x)). These

types of functions are known as composite functions or a function of a function.
Our main reason for discussing composite functions is that you will come across
them in calculus and you need to be able to identify them as such. You will not
need to do more than recognise them at this stage so we will not do any further
operations with the composite functions other than recognition. Let us have a look
at a range of examples of functions and see how they may be considered as
composite functions.
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Example 1
Consider this function h ( x=
)
( x + 2)
If f ( x ) = ( x + 2 ) and g ( x ) = x 2 then h ( x ) = g ( f ( x ) ) = g ( x + 2 ) = ( x + 2 )
h(x) is a composite function.

A function machine diagram to explain this is below.
IN
X value
f(x) = x+2
g(x)=x2
g(f(x))=(x+2)2
Example 2
y=
(x
+ 3x 5)
Consider f ( x) = ( x 2 + 3 x 5) and g(x) = (x)3

then y g=
=
( f ( x ))
(g (x
+ 3 x 5 ) = ( x 2 + 3 x 5 ) hence this is a composite

3
function. Are you able to draw a machine to represent these operations?

Example 3
y = e5x
Consider f(x) = 5x and g(x) = ex
Then y = g ( f ( x ) ) = g ( 5 x ) = e5 x hence another composite function.
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Example 4
y = ex
Consider f ( x ) = x 2 and g ( x ) = e x then y = g ( f ( x ) ) = g ( x 2 ) = e x .

2
This is another composite function.

Example 5
=
y log ( x 2 + 3 x 5 )
Consider f ( x ) =
(x
+ 3 x 5 ) and g ( x ) = log ( x )
Then y g=
=
( f ( x )) g
(( x
+ 3 x 5=
) log ( x 2 + 3x 5) .
Another composite function or function of a function.

Example 6
y = sin ( 2 x )
Consider f(x) = 2x and g(x) = sin x
=
Then y g=
( f ( x ) ) g ( 2 x ) = sin ( 2 x ) .
Another composite function or a function of a function.
See how in many of these composite functions there appeared to be an inner
function operated on by an outer function.
You will come across these equations in the chapter on "Further differentiation" in
the section on "The chain rule".
Reference:
Vargerg, D. (2007). Calculus: Early transcendentals. Pearson Education.
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Identifying functions
There are a number of different types of functions encountered in Mathematics.
We will be interested in the following
Linear functions
Functions of the form f ( x=

) mx + b
Polynomial functions
Functions of the form f ( x) =ax n + bx n 1 + cx n 2 + .......m
Exponential functions
Functions of the form f ( x) = a x
Logarithmic functions
Functions of the form f ( x) = log b x
Trigonometric functions
Functions of the form
=
f ( x) A=
sin kx or f ( x) A=
cos kx or f ( x) A tan kx
Each of these types of functions will be investigated in the following topic.

During the study of a mathematics topic many types of functions are encountered.
If a student is able to recognise the graphical form of a function they can gain a
much deeper understanding of the concepts presented in the topic.
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Topic 8 Graphing functions

Topic objectives
Recognise and plot a straight line

Determine the y intercept and slope of a straight line
Plot a parabola
Identify exponential and logarithmic functions
Convert between degrees and radians
Recognise trigonometric functions
Understand what happens at an asymptote.
1. The straight line

The straight line has the form:
=
y mx + b called the gradient intercept form
or
ax + by + c =
0 called the general form
Some examples of equations that represent straight lines are:

y = x,
y = 3x 4,
x + 2y 1 = 0
y = 4,
x=-6
These equations can be used to set up a series of points that follow a particular
rule; hence a graph can be drawn.
To graph a straight line in gradient intercept form
Choose any three numbers to substitute in for x

Substitute each number in turn into the equation to find the matching y value
This will then give us three points that we can plot on the number plane.
Only two points are required to be able to draw a straight line but the third point
can be a check.
Example 1.1
Graph the straight line: y = 2x + 4
y = 2x + 4 is a linear equation. A series of points that follow that rule can be
determined by choosing some x values and substituting into the equation to find
the corresponding y values.
let x = -2,
y = 2x+ 4
y = 2(-2)+4 = -4+4=0
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y = 2x+ 4
y = 2x+ 4
let x = -1,
let x = 0,
y = 2(-1)+4 = -2+4=2
y = 2(0)+4 = 0+4=4
(-2, 0), (-1, 2) and (0, 4) are points on the line y = 2x + 4

8
6
4
(-1,2)
(-2,0)
-4
-3
-2
(0,4)
0
-1
-2 0
y=2x+4
-4
A straight line can be drawn through the points and labelled as y = 2x + 4. Now
any point on that line follows the rule y = 2x + 4.
Points to note
A straight line has a slope

A straight line intercepts x-axis
A straight line intercepts y-axis
Example 1.2
Graph the straight line y =
1
x3
2
1
let x = 0, y = 0 3 =0 3 =3
2
1
let x = 2, y = 2 3 =1 3 =2
2
let x = 4, y =
1
4 3 = 2 3 = 1
2
The three points to be plotted are (0, -3), (2, - 2) and (4, -1)
A table of ordered pairs can be used to summarise the finding of the points.
x
y
0
-3
2
-2
4
-1
On a number plane plot the points, draw the line through them and label the graph.
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SSS009 Study Guide
x
=
1 y
y
0
-2
-1
-3
x
8
-2
-3
-4
The gradient and y-intercept of a straight line
Example 1.3
y = 2x + 4
The graph of this straight line is as follows.
y=2x+4
6
4
2
0
-4
-3
-2
-1
-2 0
-4
It is easy to see that the y intercept is 4.

Notice that this matches the unattached number in the equation.
To measure the gradient:
Take any two points through which the line passes
Measure the amount of vertical rise or fall between the two points
Measure the amount of horizontal run between the two points

rise
Calculate the gradient gradient =
run
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SSS009 Study Guide
Between (-2, 0) and (0, 4)

gradient =
rise 4
= = 2
run 2
Notice this is the same number as the number in front of the x in the equation
(the x coefficient).
Example 1.4
y=
1
x3
2
1
0
-2
-1
-2
-3
y=1/2x-3
-4
The y intercept is 3
The gradient between (0, 3) and (6, 0):

gradient =
rise 3 1
= =
run 6 2
Again you can see that the values for the gradient and the y intercept are the
same as the numbers in the equation of the straight line.
Example 1.5
y = 2 x + 1
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SSS009 Study Guide
y=-2x+1
-3
-2
-1
y
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1 0
-2
-3
x
1
The y-intercept is 1
the gradient between (0, 1) and (1, -1):
rise 2
gradient =
=
= 2
run
1
(When a line slopes down to the right it has a negative gradient)
These three examples demonstrate:

When an equation is written in the format y = mx + b
The m is the value of the gradient
The b is the position of the y- intercept
This gives us another method for sketching a straight line.

1.
Identify the y intercept and the gradient.
2.
Plot the y intercept on a number plane.
3.
From this point step out the gradient. Plot the point. Draw the straight line
through the two plotted points.
The following video will allow you to see how the straight line
changes with changes to the slope and y intercept
http://www.mathsisfun.com/data/straight_line_graph.html
The general form of a straight line
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SSS009 Study Guide
Example 1.6
To graph an equation that is in the general form, such as x + y 1 =0
Place the constant on the right hand side
Let x = 0 and find the value of the y intercept
Let y = 0 and find the value of the x intercept
Solution:
x + y 1 +1 = 0 +1
x+ y =
1
when =
x 0;=
y 1
when y = 0; x = 1
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SSS009 Study Guide
Example 1.7
i. Graph 5 x 2 y + 4 =
0
ii. State the y intercept
iii. Find the gradient
Solution
5x 2 y + 4 4 = 0 4
5x 2 y =
4
when x = 0; 2 y =
4
2 y 4
=
2 2
y=2
when y = 0; 5 x = 4
4
x=
or 0.8
5
ii. y-intercept = 2
2
rise
iii. gradient
= = = 2.5
run 0.8
or rearrange the equation to the slope/y intercept form
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SSS009 Study Guide
There are two special cases of the straight line that you need to be aware of:
The line y = a; for example y = 2
2
y=2
1
x
0
-6
-4
-2
-1
Any equation in the form y = a (here a is 2) when graphed will be a horizontal

line passing through a on the y axis. This line has no slope and only has a
y-intercept.
The line x = b; for example x = 1.5
y
x=1.5
3
2
1
0
-1
-1
Any equation in the form x = b (here b is 1.5) when graphed will be a vertical line
passing through b on the x axis. This line has infinite slope and only has an
x-intercept.
2. The Parabola
The parabola can take the form:
y = ax 2 + bx + c
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SSS009 Study Guide
The picture it creates looks like:
20
axis of
symmetry
15
10
5
0
-4
-2
-5
-10
-15
Example 2.1
Graph y = x 2 + 3 x + 7
where a = 1, b = 3 and c = 7.
When graphing a parabola more points than were used for a straight line are
needed to gain an accurate sketch.
All parabolas are symmetrical around an unseen vertical line - the axis of
symmetry. To take some guesswork out of choosing the x values to use in the
table of ordered pairs a simple calculation will find this axis of symmetry.
The equation for the axis of symmetry is found by x =
So for y = x 2 + 3 x + 7 , the axis of symmetry is x =
b
2a
b 3 3
=
=
= 1.5
2a 2 1 2
If you choose this value as one x value for your table and choose 3 or 4 numbers
either side, you should be able to graph the function quite accurately.
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SSS009 Study Guide
Example 2.2
Graph y = 2x 2 .
Here a = 2, b= 0 and c = 0, so axis of symmetry is x=
b
0
0
=
= = 0
2a 2 2 4
This parabola will be symmetrical about the vertical line x = 0

(which is the y axis)
Draw up a table of ordered pairs, using 0 and three numbers either side of 0
x
y
-3
-2
-1
0
0
1
2
2
8
3
18
For x = -3: 2 (3) 2 = 2 9 = 18

2 (3) x 2 =
Calculator steps:
or 2 (3 + / ) x 2 =
x
y
-3
18
-2
8
-1
2
Plot the points on a number plane and draw a smooth hand drawn line through
them. As with the straight lines, the graph does not finish at the last point you
plotted but extends through and upwards (or downwards as we shall see in
Example 2.4).
35
30
25
20
y = 2x 2
15
10
5
0
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-5
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SSS009 Study Guide
Example 2.3
Graph y = x 2 3 x 4
Here a = 1, b = -3, c = -4
-b ( 3) 3
=
= = 1.5
2a
2 1
2
The parabola will be symmetrical around x = 1.5
axis of symmetry =
Using x = 1.5 and 4 points either side for the table of ordered pairs
x
y
-2
6
-1
0
0
-4
1
-6
1.5
-6.25
2
-6
3
-4
4
0
5
6
for x =
2 : y =
( 2 ) 3 ( 2 ) 4 = 4 + 6 4 = 6
2
Axis of
symmetry
x=1.5
x-intercepts
x=-1, x=4
yintercept
Minimum
Value
Features:
axis of symmetry at x = 1.5
minimum point at (1.5, -6.25)
y-intercept occurs where x = 0; y =02 + 0 4 =4
The x-intercepts occur where y = 0
x 2 3x 4 =
0
0
( x + 1)( x 4 ) =
=
x + 1 0 or x=
4 0
x=
1 or x =
4
The x-intercepts are also known as the roots of the equation.
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SSS009 Study Guide
Example 2.4
Graph y = x 2 + x + 2 .
b
1
1
a = -1, b = 1 and c = 2, axis of symmetry: x = =
= = 0.5
2a 2 1 2
This parabola will be symmetrical about the vertical line x = 0.5

Draw up a table of ordered pairs using 0.5 and three numbers either side.
As our a has a negative value in this example, our parabola will be concave down
or upside down compared to example 2.2
x
y
-2
-1
0.5
1
2
2
0
3
-4
For x = -2: y = (2) 2 + (2) + 2 = 4 2 + 2 = 4

(2) x 2 + (2) + 2 =
Calculator steps:
( 2 + / ) x 2 + / + ( 2 + / ) + 2 =
or
x
y
-2
-4
-1
0
0
2
0.5
2.5
x = 0.5
y
4
2
0
-4
-3
-2
-1
-2
-4
-6
-8
y = x2 + x + 2
-10
-12
If the a is positive the parabola will be concave up.

If the a is negative the parabola will be concave down.
The axis of symmetry of the parabola if found by x =
76
b
2a
SSS009 Study Guide
Example 2.5
Graph y = 2 x 2 7 x 4 .
a = 2, b = -7 and c = -4, axis of symmetry: x =
x
y
-1
5
0
-4
1
-9
(7) 7
= = 1.75
2 2 4
1.75
-10.125
2
-10
3
-7
4
0
The y values will not mirror each other here as the points chosen either side of the
axis of symmetry are not equidistant from it, however the shape of the parabola
will still be apparent. Extend both sides of the parabola so that they look even.
-2
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-1 -2 0
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
y
y=2x2-7x-4
6
x
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SSS009 Study Guide
3. Exponential functions
An exponential function has the form: y = b x
b commonly takes the value of 10 or e.
e is a mathematical constant that occurs naturally in many applications. It has the
value of 2.718281828 ...
Example 3.1
Graph y = 10 x .
x
y
-5
0.00001
-3
0.001
-1
0.1
0
1
1
10
1.2
15.8
2.4
251.2
3
1000
Calculator steps:
10x
Newer calculators
shift
Log 1 =
or shift 10x 1 +/- =

Older calculators: 1 +/ shift 10x
The range of the x values has been reduced for the graph to show more clearly
what happens around the y axis.
y
12
10
8
6
y = 10 x
4
2
0
-1.5
78
-1
-0.5
0.5
1.5
SSS009 Study Guide
Features of all exponential graphs
The y intercept is always equal to 1.
When x is positive the graph rises sharply.
When x is negative the graph gets closer to zero, but never reaches it. It
could be said that the limit of y = 10 x as x gets more negative is zero. That
is, there is a value that the function approaches as you look along the x axis
towards the left towards negative infinity ( ) .
This can be written mathematically as:
lim 10 x = 0
This would read as the limit as x approaches of 10 x is equal to zero.

x
The graph below shows the graphs=
of y 10
=
, y ex =
and y 2 x. The features of
an exponential graph can all be seen. As the base number increases it can be seen
that the growth is much quicker.
X axis
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SSS009 Study Guide
4. Logarithmic functions
A logarithmic function has the form: y = log b x
As with exponential functions b commonly takes on the value of 10 or e.
y = log10 x
or often written as y = log x
And y = log e x or often written as y = ln x

A logarithm to base 10 is known as a common logarithm and a logarithm to base e
as a natural logarithm.
Example 4.1
Graph the function: y = log10 x = log x .
x
y
0.0001
-4
0.1
-1
1
0
15.7
1.196
28.6
1.456
Calculator steps:
Newer calculators
log
Older calculators:
0.0001 log
80
0.0001
51.2
1.709
103.5
2.015
0
ND
-1
ND
SSS009 Study Guide
Features of all logarithmic graphs
The graph does not exist for negative values of x.
The graph does not exist when x = 0 .
The graph flattens out and rises only slowly for x-values greater than one.
The graph drops away rapidly for x-values getting closer to zero.
lim log x =
x 0
Below are the graphs of y = log10 x and y = loge x = n x. It can be seen that y =
log10 x is a flatter graph than y = n x.
y
3
y=logex=lnx
2
1
y=log10x
0
0
-1
10
12
-2
-3
Logarithmic and exponential functions are inverse functions. One can be

converted into the format of the other.
Given an exponential equation y = ax we can convert this into logarithmic form
loga y = x
The log of a number represents the power that the base number is raised to.
We know that 100 = 102.
Another way of expressing this is: log10 100 = 2 (the log of 100 to base 10 is equal
to 2.)
Because logarithms simply represent the power or index (generally given the base
of 10 on e) the rules of logarithms that you will learn about in your degree subjects
are the same as the index laws covered in Topic 3.
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5. Trigonometric functions
Trigonometry involves angles. When working with triangles the angles used are
measured in degrees. An alternative measure for angles is the radian. The radian
is useful when working with circles and in calculus.
A radian is the length of the arc formed in a circle with a radius of 1 unit (a unit
circle) when the radian is rotated around the centre of the circle. The size of the
angle in the centre relates to the length of the arc (the radian measure).
When the angle at the centre is a full revolution (360) then the radian coincides
with the circumference of the circle. The circumference is found by the formula
D where D is the diameter of the circle (a diameter is equal to 2 radius). In a unit
circle where the radius is 1 unit, the diameter is 2 units.
So circumference of the unit circle = x D = x 2 = 2
This means that an angle measure of 360 equals a radian measure of 2. Other
equivalent degree/radian measures are found from this base.
So
360 =2 radians
2
1 =
360
=
180
radians
When working with radians it is normal to omit the word radian, so this becomes.
1 =
180
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SSS009 Study Guide
Example 5.1
Convert 45 o to a radian measure
1o =
45o =
180
180
45
=
180
=
45
45
45
or approximately in decimal form 0.785
Example 5.2
Convert 120 o to a radian measure
1o =
120o =
180
120
180
60
120
=
60
180
2
or approximately in decimal form 2.094
=
3
(use the on your calculator)

When working with the graphs of the sine, cosine and tangent functions it is usual
to work in radians rather than degrees.
Consequently tables of ordered pairs show radian measures. In the following
tables both the exact and decimal form is shown for each radian. The decimal
form is shown to make the positioning of each radian along the x axis more
meaningful.
To find the sine, cosine or tangent of a radian measure, your calculator must
be put into radian (rad) mode.
To do this with newer Casio calculators press SETUP and select the key for rad
For older Casio calculators press the mode key several times til you have the rad
option.
For most sharp calculators press the DRG key til R shows on display.
For other calculators check the manual.
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SSS009 Study Guide
5.1 The sine function

The sine function has the form:
y = sin x
x
y
6.28
0
x
y
0
0
5
3
5.24
0.866
3
2
4.71
1
4
3
4.19
0.866
3
1.05
0.866
2
3
2.09
0.866
2
1.57
1
3.14
0
3.14
0
Calculator Steps:
Newer calculators:
sin ( (-) 2 shift ) =

or sin ( (-) 5 shift 3 ) =
Older calculators
2 +/- = sin
5 +/- 3 = sin
84
2
3
2.09
-0.866
2
1.57
-1
4
3
4.19
-0.866
3
2
4.71
-1
3
1.05
-0.866
5
3
5.24
-0.866
2
6.28
0
SSS009 Study Guide
5.2 The cosine function

The cosine function has the form:
y = cos x
x
y
6.28
1
5
3
5.24
0.5
3
2
4.71
0
4
3
4.19
0.5
x
y
0
1
3
1.05
0.5
2
1.57
0
2
3
2.09
0.5
3.14
1
3.14
1
2
3
2.09
0.5
2
1.57
0
3
1.05
0.5
4
3
4.19
0.5
3
2
4.71
0
5
3
5.24
0.5
y = cos x
Note: Both the sine and the cos functions oscillate between y = 1 and y = 1. As
both functions are wave-like no limits exist for either of these functions.
85
2
6.28
1
SSS009 Study Guide
5.3 The tangent function

The tangent function has the form:
x
y
6.28
0
5
3
5.24
1.732
y = tan x
4
3
4.19
1.732
3
2
4.71
Not
3.14
0
2
3
2.09
1.732
2
1.57
ND
3
1.05
1.732
defined
x
y
0
0
3
1.05
1.732
2
1.57
ND
2
3
2.09
1.732
4
3
4.19
1.732
3.14
0
3
2
4.71
ND
5
3
5.24
1.732
y = tan x
asymptote
Note:
The tangent graph is not a continuous graph like the sine and the cosine graphs. It
displays a repeating pattern between the x-values where the function is not
defined.
On the left-hand side of where the graph is not defined (ND) the tan function
continues to rise (or continues to positive infinity). On the right hand side of
where the graph is not defined the tan function continues to decrease (or continues
to negative infinity). Whenever a graph displays this pattern the line where
this discontinuity occurs is called an asymptote.
On the section of the tan function shown in the graph above there are four
3
3 .
asymptotes whose equations are:
=
=
=
x
, x =
, x
and x
2
86
2
6.28
0
SSS009 Study Guide
The following video will take another look at graphing these trig
functions and look a little further into the characteristics of the
graphs it is a little long but you can fast forward through some of it.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QmxMPPkZpME&list=PLD6DA74C
1DBF770E7&index=9&feature=plpp_video
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6. Other examples of where asymptotes occur

Other trigonometric functions display asymptotes when graphed, such as y = sec x
Asymptotes also occur when a variable is a denominator for instance for
y=
1
1
2
or y =
or y =
x+2
3x
x
Considering y =
1
x
Division by 0 is undefined so the graph has no value when x = 0

As x gets moves closer to 0 on the positive side, y is moving upward
As x moves to the right, y is moving closer to the x axis from above
As x gets moves closer to 0 on the negative side, y is moving downward
As x moves to the left, y is moving closer to the x axis from below
x
y
-100 -0.01
-10
-0.1
-2
-0.5
-1
-1
-0.5
-2
-0.01 -100
0.01 100
0.5
2
1
1
2
0.5
10
0.1
100 0.01
The x and the y axes are asymptotes as:

1
when x = 0 the division is undefined
for y =
x
1
1
and rearranging the equation gives
=
y =
xy 1 x = and when y = 0
x
y
the division is undefined.
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Topic 9 Introductory Calculus

Topic objectives
Differentiate expressions using the differentiation rules

Find the slope of a tangent at a point.
1. Differentiation
Differentiation is the process of finding the gradient of a function. The gradient
function is called the derivative.
The gradient of a straight line measures the rate of change of y as x varies.
Gradient =
rise
run
rise
run
2. Function notation
In the previous topic we explored various functions such as :
y = 2x + 3
y = ln x
and y = tan x
The value of y always depended on the value of x. Another way of saying this is
that y is a function of x.
So instead of writing y = 2 x + 3 we can write f ( x) = 2 x + 3 .
This form of writing a function enables us to focus on particular x values.
Example 2.1
f ( x) = 2 x + 3
Find the value of the function when x = 2.

This can be written as: find f (2) .
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To find the value you need to substitute x = 2 into the function

f (2) = 2 2 + 3 = 7
Find f (6) and f (1)

f (6) = 2 6 + 3 = 15
and
f (1) = 2 (1) + 3 = 2 + 3 = 1
Example 2.2
If f ( x) = x 2 + 4 x + 2
Fin
d
i.
f (b)
substitute b for x
f (b) = b 2 + 4b + 2
ii.
f ( a + h)
substitute a + h for x
f (a + h) = (a + h) 2 + 4(a + h) + 2
iii.
f (2 + c)
f (2 + c) = (2 + c) 2 + 4(2 + c) + 2
this can be expanded
f (2 + c) =4 + 4c + c 2 + 8 + 4c + 2
f (2 + c) = 14 + 8c + c 2
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3. The gradient of a tangent

Sometimes it is useful to know how quickly the function is changing vertically
compared to the change horizontally. For example how the concentration of a
certain drug in the blood stream has changed with respect to time, or how the
temperature of a heating object changes over time. To answer these questions we
need to find the gradient of the tangent to the curve.
A tangent is a straight line drawn at the point of interest so that it touches the
curve exactly at that point.
Two tangents are shown, one contacting at A and the other contacting at B
Now consider the following function
We wish to find the gradient of the function at A. To do this we need to find the
gradient of the tangent at A.
We could start by estimating the gradient of the line through AB as shown below
A
x
x+h
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The horizontal position of point A is x and the horizontal position of point B is

x + h. The vertical position of point A is f (x) and the vertical position of point B
is f ( x + h) .
Remember, the gradient of a line is
Here:
rise
run
the run = the difference in the horizontal positions of A and B

= x+h x
= h
the rise = the difference in the vertical positions of A and B
= f ( x + h) f ( x )
rise
run
x
The gradient of the line:
=
m
x+h
rise
=
run
f ( x + h) f ( x )
h
This is only an estimation of the gradient of the tangent and you will get a better
estimation of the gradient of the tangent by making h smaller and smaller. In fact
the gradient of the tangent can be found when h is so small it approaches zero.
m = lim
h 0
f ( x + h) f ( x )
h
Remember the gradient of the tangent to the function is called the derivative.
If you have a function f (x) the derivative is written
f (x)
If you have a function y then the derivative can be written either as

dy
d
y
or
or
( y)
dx
dx
All of these alternatives are simply different ways of writing the derivative.
f ( x + h) f ( x )
= gradient function of f(x)
h 0
h
Gradient function = f
So:
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f ( x) = lim
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Example 3.1
Consider the following example:
Find the slope of the curve f ( x) = x 2 + 3 at x = 2
First we need to find the derivative (gradient function) for f ( x=
) x 2 + 3 . To do
this we also need to find f ( x + h )
f ( x + h) = ( x + h) 2 + 3
= x 2 + 2 xh + h 2 + 3
now
f ( x) = lim
h 0
f ( x + h) f ( x )
h
= lim
x 2 + 2 xh + h 2 + 3 ( x 2 + 3)
h
= lim
x 2 + 2 xh + h 2 + 3 x 2 3
h
h 0
h 0
2 xh + h 2
h 0
h
= lim
(factorising the numerator

and cancelling like factors)
h/ (2 x + h)
h 0
h/
= lim
= lim 2 x + h
h 0
= 2x + 0
= 2x
So the derivative of x 2 + 3 is 2x
That is the gradient at any point on the curve f ( x ) x 2 + 3 can be found by using
the expression 2x.
To find the gradient of the function at x = 2, substitute into the derivative.
f ( x) = 2 x
f (2) = 2 2
=4
The slope of the tangent to the function at x = 2 is 4

This process is called differentiating from first principles. It is very important to
recognise that the derivative is measuring the rate of change in the function by
determining the gradient of the tangent to the function.
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4. Differentiation the easy way

Fortunately there is an easier method than first principles that can be employed to
find the derivative. We have shown you the method of first principles to help you
understand the concept of a derivative. You would only ever calculate a
derivative using this method if specifically asked to do so. Normally
differentiation is carried out by applying the following differentiation rules.
Rule 1
If f ( x) = x n
Then f ( x) = nx n 1
This rule is used when the function has x raised to some power.
Example 4.1
If y = x 5
find
dy
dx
(remember that
the derivative)
in this example n = 5 so:

dy
= 5=
x 51 5 x 4
dx
Example 4.2
If y = x12 find
dy
dx
(n = 12)
dy
x121 12 x11
= 12
=
dx
94
dy
is an alternative way of writing
dx
SSS009 Study Guide
Example 4.3
If y = x 52 find
d
( y)
dx
d
=
( y ) 52
=
x 521 52 x 51
dx
Not all functions are this simple and there are other rules to help us differentiate
these functions.
Rule 2
If y = f ( x) + g ( x)
dy
= f ( x) + g ( x)
dx
i.e. two terms containing x added

together
i.e. differentiate each term separately
Example 4.4
) x2 + x4
f ( x=
f ( x) = 2 x 21 + 4 x 41
f ( x) = 2 x + 4 x3
Rule 3
If y = kf (x)
dy
= kf (x)
dx
Example 4.5
y = 3x7
d
( y )= 3 (7 x 6 )
dx
= 21x 6
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Example 4.6
y 6 x5 8 x3
=
y = 6 (5 x 4 ) 8 (3x 2 )
= 30 x 4 24 x 2
Rule 4
If y = k
(k is a constant)
dy
=0
dx
y=k
k can be any
number
Note:
From the graph we can see that there is no change in height (i.e. rise = 0),
therefore the gradient is equal to zero. As the derivative is the gradient function
then the gradient will also be zero.
Example 4.7
f ( x) = 3
f ( x) = 0
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Example 4.8
=
y x2 + 3
y= 2 x + 0
= 2x
Note: This is the same result we achieved when differentiating x 2 + 3 by first

principles.
Rule 5
If y = kx
dy
=k
dx
Example 4.9
y = 4x
d
( y) = 4
dx
This is so as 4x is the same as 4x1 and by using Rule 3

y = 4 (1x 11 )
= 4x 0
= 4 1
=4
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Functions do not always have a positive whole number power. Rule 1 allows
us to differentiate functions with positive, negative and fractional indices.
Example 4.10
f ( x) = x 5
f ( x) = 5 x 51
= 5 x 6
Example 4.11
y=x
y =
=
2 1
Example 4.12
f=
( x) 3 x 2 + x
f ( x) = 3 (2 x 21 ) + 3 4 x
=
6 x 3 + 3 4 x
4 1
Some functions need to be expressed in index form before the differentiation can
be undertaken. Especially important here are the negative and fractional index
rules. Refer back to the indices topic if you are unsure of the rules.
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Example 4.13
Differentiate
In index form
1
x4
y=
1
= x 4
x4
1
= x 4
x4
y = 4 x 41
so =
y
= 4 x 5
The final answer should reflect the way in which the question was asked. In this
case the question does not use negative index numbers so the answer should be
written as
y = 4
1 4
4
= 5 = 5
5
x
x
x
Example 4.14
Differentiate f ( x) =
3
x7
3
1
in index form
3 7 =
3 x 7
=
7
x
x
3
so f ( x)= 7 = 3 x 7
x
f ( x) = 3 (7 x 7 1 )
= 21x 8
1
=
21 8
x
21
= 8
x
Example 4.15
Differentiate f ( x) = x
In index form
x=x
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f ( x) = x
f ( x) =
2
1
2 1
1
1
x2
1 1
=
2
x
1
=
2 x
=
Example 4.16
Differentiate y = 3 x
In index form
y=x
y =
x=x
3
1
3 1
1 1
2
3 x3
1
1
= 2 1
3 (x ) 3
1
1
=
3 3 x2
=
1
3 3 x2
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5. Finding the gradient of a tangent at a point

To find the gradient of the tangent to a curve at a particular point, the function
must first be differentiated to find the expression for the slope of the tangent. The
x-value of the point is then substituted into the differentiation to find the slope at
that point.
Example 5.1
Find the gradient of the tangent to the function y = 3 x 3 + 2 x 2 + 3 x + 4 at the point
x=1.
y = 3x3 + 2 x 2 + 3x + 4
dy
= 3 (3 x 2 ) + 2 (2 x) + 3
dx
= 9x2 + 4x + 3
Now substitute x = 1 into this derivative
when x = 1
dy
= 9 12 + 4 1 + 3
dx
= 9+4+3
= 16
y = 3x 3 + 2 x 2 + 3x + 4
It can be seen from the graph that at x=1 the tangent is rising very sharply, hence
the gradient of 16 for this tangent.
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Topic 10 Further differentiation

Topic objectives
Recognise the derivatives of some specialised functions

Apply the product rule when two functions are multiplying each other
Apply the quotient rule when two functions are dividing each other
Apply the chain or function of a function rule when composite functions are
involved.
1. Other important derivatives

The following derivatives need to be known, as they form an important part of the
calculus section in mainstream mathematics subjects.
If
y = ex
then
y = e x
If
y = ln x
then
y =
If
y = sin x
then
y = cos x
If
y = cos x then
1
x
y = sin x
So far in working with the five differentiation rules we looked at in the preceding
chapter and the special differentiating cases shown above, we have only looked at
simple functions. These simple functions have consisted of only one term such as
cos x or 7x 4 . Alternatively the function has consisted of several terms separated
by an addition or subtraction sign and the application of rule 2 has enabled us to
differentiate these functions.
It is possible that an expression consists of a combination of functions. These
combinations include one function multiplied by another function, one function
dividing another function or a function inside a function.
For example
y = x 2e x
y=
102
3x 2
x 2 + 4x 2
The two functions are x 2 and e x . These are multiplying together

to give y.
(Product)
The two functions are 3x 2 and ( x 2 + 4 x 2) . The first function
is being divided by the second function to give y.
(Quotient)
SSS009 Study Guide
y = ex
The simple function would have been e x but it has been made
more complicated because the x has been replaced by the
function x 2 . There is a function inside a function.
(Function of a function)
When differentiating more complicated functions it is important that you

first consider how the expression is formed as this will determine the
differentiation rule to be used.
2. The product rule

The product rule is used when the expression is formed by two functions
multiplying each other.
Product rule
If y = u v where u and v are functions of x
then y =
dy
du
dv
= v
+u
dx
dx
dx
When differentiating y = f (x) we have used the notation for the derivative
dy
.
dx
This means that we are finding the change in y compared to the change in x.
dy
.
du
du
If the original function were u = f (x) then the derivative would be written as
.
dx
If the original function were y = f (u ) then the derivative would be written as
Example 2.1
Differentiate
y = (4 x + 3)(2 x 3 5)
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Notice this is two functions of x multiplied together hence the product rule
needs to be used.
u=
4x + 3
v=
2 x3 5
du
dv
= 4= 6 x 2
dx
dx
dy
du
dv
Using the product rule y =
= v
+u
dx
dx
dx
let
then
y = (2 x3 5) 4 + (4 x + 3) 6 x 2
= 8 x3 20 + 24 x3 + 18 x 2
= 32 x3 + 18 x 2 20
Example 2.2
Differentiate
y = x 3 (3x 2 5 x + 1)
Notice this is two functions of x multiplied together hence the product rule
needs to be used.
u = x3
v = 3x 2 5 x + 1
du
dv
= 3x 2
= 6x 5
dx
dx
dy
du
dv
= v +u
dx
dx
dx
let
then
y = (3 x 2 5 x + 1) 3 x 2 + x 3 (6 x 5)
= 9 x 4 15 x 3 + 3 x 2 + 6 x 4 5 x3
= 15 x 4 20 x3 + 3 x 2
The previous two examples could also have been done by expanding and
simplifying the expression before differentiating. The final answer would be the
same. You can decide which method you would prefer to use. The following
examples however cannot be expanded and the product rule must be used in order
to differentiate.
Example 2.3
Differentiate
104
y = x 2e x
SSS009 Study Guide

2
=
let
u x=
v ex
du
dv
= 2=
x
ex
dx
dx
dy
du
dv
= v +u
dx
dx
dx
y = e x 2 x + x 2 e x
then
= 2 xe x + x 2 e x
Example 2.4
Differentiate
y = 2 x 3 sin x
let =
u 2=
x3
v sin x
du
=
dx
dv
6=
x2
cos x
dx
dy
du
dv
= v
+u
dx
dx
dx
then
y = sin x 6 x 2 + 2 x 3 cos x
= 6 x 2 sin x + 2 x 3 cos x
Note the form the answers are presented in: terms with powers of x are
written first followed by any special functions.
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3. The quotient rule

The quotient rule is used when the expression is formed by the division of two
functions.
Quotient rule
y=
If
u
v
where u and v are functions of x
then =
y
dy
=
dx
du
dv
u
dx
dx
2
v
Note: it is important that u represents the numerator

and v represents the denominator.
Example 3.1
Differentiate
y=
2x 5
x2 3
Notice these are two functions of x divided by each other hence the quotient rule
can be used.
u=
2x 5
v=
x2 3
du
dv
= 2= 2 x
dx
dx
du
dv
v u
dy
dx
dx
Then using the quotient rule =
y =
2
dx
v
let
then
y =
( x 2 3) 2 (2 x 5) 2 x
( x 2 3) 2
2 x 2 6 4 x 2 + 10 x
( x 2 3) 2
2 x 2 + 10 x 6
( x 2 3) 2
Note: only the numerator needs to be simplified. As always be careful when

expanding terms that have a negative sign.
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Example 3.2
Differentiate
y=
sin x
x+4
u= sin x
v= x + 4
du
dv
= cos
=
x
1
dx
dx
let

y
then
dy
=
dx
du
dv
u
dx
dx
v2
( x + 4) cos x sin x 1
( x + 4) 2
( x + 4) cos x sin x
=
(x + 4) 2
y =
Example 3.3
Differentiate
3x 2
y= 2
x + 4x 2
v = x2 + 4 x 2
dv
= 2x + 4
dx
du
dv
v u
dy
dx
dx
y =
dx
v2
let
then
u = 3x 2
du
= 6x
dx
y =
( x 2 + 4 x 2)6 x 3 x 2 (2 x + 4)
( x 2 + 4 x 2) 2
6 x 3 + 24 x 2 12 x 6 x 3 12 x 2
( x 2 + 4 x 2) 2
12 x 2 12 x
( x 2 + 4 x 2) 2
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Example 3.4
Differentiate
y=
15 x 2
ex
=
let
u 15
=
x2
v ex
du
=
dx
dv
30
=
x
ex
dx
dy
y =
dx
then
du
dv
u
dx
dx
v2
e x 30 x 15 x 2 e x
y =
(e x ) 2
=
=
=
30 xe x 15 x 2 e x
(e x ) 2
e x (30 x 15 x 2 )
(e x ) 2
30 x 15 x 2
ex
Note any common factors in the numerator and denominator can be cancelled.
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4. The chain rule

The chain rule is also called the function of a function rule or the composite rule.
It is used when the expression is formed by a function inside a function.
Chain rule
If y = f (u ) when u = f (x)
then
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
From previous experience the chain rule seems to give some students grief. So I
will hopefully provide further explanations which should make it easier to
recognise when the chain rule needs to be applied.
We use the chain rule when we have a "function of a function" or a composite
function.
Recall the section on Composite functions at the beginning of the functions topic:
Consider the function f ( x=
)
( x + 2)
Can you see this is the combination of two functions?

Because ( x + 2 ) is a function that is then squared we say it is a function of a
function.
We can consider the base function or the inner function to be x + 2 and so that
would be the function we substitute with "u" when we use the chain rule.
Look at this table and notice how each expression is made up of a function of a
function or is a composite function.
Function of a function
Base (or inner) function
Secondary function
(x
x + 3x 5
x3
e5 x
5x
ex
x2
ex
Log ( x 2 + 3 x 5 )
x 2 + 3x 5
Log x
Sin(2x)
2x
sinx
ex
+ 3x 5)
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SSS009 Study Guide
Steps required for differentiation when using the chain rule. Remember we need to
dy
find
dx
1.
Recognise the function is a "function of a function".
2.
Decide what the base function is.
3.
Substitute the base function with the letter u and find
4.
Rewrite the function of x, that is y , in terms of u and find
5.
Find
du
dx
dy
du
dy
dy dy du
by using the chain rule which states =
dx
dx du dx
Examples using the functions described in the table above.

Example 4.1
Differentiate y =
(x
+ 3x 5)
Recognise it as a function of a function with the base function x 2 + 3 x 5

du
So let u = x 2 + 3 x 5 and = 2 x + 3
dx
Now we can rewrite the function y as y = u 3 and

dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy
= 3u 2 (2 x + 3)
So now using dx
now resubstitute for u
dy
= 3( x 2 + 3 x 5) 2 (2 x + 3)
dx
110
dy
= 3u 2
du
SSS009 Study Guide
Example 4.2
Differentiate y = e5 x
Recognise it as a function of a function with the base function 5x
Let
du
=
x and
u 5=
5
dx
dy
u
=
eu
and y e=
and
du
Then
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy
= eu 5
dx
dy
= 5eu
dx
resubstitute for u
dy
= 5e5 x
dx
Example 4.3
Differentiate y = e x
Recognise it as a function of a function with the base function x 2

Let
du
2
=
u x=
and
2x
dx
dy
u
=
y e=
eu
and
du
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy
= eu 2 x
dx
dy
= 2 xeu
dx
dy
= 2 xe 2 x
dx
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Example 4.4
Differentiate =
y ln ( x 2 + 3 x 5 )
Recognise it as a function of a function with the base function x 2 + 3 x 5
Let
du
u = x 2 + 3 x 5 and = 2 x + 3
dx
dy 1
=
y ln=
u and
du u
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy 1
= (2 x + 3)
dx u
dy (2 x + 3)
=
dx
u
dy
(2 x + 3)
=
dx ( x 2 + 3 x 5)
Example 4.5
Differentiate y = sin(2x)
Recognise it as a function of a function with the base function 2x
Let
du
=
u 2=
x and
2
dx
dy
=
y sin
=
u and
cos u
du
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy
= cos u 2
dx
dy
= 2 cos u
dx
dy
= 2 cos(2 x)
dx
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Example 4.6
y = ln( x 4 )
Differentiate
Let
du
4
=
u x=
and
4 x3
dx
dy 1
=
y ln=
u and
du u
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
1
4 x3
u
4 x3
=
u
4 x3
= 4
x
4
=
x
=
Note: care needs to be taken when determining what u will equal. You need y to
equal a simple function of u that can be easily differentiated.
Example 4.7
Differentiate
y = 3 x
This function first needs to be written in index form.

y = (3 x)
Let
du
=
1
dx
1
dy 1 12
2
y u=
u
and
=
du 2
u=
3 x and
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SSS009 Study Guide
dy dy du
=
dx du dx
dy 1 12
= u 1
dx 2
dy
1 1
= u 2
dx
2
dy
1
= 1
dx
2u 2
dy
1
=
dx
2 u
dy
1
=
dx
2 (3 x)
To watch a video on the chain rule being performed go to:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W0KfK1QcbYA
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Topic 11 Integration
Topic objectives
Integrate expressions using the integration rules

Find the area under a curve by integrating definite integrals.
1. Antidifferentiation
Integration is the opposite process to differentiation. It is sometimes referred to as
antidifferentiation. Special notation is used when integrating:
f ( x ) dx
This expression reads as integrate the function with respect to x.
When we differentiated we were finding the rate of change in y with respect to x.
As the opposite of differentiation, integration will also be with respect to x.
Rule 1
x n dx =
1 n +1
x +c
n +1
Note: c represents a constant. It needs to be included as part of the answer as it is

possible that the original function included a constant value (number). To
illustrate this consider:
y=
1 2
x +2
2
then differentiating we have,

1
y = 2x + 0
2
=x
1 2
x + 3 , we also get y = x
2
As integration is the reverse process if we look at y = x and apply Rule 1:
Also if we differentiate
=
y
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xdx = x dx
1
1
x1+1
1+1
1
= x2
2
=
You can see that it is necessary to add a constant to the answer as the original
function had a constant that disappeared when differentiated.
When working backwards we have no way of knowing what the original constant
was, so we just represent it by the letter c.
Therefore,
1 2
x +c
2
xdx
=
Example 1.1
Find
x 3 dx
1
x 3+1 + c
3 +1
1 4
x +c
=
4
x 3 dx =
this can also be presented as
Example 1.2
Find
x 7 dx
1
x 7 +1 + c
7 + 1
1 6
x +c
=
6
1
= x 6 + c
6
x 7 dx =
Rule 2
kx
116
dx = k x n dx
x4
+c
4
SSS009 Study Guide
Example 1.3
Find
3x
dx
3 x 2 dx = 3 x 2 dx
1
x 2+1 + c
2 +1
1
= 3 x3 + c
3
3
= x +c
=
3
Example 1.4
Find
11x dx
3
11x dx = 11
3
x 3 dx
1
x 3+1 + c
3 +1
1
= 11 x 4 + c
4
11 4
=
x +c
4
11x 4
or
=
+c
4
=
11
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Rule 3
kdx = kx + c
Example 1.5
Find
20dx
20dx = 20 x + c
Rule 4
( f (x ) + g (x ))dx = f (x )dx + g (x )dx
Example 1.6
Find
(x
(x
+ x 8 dx
4
4
8
+ x8 dx =
x dx + x dx
1 4+1
1 8+1
x +
x +c
4 +1
8 +1
1
1
= x5 + x9 + c
5
9
=
Note: Only one constant is needed.
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2. Definite integrals
f(x)
x
a
The area between the curve and the x-axis (as above) can be found by integrating
f ( x ) between a and b. This can be written:
f ( x ) dx
b
To find the area we will need to substitute both a and b into the integral (the
function that has been integrated.)
When b is substituted into the integral, the area bounded by the function, x-axis,
y-axis and x = b is found.
When a is substituted into the integral, the area bounded by the function, x-axis,
yaxis and x = a is found.
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To find the area between a and b the difference of these two areas needs to be
calculated.
Example 2.1
Find the area between the xaxis and the curve f (x ) = x 2 , between the x = 1 and
x = 5.
5
That is find
dx
1 3
1 x dx = 3 x + c 1
5
1
1
= ( 53 + c) ( 13 + c)
3
3
1
1
= ( 125 + c) ( + c)
3
3
125
1
=
+c c
3
3
125 1
=
+cc
3
124
=
3
1
= 41
3
This is special notation used to indicate the

values used in the integral
Substitute the b value into the integral

first, then subtract the integral with the a
value substituted in. This finds the area
between the curve, the x-axis and the given
values.
Note: Although we do not know the value of the constant, c, it is not necessary to
the calculation as it will always disappear.
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Example 2.2
Find the area between the xaxis and the curve f ( x ) = 4 x 5 between x = 5 and
x = 7.
7
That is find
(4 x 5)dx
5
( 4 x 5) dx = 4 xdx 5dx
7
= 4 x2 5x
2
5
= 2 x 2 5 x
7
5
= (2 7 5 7) (2 52 5 5)
= (98 35) (50 25)
= 63 25
2
= 38
The rules covered in differentiation and integration in this subject cover only the
basic concepts of calculus. You are encouraged to explore and practise further
using a Mathematics HSC math textbook or Extension Mathematics HSC
textbook or equivalent. These texts are readily available from any local library.
I have attached some links to some websites and YouTube videos that I hope will
provide extra explanation and examples to support your learning in some of the
topics but feel free to search out other websites and videos for any of the topics
covered in this subject. There is an amazing amount of material freely available
that can fill in some gaps.
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SSS009 Study Guide
References
Groves, M. (1995). Maths in Focus - Three Unit Mathematics Book 1. Australia:
McGraw Hill Book Company.
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SSS009

Mathematics for Calculus

Mathematics for Calculus

Written and compiled by

Printed at Charles Sturt University

Converting improper fractions to mixed numerals

Topic 4 Index numbers

What does the index mean?

Topic 8 Graphing functions

The straight line

Topic 9 Introductory Calculus

Topic 10 Further differentiation

Other important derivatives

The following Study Guide consists of the subject

SSS009 Study Guide

Topic 1 Order of operations

Understand and apply order of operations.

To find the answer to 8 + 3 2

Proceed using the following order:

SSS009 Study Guide

Sometimes a fraction bar occurs in a calculation, this means to divide.

(There are no brackets or powers, so do the

(Now complete the calculation by doing the

(The brackets need to be evaluated first.)

(The multiplication and division need to be

(Lastly, the subtraction needs to be calculated.)

(The brackets need to be evaluated first,

(The curly brackets need to be evaluated

(Multiplication is evaluated before the

SSS009 Study Guide

(The fraction line means that both the numerator and

(Now finish evaluating the numerator by completing

(The denominator needs to be evaluated, starting

(The division is next.)

(Lastly, the subtraction.)

(Now divide the numerator by the denominator.)

Work through Topic 1, Set 1 in the tutorial manual

SSS009 Study Guide

Topic 2 Signed numbers

Add and subtract signed numbers

A signed number can be a positive or a negative number, for example 2, +3 or

1. Adding and subtracting signed numbers

Starting at 2, move 5 places to the right: 2 + 5 =7

Starting at 2, move 5 places to the right: 2 + 5 = 3

SSS009 Study Guide

Starting at the 2, move 5 places to the left: 2 5 = 7

Starting at 2, move 5 places to the left: 2 5 = 3

0 (no longer owe $20)

Starting at 3, move 7 places to the right: 3 (7) = 3 + 7 = 10

SSS009 Study Guide

Subtracting a negative number is the

Work through Topic 2, Set 2 in the tutorial manual

2. Multiplying and dividing signed numbers

SSS009 Study Guide

Division follows the same two rules as

SSS009 Study Guide

Add and subtract fractions

A fraction is part of a whole. The fraction

There are three types of fractions:

SSS009 Study Guide

1. Converting improper fractions to mixed numerals

Divide 14 by 4 to find how many

SSS009 Study Guide