LOGIC HANDOUT Part 1

prepared for Philosophy I students

by
Prof. Arlyn V. Pinpin-Macapinlac

I. DEFINITIONS OF LOGIC
Prof. A. Acua

----------

Logic is an art and science of correct

reasoning.
Art
- the art of improving
reasoning
Science
- logic is methodical and
systematic

Irving Copi

----------

the study of methods and principles to

distinguish good/correct reasoning from
bad/incorrect reasoning.

Dan Reynald Magat ----------

the study of inference

(defs.) INFERENCE (Magat)

-the
thought
process wherein upon
believing that something
is T, another is claimed to
follow as T.
(Acua)- the process of moving
from one
statement/set
of
statements to another.
**** Inferences can only be expressed using sentences (declarative sentences).
Corresponding to any possible inference is an argument.
II. CONCERNS OF LOGIC
----------

how sentences are used in arguments

-- the logical structure of statements
-- truth value of statements
validity, soundness, effectiveness of arguments
distinction between correct/incorrect reasoning

III. IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING LOGIC

-------

to avoid faulty reasoning

to avoid wrong judgments

IV. 2 KINDS OF STATEMENTS

A. Simple

-- statement without a component statement

ie. _____________________________________________
(Example will be provided during the discussion)
B. Compound -- comprised of more than one simple statement
-- simple statements are joined by connectives
i.e. _____________________________________________
(Example will be provided during the discussion)
2 elements of compound statements:
1. simple propositions
2. logical constants/connectives
V. LOGICAL CONNECTIVES
SYMBOLS
.
v

A. and/but
B. or/either or
C. if then

D. iff

VI. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUND STATEMENTS BASED ON THE

LOGICAL CONNECTIVES USED
A. CONJUNCTION/ and statement
-- statement joined by the connectives and or but
-- component statements are called CONJUNCTS
i.e. The book is long and boring.
2 simple statements:
The book is long.
The book is boring.
****
There are statements appearing to be a conjunction but is only a
simple statement because the connective and was used to express
relationship, as in the example below:

i.e. Acua and Magat

are contemporaries.

B. ALTERNATION/DISJUNCTION/ either or statement

-- the disjunction/ alternation of 2 statements is formed by
inserting the word or/ either or between them.
-- the 2 component statements combined are called
DISJUNCTS/ALTERNATIVES.
i.e. My grade in Philosophy I is either passing or failing.
C. IMPLICATION/CONDITIONAL/ if then statement
-- the result of combining statements by placing the word
if before the first and inserting the word then between
them.
-- component statements:
If ________________ then ________________________.
Antecedent

Consequent
Implicans

Implicate
Protasis

Apodosis
(a) The component statement between the if and then is
called the antecedent/ implicans/ protasis.
(b) The component statement following then is the
consequent/ implicate/ apodosis.
i.e. If equality of opportunity is to be achieved, then those
people previously disadvantaged should now be
given special opportunities.
D. BICONDITIONAL/ MATERIAL EQUIVALENCE/ if and only if
statement
--simple statements joined by the logical connective if and
only if.
i.e. Rosa will pass if and only if
her studies.

shell be serious with

***** NEGATION -- THE DENIAL OF THE ORIGINAL STATEMENT.

Ways to negate:
(1) by inserting a not into the original statement
(2) by adding it is F that
(3)
it is not T that
3

(4)

it is not the case that

VII. REPRESENTATION
A. Purpose: to isolate the logical form of the statement from its logical
content, which is one of the concerns of logic. The representation
is needed because the form of the argument is sometimes
obscured by the complexity of the natural language.
B. How to represent:
1. SIMPLE STATEMENT -- can be symbolized using a capital
letter in the English alphabet.
2. COMPOUND STATEMENT symbolize simple statements
using capital letters and join them using the symbols for
the logical connectives in the statements.
3. NEGATION symbolize by adding the tilde symbol (~) to the
symbolized simple statement that was negated.
EXAMPLES:
Logical Notation
> Simple -- Rosa is nice.

--

> Compound (Conjunction)

-- Rosa is nice and sweet.

--

N.S

> Negation -- Rosa is not nice but sweet.

--

~N.S

VIII. SYMBOLIZING NATURAL LANGUAGE

A. NEGATION

~P

not P
P is not T
It is not the case that P
P is not the case
P is false

B. CONJUNCTION

P.Q

P and Q
P but Q
P although Q
Both P and Q
P moreover Q

P nevertheless Q
P however Q
P yet Q
P while Q

C. ALTERNATION/ DISJUNCTION

PvQ

P or Q
P unless Q
Either P or Q
Unless Q, P

D. NEGATIVE DISJUNCTION

~ (P v Q)

Neither P nor Q
both not
not either P or Q

E. NEGATIVE CONJUNCTION

~(P . Q)

not both

F. CONDITIONAL

P Q

If P then Q
In case P, Q
If P, Q
P implies Q
P only if Q

Q if P
Q is necessary for P
P is sufficient for Q
Q, provided that P

PQ

G. BICONDITIONAL
P is equivalent to Q
P if and only if Q
P if Q, and Q if P

IX. TRUTH TABLES

CONJUNCTION
P

P . Q

True
True
False
False

True
False
True
False

True
False
False
False

DISJUNCTION
P

P v Q

True
True
False
False

True
False
True
False

True
True
True
False

CONDITIONAL
P

True
True
False
False

True
False
True
False

True
False
True
True

P Q

True
False
True
False

True
False
False
True

BICONDITIONAL
P
True
True
False
False

P Q

**** SIMPLER TECHNIQUE TO MEMORIZE

Conjunction
Disjunction
Conditional
Biconditional

TTT, the rest false

FFF, the rest T
TFF, the rest T
same truth values T; different truth values F