Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu

Teachers attitudes toward information and communication

technologies: the case of Syrian EFL teachers
Abdulka Albirini

Department of Educational Policy and Leadership, Technologies of Instruction and Media Program,
203 Jennings Hall, 1735 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
Received 18 August 2004; accepted 29 October 2004

Abstract
Based on the new technology initiative in Syrian education, this study explored the attitudes of high
school English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in Syria toward ICT. In addition, the study investigated the relationship between computer attitudes and ve independent variables: computer attributes, cultural perceptions, computer competence, computer access, and personal characteristics (including computer
training background). The ndings suggest that teachers have positive attitudes toward ICT in education.
Teachers attitudes were predicted by computer attributes, cultural perceptions and computer competence.
The results point to the importance of teachers vision of technology itself, their experiences with it, and the
cultural conditions that surround its introduction into schools in shaping their attitudes toward technology
and its subsequent diusion in their educational practice.
2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Media in education; Secondary education; Country-specic development; Pedagogical issues

1. Introduction
The last two decades have witnessed a worldwide proliferation of information and communication technologies (ICT, henceforth) into the eld of education. The global adoption of
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E-mail address: albirini.1@osu.edu.

0360-1315/$ - see front matter 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2004.10.013

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A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

ICT into education has often been premised on the potential of the new technological tools
to revolutionize an outmoded educational system, better prepare students for the information
age, and/or accelerate national development eorts. In developing countries in particular, the
above promises have generated a whole set of wild speculations about the necessity of educational reforms that will accommodate the new tools (Pelgrum, 2001).
Governments in most developing countries have responded to the challenge by initiating
national programs to introduce computers into education. Doing so, these governments
have added to their burden of debt even though the costs are large and the payos modest (Benzie, 1995, p. 38). Benzie indicates that national programs have been of limited success not only because they were formulated in non-educational realms, but also because
they were not based on research. In Rogers terms (1995), the initiation stage, which demands information gathering and planning, seems to be missing in this headlong process of
technology implementation. Young (1991) remarks that in many cases computers were
introduced into schools not as a means, but as an end. Computers were provided with
no supplementary measures to enable educators to develop positive attitudes toward the
new tools and to use them. This has often resulted in ad hoc approaches to implementation. In this approach, technology availability is mistaken for technology adoption and use.
However, As Baylor and Ritchie (2002) state, regardless of the amount of technology and
its sophistication, technology will not be used unless faculty members have the skills,
knowledge and attitudes necessary to infuse it into the curriculum (p. 398). That is, teachers should become eective agents to be able to make use of technology in the classroom.
Ultimately, teachers are the most important agents of change within the classroom
arena.
One developing country that is currently pursuing the technological track in education is
the Syrian Arab Republic. Recognizing the challenge of the information age, the Syrian
Ministry of Education has recently adopted a national plan to introduce computers and
informatics into pre-college education. To this end, the Ministry has inaugurated computerequipped labs within secondary schools for general, vocational and technical education. It
has also connected many schools to the Internet. In addition, the Ministry created a new specialization in computer technologies in an eort to increase the number of computer experts
in society. According to The National Report (2000), the introduction of technology into the
Syrian educational system aims to keep pace with the progress and to reach ecient levels
of education.
Unfortunately, the implementation of technology into the Syrian schools has not been guided
by research. This has often been the case in most countries across the world. In particular, the
technology implementation plans seem to be lacking consideration of teachers reaction to the
new tools. Such inattention to the end-users attitudes may engender unforeseen repercussions
for ICT diusion in Syrian schools. In his theory of Diusion of Innovations, Rogers (1995) considers adopters attitudes indispensable to the innovation-decision process. A number of studies
have shown that teachers attitudes toward computers are major factors related to both the initial
acceptance of computer technology as well as future behavior regarding computer usage (Koohang, 1989; Selwyn, 1997). This suggests that studies at the early stages of technology implementation should focus on the end-users attitudes toward technology. The current study was based on
this pressing need.

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375

2. Review of the literature

As a recent educational innovation, the computerization of education is a complex process
where many agents play a role. Forces at the micro-level of the educational system (teachers
and students) may be inuential in facilitating or impeding changes that are outside the control
of the ministries of education (Pelgrum, 2001). Unfortunately, much of the early research on computer uses in education has ignored teachers attitudes toward the new machines (Harper, 1987).
Studies focused on the computer and its eect on students achievement, thus overlooking the psychological and contextual factors involved in the process of educational computerization (Clark,
1983; Thompson, Simonson, & Hargrave, 1992).
Recent studies have shown that the successful implementation of educational technologies depends largely on the attitudes of educators, who eventually determine how they are used in the
classroom. Bullock (2004) found that teachers attitudes are a major enabling/disabling factor
in the adoption of technology. Similarly, Kersaint, Horton, Stohl, and Garofalo (2003) found that
teachers who have positive attitudes toward technology feel more comfortable with using it and
usually incorporate it into their teaching. In fact, Woodrow (1992) asserts that any successful
transformation in educational practice requires the development of positive user attitude toward
the new technology. The development of teachers positive attitudes toward ICT is a key factor
not only for enhancing computer integration but also for avoiding teachers resistance to computer use (Watson, 1998). Watson (1998) warns against the severance of the innovation from
the classroom teacher and the idea that the teacher is an empty vessel into which this externally
dened innovation must be poured (p. 191).
According to Rogers (1995), peoples attitudes toward a new technology are a key element in its
diusion. Since Rogers uses the terms innovation and technology interchangeably (p. 12), the diffusion of innovation framework seems particularly suited for the study of the diusion of ICT.
Rogers Innovation Decision Process theory states that an innovations diusion is a process that
occurs over time through ve stages: Knowledge, Persuasion, Decision, Implementation and Conrmation. Accordingly, the innovation-decision process is the process through which an individual (or other decision-making unit) passes (1) from rst knowledge of an innovation, (2) to forming
an attitude toward the innovation, (3) to a decision to adopt or reject, (4) to implementation of the
new idea, and (5) to conrmation of this decision (Rogers, 1995, p. 161). Due to the novelty of
computers and their related technologies, studies concerning technology diusion in education
have often focused on the rst three phases of the innovation decision process. This is also because
the status of computers in education is, to a great extent, still precarious. In cases where technology
is very recently introduced into the educational system, as is the case of most developing countries,
studies have mainly focused on the rst two stages, that is, on knowledge of an innovation and attitudes about it.
Rogers premise concerning individuals shift from knowledge about technology to forming attitudes toward it and then to its adoption or rejection corroborates the general and widely accepted
belief that attitudes aect behavior directly or indirectly (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Zimbardo, Ebbesen, & Maslach, 1977). Teachers attitudes have been found to be a major predictor of the use of
new technologies in instructional settings (Abas, 1995b; Blankenship, 1998; Isleem, 2003). Christensen (1998) states that teachers attitudes toward computers aect not only their own computer
experiences, but also the experiences of the students they teach. In fact, it has been suggested that

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A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

attitudes towards computers aect teachers use of computers in the classroom and the likelihood
of their beneting from training (Kluever, Lam, Homan, Green, & Swearinges, 1994). Positive
attitudes often encourage less technologically capable teachers to learn the skills necessary for
the implementation of technology-based activities in the classroom.
Knezek and Christensens (2002) analysis of several major cross-cultural studies completed during the 1990s and related to ICT in education suggests that teachers advance in technology integration through a set of well dened stages, which sometimes require changes in attitude more so
than skills. According to Zimbardo et al. (1977), changing individuals behavior is possible once
their attitudes have been identied. Zimbardo and his associates suggest that attitudes are made
up of three components: aect, cognition, and behavior. The aective component represents an
individuals emotional response or liking to a person or object. The cognitive component consists
of a persons factual knowledge about a person or object. Finally, the behavioral component involves a person overt behavior directed toward a person or object (p. 20). Zimbardo et al. contend that even though we cannot predict the behavior of single individuals, we should be able to
predict that people (in general) will change their behavior if we can change their attitudes. . . (p.
52). The latter assertion explains to a large extent the wide interest in the study of the attitudes
toward technology.
Unfortunately, the task of pinning down teachers attitudes has not always been an easy one.
Watson (1998) considers teachers attitudes as the most misread impeding force in the integration
of computers in educational practices. As Zimbardo et al. (1977) note, the complexity of attitudes
and their interrelationship with behavior and many other variables summons a considerations for
the maze of variables and processes that could aect attitudes, beliefs, and action (p. 53). Studies have pointed to a wide range of factors aecting attitudes toward ICT. The variations in the
factors identied by dierent researchers might be attributed to dierences in context, participants, and type of research.
One of the major factors aecting peoples attitudes toward a new technology is the attributes of the technology itself (Rogers, 1995). Rogers identied ve main attributes of technology that aect its acceptance and subsequent adoption: relative advantage, compatibility,
complexity, observability, and trialibility. Thus, a new technology will be increasingly diused
if potential adopters perceive that the innovation: (1) has an advantage over previous innovations; (2) is compatible with existing practices, (3) is not complex to understand and use, (4)
shows observable results, and (5) can be experimented with on a limited basis before adoption.
In this study, computer attributes was operationally dened as the level of relative advantage,
compatibility, complexity, and observability of the computers as perceived by high school English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in Syria. Trialibility was not examined because
the majority of Syrian teachers may not have had the chance to experiment with computers
before these were introduced into schools. Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) found that relative
advantage, compatibility and observability were positively related to adoption, whereas complexity was negatively correlated. In his study in Trinidad and Togo, Sooknanan (2002) found
that relative advantage, compatibility, and observability were signicantly related to the teachers attitudes toward computers. However, the results showed no relationship between complexity and teachers attitudes.
Rogers (1995) and Thomas (1987) emphasized the importance of the cultural/social norms of a
given country to the acceptance of technology among its people. Potential adopters may resist a

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377

technological tool because it may not t within their micro- or macro-cultures. Thomas proposes,
How acceptable a new technology will be in a society depends on how well the proposed innovation ts the existing culture (p.15). Thomas refers to his hypothesis as the cultural suitability
factor. Both Rogers (1995) and Thomas (1987) note that few studies have considered the inuence
of peoples cultural perceptions on their adoption of technological innovations. In this study,
Cultural Perceptions was operationally delineated to mean Syrian EFL teachers perceptions
of the value, relevance, and impact of ICT as it relates to the cultural norms in Syrian society and
schools. Among the very few researchers examining cultural norms, Li (2002) explored the eects
of national culture on students use of the Internet and the dierences between Chinese and British
students in terms of use of the Internet. The researcher found that there were dierences in Internet experience, attitudes, usage, and competence between Chinese and British students. Most of
these dierences were related to students national culture.
In addition to computer attributes and cultural norms, previous research suggests that teachers
attitudes toward computer technologies are also related to teachers computer competence. In
their study of the correlation between teachers attitude and acceptance of technology, FrancisPelton and Pelton (1996) maintained, Although many teachers believe computers are an important component of a students education, their lack of knowledge and experience lead to a lack of
condence to attempt to introduce them into their instruction (p. 1). In this study, computer
competence was operationalized to mean Syrian EFL teachers perceptions about their computer
knowledge and computer skills as measured by the instrument developed for this study. A large
number of studies showed that teachers computer competence is a signicant predictor of their
attitudes toward computers (Berner, 2003; Na, 1993; Summers, 1990). Al-Oteawi (2002) found
that most teachers who showed negative or neutral attitudes toward the use of ICT in education
lacked knowledge and skill about computers that would enable them to make informed decision (p. 253).
Most studies examining computer attitudes have also reported a signicant association between
computer access and teachers attitudes toward computers (Na, 1993; Pelgrum, 2001). In his study
of Korean teachers, Na (1993) found a positive correlation between teachers attitudes toward computers and computer ownership, accessibility to school computers, the level of accessibility to
school computers, and number of computer locations in the school. Na concluded that there was
a signicant relationship between the proximity of computers and the number of access resources
(home and school) on the one hand, and, on the other, teachers attitudes toward computers.

3. The study
Given the importance of teachers attitudes and the relationship of teachers attitudes to the
above variables, the purpose of this study was therefore to determine the high school EFL teachers attitudes toward ICT in Syrian education and then to explore the relationship between teachers attitudes and factors that are thought to be inuencing them, including perceived computer
attributes, cultural perceptions, perceived computer competence, and perceived computer access.
Teachers personal characteristics (gender, age, income, teaching experience, school location, education, and teaching methods as well as computer training background) were also included in order to ensure maximum possible control of extraneous variables by building them into the design

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A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

of the study (Gay & Airasian, 2000). More specically, the study investigated the following
questions:
1. What are the attitudes of high school EFL teachers in Syria toward ICT in education?
2. What are the teachers perceptions of:
a. Computer attributes?
b. Cultural relevance of computers to Syrian society and schools?
c. Their level of computer competence?
d. Their level of access to computers?
3. What is the proportion of the variance in the attitudes of teachers toward ICT in education
that can be explained by the selected independent variables (as well as teachers personal characteristics) and the relative signicance of each independent variable in explaining the dependent variable?
The study focused mainly on EFL teachers because they were rst to experiment with computers in the Syrian context. This is partly because of their familiarity with English as the main computer language and also because much of the available software is for English language practice.
Moreover, The eld of foreign language education has always been in the forefront of the use of
technology to facilitate the language-acquisition process (Laord & Laord, 1997, p. 215).

4. Methodology
This was a descriptive study of an exploratory nature. Creswell (2003) suggests that exploratory
studies are most advantageous when not much has been written about the topic or the population
being studied (p. 30). The target population in this study was high school EFL teachers in Hims
(the largest Syrian province) during the 20032004 school year. The list of teachers was based on
EFL teachers Directory, which is maintained and updated on a quarterly basis by Hims Department of Education. The total number of high school EFL teachers in the Directory of the Department of Education was 887 (214 males, 24%; 673 females, 76%) as of the 30th of March, 2004.
A simple random sample of 326 subjects was selected to participate in the study. The specic procedure used for sample selection was a table of random numbers (Gay & Airasian, 2000, p. 124).
This procedure involved assigning each subject in the population to a number, and then selecting
326 arbitrary numbers from the population. Since each number corresponded to a subject in the
population, the selected numbers formed the sample of subjects for the study.
Due to dierences between the participants and cultural context of this study and those in previous studies, a questionnaire was developed by the researcher to obtain the information needed for
the study rather than using existing instruments. The development of questionnaire was guided by
extensive review of literature and scales used in dierent educational backgrounds (Al-Oteawi,
2002; Bannon, Marshall, & Fluegal, 1985; Bear, Richards, & Lancaster, 1987; Christensen & Knezek, 1996; Gardner, Discenza, & Dukes, 1993; Gressard & Loyd, 1986; Harrison & Rainer, 1992;
Isleem, 2003; Jones & Clarke, 1994; Meier, 1988; Na, 1993; Robertson, Calder, Fung, Jones, &
OShea, 1995; Sooknanan, 2002; Swadener & Hannan, 1987). The questionnaire consisted of
six scales that correspond to the main variables of the study (Appendix A). The instrument was

A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

379

evaluated by a panel of experts for content and face validity. The panel included three content experts (Professors of educational technology and EFL), two bilingual experts, one measurement expert, and four population experts (Syrian EFL teachers). Feedback from the panel of experts was
used mainly to ensure that the six scales measure the content areas of investigation and are culturally and technically appropriate for the context of the study. The Cronbachs a reliability coecients for the rst four scales were: computer attitude = 0.90, computer attributes = 0.86,
cultural perceptions = 0.76, and computer competence = 0.94. The computer access scale consisted
of three statements that took into account possible locations where computers might be available
for use by EFL teachers: at home, in school, and other places. Demographic variables were quantied by individual scores on eight items. The responses to all eight items were treated separately as
descriptive information that was correlated with the attitudes toward ICT. The questionnaire was
translated into Arabic and then back into English to ensure its suitability for the participants.
Following Dillmans (1978) recommendations, a letter of recruitment, a letter of informed
consent, and a return envelope accompanied the questionnaire. Letters of support by the Syrian Ministry of Education and the Director of English in the Department of Education were
used for accessing the schools and teachers. A total of 326 questionnaires were distributed
over a period of three days from the 27th to the 29th of April, 2004. The questionnaires were
delivered in person to school principals of each participant or group of participants (when two
or more sample teachers were from the same school). Principals in turn distributed them to
the teachers. Three days before the deadline, school principals were asked via phone to remind
teachers to complete the questionnaire. The questionnaires and the accompanying forms were
collected in person from school principals from May 12th to May 14th. The principals of six
schools where some teachers did not complete questionnaires were asked for a three-day
extension for collecting the rest of the questionnaires from teachers. By May 17th, a total
of 320 questionnaires were collected from the participants. The response rate was 98.16%.
The rate was high enough to avoid further survey distribution. Six out of 320 were not usable
for data analysis because they were not completed. Only 314 were analyzed, representing a
valid response rate of 96.32%. The data were analyzed via SPSS. 12 statistical package.
Descriptive statistics were used to describe and summarize the properties of the mass of data
collected from the respondents (Gay & Airasian, 2000, p. 437). Multiple regression analysis
was used to determine the proportion of the variance in the attitudes of teachers toward
ICT in education that could be explained by the selected independent variables and the relative signicance of each in explaining the dependent variable. By convention, an a level of 0.05
was established a priori for determining statistical signicance. Prior to conducting the analysis, the scoring of all negatively stated items was reversed.

5. Main ndings
5.1. Research question one: teachers attitudes toward ICT in education
Participants were asked to respond to 20, Likert-type statements dealing with their attitudes
toward ICT in education (Appendix A). The items were designed to measure the aective domain
of computer attitude (items 16), cognitive domain (items 715), and behavioral domain (items

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A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

Table 1
Distribution of mean scores on the attitude toward ICT scale
Scale

Percent (%)

Mean

SD

SD

SA

Aect
Cognition
Behavior

0.3
0.0
0.3

0.6
1.0
2.9

13.7
12.4
8.3

62.4
65.9
58.3

22.9
20.7
30.3

4.00
4.05
4.13

0.5
0.4
0.5

Overall attitude

0.0

0.6

11.8

65.0

22.6

4.05

0.38

SD, strongly disagree (1); D, disagree (2); N, neutral (3); A, agree (4); SA, strongly agree (5).

1520). Computer attitudes of EFL teachers was represented by a mean score on a 5-point scale,
where 5 (Strongly Agree) represents the maximum score of the scale and 1 (Strongly Disagree)
represents the minimum score. Table 1 illustrates the distribution of mean scores on the Attitude
toward ICT scale.
As Table 1 illustrates, teachers overall attitudes toward ICT were positive with an overall
mean score of 4.05 (SD = 0.38). The respondents positive attitudes were evident within the
aective (mean = 4.00), cognitive (mean = 4.05) and behavioral (mean = 4.13) domains.
Eighty-ve point three percent (85.3%) of the respondents had positive (62.4%) or highly positive (22.9%) aect toward computers. These respondents reported that they had no apprehension of computers, were glad about the increase of computers, considered using computers
enjoyable, felt comfortable about computers, and liked to talk with others about computers
and to use them in teaching. Within the cognitive domain, most of the respondents agreed
(69.9%) and strongly agreed (20.7%) that computers save time and eort, motivate students
to do more study, enhance students learning, are fast and ecient means of getting information, must be used in all subject matters, make schools a better place, are worth the time spent
on learning them, are needed in the classroom, and generally do more good than harm. In the
behavioral domain, the majority of the respondents expressed positive (58.3%) or highly positive
(30.3%) behavioral intentions in terms of buying computers, learning about them, and using
them in the near future.
5.2. Research question two: teachers perceptions in terms of factors related to attitudes toward ICT
5.2.1. Computer attributes
Participants were asked to respond to 18, Likert-type statements dealing with their perceptions
about the relative advantage of computers (items 15), their compatibility with teachers current
practices (items 610), their simplicity/non-complexity (items 1114), and their observability
(items 1518). Overall, respondents perceptions of computers attributes were somewhat positive
with an overall mean score of 3.7 (SD = 0.38) (Table 2).
Respondents positive perceptions varied across the four computer attributes examined in
this study. Teachers responses were most positive about the relative advantage of computers
as an educational tool (mean = 4.04; SD = 0.59). Less positive were teachers perceptions of
the compatibility of computers with their current practices (mean = 3.54; SD = 0.54). While
the majority of respondents indicated that computer use suits their students learning prefer-

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381

Table 2
Distribution of mean scores on the computer attributes scale
Scale

Percent (%)

Mean

SD

SD

SA

Advantage
Compatibility
Complexity
Observability

0.3
0.3
0.0
0.0

1.0
2.6
4.8
3.8

12.7
43.0
36.9
28.3

64.7
51.0
51.3
51.3

21.3
3.2
7.0
16.6

4.04
3.54
3.48
3.70

0.59
0.54
0.67
0.68

Overall attributes

0.0

1.3

29.0

64.4

5.4

3.70

0.38

SD, strongly disagree (1); D, disagree (2); N, neutral (3); A, agree (4); SA, strongly agree (5).

ences and level of computer knowledge and is appropriate for many language learning activities, most of them were uncertain about whether or not computer use ts well in their curriculum goals, and the majority reported that class time is too limited for computer use.
Similarly, teachers perceptions of the simplicity of computers (i.e., complexity before the
negative items were reversed) were also midway between neutral and positive (mean = 3.48;
SD = 0.67). Most of the teachers responses were split between positive and neutral about
whether it is easy to understand the basic functions of computers, operate them, and use them
in teaching. Lastly, teachers responses on the observability subscale indicate somewhat positive perceptions (3.70, SD = 0.68). Most of the respondents reported that they had seen computers at work and as educational tools in general and in the Syrian educational context in
particular.
5.2.2. Cultural perceptions
In general, participants responses to the 16 items on the Cultural Perceptions scale were somehow midway between neutral and positive (mean = 3.38, SD = 0.44) (Table 3). The majority of the
respondents had positive (64.7%) or highly positive (21.3%) perceptions about the relevance of
ICT to Syrian society and schools. Notably, most of the respondents indicated that students need
to know how to use computers for their future jobs. Moreover, most of them stated that computers will contribute to improving their standard of living and that knowing about computers earns
one the respect of others and ensures privileges not available to others. In addition, the majority
of the respondents indicated that computers do not increase their dependence on foreign countries, dehumanize society, or encourage unethical practices.
However, the fact that respondents saw ICT as culturally appropriate for Syrian schools and
society did not prevent them to indicate that there are other social issues that need to be addressed
Table 3
Distribution of mean scores on the cultural perceptions scale
Scale

Percent (%)
SD

SA

Cultural perceptions

0.3

1.0

12.7

64.6

21.3

SD, strongly disagree (1); D, disagree (2); N, neutral (3); A, agree (4); SA, strongly agree (5).

Mean

SD

3.38

0.44

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A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

Table 4
Distribution of mean scores on the computer competence scale
Scale

Computer competence

Percent (%)
No
competence

Little
competence

Moderate
competence

Much
competence

43.3

39.5

16.6

0.6

Mean

SD

1.78

0.67

before implementing computers in education, that computers are proliferating too fast, and that
alternative computers which better suit the Arabic culture and identity are needed.
5.2.3. Computer competence
Computer competence was represented by a mean score on a 4-point, scale ranging from 1 (no
competence) to 4 (much competence). Table 4 illustrates the distribution of mean scores on the 15item computer competence scale.
The majority of the respondents had no (43.3%) or little (39.5%) computer competence in handling most of the computer functions needed by educators. Sixteen point six (16.6%) of the
respondents had moderate computer competence, and less than one% (0.6%) possessed much
competence. On average, the respondents reported that they had Little Competence
(mean = 1.78; SD = 0.67) in computer uses, including software installation, printer usage, productivity software, telecommunication resources, basic troubleshooting, graphic application, grade
keeping, educational software evaluation, organization tools, and virus removal.
5.2.4. Computer access
Participants were asked to rate their level of access to potential computer places: at home,
school and other places. Computer access of EFL teachers was represented by a mean score on
a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 5 (Daily) (Table 5).
As Table 5 illustrates, Home was the respondents most frequent place of computer access
with 57 (57%; n = 179) of them having access to it either daily (30.6%; n = 96), biweekly or three
times a week (9.6%; n = 30), weekly (7.6%; n = 24), or monthly (9.2%; n = 29). Schools came second with 33.4 (33.4%; n = 105) of the respondents having access to it either daily (5.1%; n = 16),
biweekly or three times a week (4.5%; n = 14), weekly (7.3%; n = 23), or monthly (16.6%; n = 52).
Only 25.5 (25.5%; n = 80) of the respondents had access to computers in places other than home
Table 5
Distribution of mean scores on the computer access scale
Scale

Percent (%)
Never

Once a month

Home
School
Other (cafes, friends, relatives,
university, work)

43.0
66.6
74.5

9.2
16.6
11.8

Overall access level

40.8

34.7

Once a week

Mean

SD

23 Times a week

Daily

7.6
7.3
7.0

9.6
4.5
4.1

30.6
5.1
2.5

2.75
1.65
1.48

1.76
1.12
0.97

17.5

6.7

0.3

1.96

0.86

A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

383

and school. These places included Internet cafes, friends, relatives, university, and private work.
The mean score on the Computer Access scale was 1.96 (SD = 0.86), which indicates that a typical
teacher had access to computers almost once a month.
5.3. Research question three: proportion of variance in teachers attitudes explained by the
independent variables
To determine the proportion of the variance in the attitudes of teachers toward ICT in education that could be explained by the selected independent variables, a multiple regression
analysis was performed. Following Gay and Airasians (2000) recommendations, simple correlations (using Pearson and Spearman analyses) were rst performed to identify independent
variables that individually correlate with the dependent variable (attitudes toward ICT). These
variables were used in the multiple regression equation to make a more accurate prediction of
the dependent variable and to show the proportion of variance in the dependent variable explained by the selected independent variables. The independent variables that individually correlated with the dependent variable were: computer attributes (r = 0.74, p < 0.05), cultural
perceptions (r = 0.62, p < 0.05), computer competence (r = 0.30, p < 0.05), computer access
(r = 0.17, p < 0.05), and computer training (r = 0. 15, p < 0.05). Spearman rank correlations
yielded no signicant relationships between teachers attitudes and any of the demographic
variables (with the exception of computer training background). The summary of the multiple
regression results are presented in Tables 6 and 7. The results indicated that 58% of the variance in computer attitude was explained by the independent variables included in this study
(Table 6). The test statistic was signicant at the 0.05 level of signicance (F(5, 313) = 87.94;
p < 0.001).
As Table 7 illustrates, the results of multiple regression indicate that three variables aect the
teachers attitudes toward ICT at the 0.05 level of signicance. The following are the absolute

Table 6
Analysis of variance
Sources

Sum of squares

DF

Mean square

F value

R2

Adjusted R2

Model
Error

47.10
33.00

5
308

9.41
0.11

87.94

0.59

0.58

<0.001

Total

80.03

313

Table 7
Multiple regression on dependent variable (computer attitude)
Variable

Unstandardized b

Standardized b

Computer attributes
Cultural perceptions
Computer competence
Computer access
Training

0.60
0.29
0.07
0.04
0.02

0.57
0.25
0.10
0.06
0.03

11.03
5.02
2.18
1.50
0.71

<0.001
<0.001
0.030
0.14
0.481

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A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

values of the standardized estimate (b) of these factors from largest to smallest: computer attributes (b = 0.57, t = 11.03, p < 0.05), cultural perceptions (b = 0.25, t = 5.02, p < 0.05), and
computer competence (b = 0.10, t = 2.18, p < 0.05). The analysis suggests that the independent
variables explaining the greatest amount of variance in computer attitudes are in order of
predicative value: computer attributes, cultural perceptions, and computer competence
(Table 7).

6. Discussion
The study investigated the attitudes of high school EFL teachers in a large Syrian province
toward ICT and the relationship of teachers attitudes to a selected set of independent variables. Teachers attitudes toward ICT have been universally recognized as an important factor
for the success of technology integration in education (Rogers, 1995; Watson, 1998; Woodrow,
1992). Findings from this study suggest that participants had positive attitudes toward ICT in
education. The respondents positive attitudes were evident within the aective, cognitive and
behavioral domains. Such optimism cannot simply be attributed to the novelty of computers
in Syrian education (Salaberry, 2001). The participants seemed to have totally accepted the
rationale for introducing ICT into schools and were able to base their judgments on understandable reasons. Thus, the majority of respondents considered computers as a viable educational tool that has the potential to bring about dierent improvements to their schools and
classrooms.
Teachers positive attitudes exhibit their initiation into the innovation-decision process (Rogers,
1995). It seems that teachers have already gone through the Knowledge and Persuasion stages
(Rogers, 1995) and are probably proceeding to the Decision phase. As many theorists have indicated, attitudes can often foretell future decision-making behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Having formed positive attitudes toward ICT in education, participants are expected to be using ICT
in their classrooms once computers become more available to them. In fact, the behavioral subscale of the computer attitude scale showed that the majority of teachers had the intention to learn
about computers and to use them in the near future. This symbiotic relationship between attitudes
toward ICT and its use in the classroom has been widely reported in the literature (e.g., Blankenship, 1998; Isleem, 2003).
The ndings of the study indicated a very strong positive correlation between teachers attitudes toward ICT in education and their perceptions of computer attributes. The ndings are
consistent with Rogers Innovation Attributes sub-theory. An examination of individual computer attributes shows that respondents were most positive about the relative advantage of
computers as an educational tool. However, teachers perceptions of the compatibility of
ICT with their current teaching practices were not as positive. The majority of them were
uncertain about whether or not computers t well in their curricular goals. The disparity between technological demands and the existing curricula has often been a major hindrance for
technology integration (Ojo & Awuah, 1998). As the responses of the participants indicate,
the Syrian educational landscape seems to be no exception. Besides, most of the participants
considered that the class time is too limited for computer use. This problem has also been
emphasized in the literature (Becker, 1998). Teachers concerns about the incompatibility of

A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

385

computers with the existing curricula as well as the lack of time for computer use indicate
that educational change cannot simply be attained by placing computers in schools (Hodas,
1993). For a change to occur, many renovations need to be made at the structural level as
well as the pedagogic level. Otherwise, a consistent mismatch will occur between the industrial
models of schooling and the information-age teaching/learning devices. Salamon (2002) refers
to this mismatch as a Technological Paradox resulting from the consistent tendency of the
education system to preserve itself and its practices by the assimilation of new technologies
into existing instructional practices (pp. 7172). Hence, the introduction of ICT innovations
into education requires equal innovativeness in structural, pedagogical and curriculum
approaches.
Interestingly, cultural perceptions were the second most important predictor of computer attitudes in this study. This conclusion points to the need for considering cultural factors in studies
conducted in developing countries. The majority of respondents regarded computers as pertinent to both Syrian schools and society and viable means for improving education and standards of living in general. What should not go unnoticed, however, is that the majority of
the respondents felt the need for computers that better suit the Arabic culture and identity.
It has often been noted that people who have not been quite inuential in the design and development of ICT would prefer a localized version of these technologies (Damarin, 1998). In addition, many of the respondents saw that there are more important social issues to be addressed
before implementing computers in education. Therefore, it was not a surprise that almost all of
the respondents agreed that computers are proliferating too fast. The above conclusion implies
that balancing resource allocation among the competing areas of need is a critical issue in developing countries.
Previous research has pointed to teachers lack of computer competence as a main barrier to
their acceptance and adoption of ICT in developing countries (Al-Oteawi, 2002; Na, 1993; Pelgrum, 2001). The results of the current study support and extend the ndings from previous
research. The majority of respondents reported having little or no competence in handling most
of the computer functions needed by educators. This nding did not support the assumption
that teachers with low level of computer competence usually have negative attitudes toward
computers (Summers, 1990). On the other hand, the fact that computer competence was significantly related to teachers attitudes supports the theoretical and empirical arguments made for
the importance of computer competence in determining teachers attitudes toward ICT (Al-Oteawi, 2002; Berner, 2003; Bulkeley, 1993; Na, 1993). In addition, the relationship between computer attitudes and competence suggests that higher computer competence may foster the
already positive attitudes of teachers and eventually result in their use of computers within
the classroom.
Computer access has often been one of the most notorious impediments to technology adoption
and integration worldwide (Abas, 1995a; Pelgrum, 2001). Findings from the current study substantiate this globally felt barrier. While a relatively high percentage of the respondents (57%)
had computers at home, only 33.4% of the respondents had access to computers at school. The
latter percentage gives a clear indication of the insuciency of computers at schools, particularly
for teacher use. As noted above, the paucity of computer resources available for teachers has been
widely reported in the literature as a major obstacle to technology integration in education (e.g.,
Abas, 1995a; Na, 1993). Although the shortage of computers did not seem to have notable impact

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A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

on the teachers attitudes toward ICT in this study, it may theoretically have its eects on their
future uses of ICT in the classroom.
7. Conclusion
Given the recent presence of technology in their schools, developing countries have the responsibility not merely to provide computers for schools, but also to foster a culture of acceptance
amongst the end-users of these tools. Hence, the study of teachers attitudes becomes indispensable to the technology implementation plans. As Sheingold (1991, cited in North Central Regional
Educational Laboratory, 2003) notes, the challenge of technology integration into education is
more human than it is technological.
The ndings of this study may be specic to EFL teachers in Syrian education, but their implications are signicant to other educators as well. Teachers positive attitudes in the current study
have a special signicance given the limitations characterizing the current status of ICT in Syrian
schools: insucient computer resources and teachers lack of computer competence. It is therefore
essential for policy-makers to sustain and promote teachers attitudes as a prerequisite for deriving
the benets of costly technology initiatives. Since positive attitudes toward ICT usually foretell
future computer use, policy-makers can make use of teachers positive attitudes toward ICT to
better prepare them for incorporating ICT in their teaching practices.
One of the main barriers to technology implementation perceived by the teachers in this study is
the mismatch between ICT and the existing curricula and the class-time frame. It follows that
placing computers in schools is not enough for attaining educational change. The introduction
of ICT into education requires equal innovativeness in other aspects of education. Both policymakers and teachers share this responsibility. Policy-makers should provide additional planning
time for teachers to experiment with new ICT-based approaches. This may be attained by reducing the teaching load for the teachers.
Other barriers reported in this study were teachers low level of access to school computers,
which may have played a role in teachers modest computer competence so essential to future
computer use. Such conclusion points to the invariable importance of technology resources for
the success of technology initiatives across the world. This also implies that technology initiatives
should include measures for preparing teachers to use computers in their teaching practices.
Teachers preparation necessitates not merely providing additional training opportunities, but
also aiding them in experimenting with ICT before being able to use it in their classrooms. If decision-makers want to involve teachers in the process of technology integration, they have to nd
ways to overcome the barriers perceived by the teachers.
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my indebtedness for the participants who gave me their time to complete
the surveys. I am also grateful for my brother Ahmad, who facilitated much of the contacts with
the Ministry of Education, the Department of Education, principals, and teachers. I am thankful
to Mr. Nibhan Addakar, the Director of English in the Department of Education, for his kind
contribution to the completion of the study.

A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

Appendix A. Study instrument (Arabic version)

387

388

A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

389

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A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

Appendix B. Study instrument (English version)

The Ohio State University Attitudes toward Computer Technology
General Instructions: The purpose of this questionnaire is to examine your attitudes toward the
introduction of information technology into Syrian education. The questionnaire consists of six
sections. Each section begins with some directions pertaining to that part only. As you begin each
section, please read the directions carefully and provide your responses candidly in the format
requested.
Section (1): Instructions: Please indicate your reaction to each of the following statements by
circling the number that represents your level of agreement or disagreement with it. Make sure
to respond to every statement.

A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

13.

14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

Computers do not scare me at

all
Computers make me feel
uncomfortable
I am glad there are more
computers these days
I do not like talking with
others about computers
Using computers is enjoyable
I dislike using computers in
teaching
Computers save time and
eort
Schools would be a better
place without computers
Students must use computers
in all subject matters
Learning about computers is a
waste of time
Computers would motivate
students to do more study
Computers are a fast and
ecient means of getting
information
I do not think I would ever
need a computer in my
classroom
Computers can enhance
students learning
Computers do more harm
than good
I would rather do things by
hand than with a computer
If I had the money, I would
buy a computer
I would avoid computers as
much as possible
I would like to learn more
about computers
I have no intention to use
computers in the near future

391

Strongly
disagree

Disagree

Neutral

Agree

Strongly
agree

1
1

2
2

3
3

4
4

5
5

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A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

Section (2) Instructions: Please indicate your reaction to each of the following statements by
circling the number that represents your level of agreement or disagreement with it. Make sure
to respond to every statement

1
2

5
6
7

8
9

10

11

12

13

Computers will improve

education
Teaching with computers
oers real advantages over
traditional methods of
instruction
Computer technology cannot
improve the quality of
students learning
Using computer technology in
the classroom would make the
subject matter more
interesting
Computers are not useful for
language learning
Computers have no place in
schools
Computer use ts well
into my curriculum
goals
Class time is too limited for
computer use
Computer use suits my
students learning preferences
and their level of computer
knowledge
Computer use is appropriate
for many language learning
activities
It would be hard for me to
learn to use the computer in
teaching
I have no diculty in
understanding the basic
functions of computers
Computers complicate my
task in the classroom

Strongly
disagree

Disagree

Neutral

Agree

Strongly
agree

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393

Appendix B (continued)

14
15
16

17

18

Everyone can easily learn to

operate a computer
I have never seen computers
at work
Computers have proved to be
eective learning tools
worldwide
I have never seen computers
being used as an educational
tool
I have seen some Syrian
teachers use computers for
educational purposes

Strongly
disagree

Disagree

Neutral

Agree

Strongly
agree

Section (3) Instructions: Please indicate your reaction to each of the following statements by
circling the number that represents your level of agreement or disagreement with it. Make sure
to respond to every statement
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
disagree
agree
1 Computers will not make any dierence in
our classrooms, schools, or lives
2 Students need to know how to use
computers for their future jobs
3 Students prefer learning from teachers to
learning from computers
4 Knowing about computers earns one the
respect of others
5 We need computers that suit better the
Arabic culture and identity
6 Computers will improve our standard of
living
7 Using computers would not hinder Arab
generations from learning their traditions
8 Computers are proliferating too fast
9 People who are skilled in computers have
privileges not available to others
10 Computers will increase our dependence
on foreign countries

1
1

2
2

3
3

4
4

5
5

(continued on next page)

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A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

Appendix B (continued)

11

12

13
14

15
16

There are other social issues that

need to be
addressed before implementing
computers in education
The increased proliferation of
computers will
make our lives easier
Computers dehumanize society
Working with computers does not
diminish people
relationships with one other
Computers encourage unethical
practices
Computers should be a priority
in education

Strongly
disagree

Disagree

Neutral

Agree

Strongly
agree

1
1

2
2

3
3

4
4

5
5

Section (4) Instructions: Please indicate your current computer competence level (i.e., both your
knowledge of and your skill in using computers) regarding each of the following statements. Make
sure to respond to every statement

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Install new software on a

computer
Use a printer
Use a computer keyboard
Operate a word processing
program (e.g., Word)
Operate a presentation
program (e.g., PowerPoint)
Operate a spreadsheet
program (e.g., Excel)
Operate a database program
(e.g., Access)
Use the Internet for
communication (e.g., email &
chatroom)
Use the World Wide Web to
access dierent types of
information

No
competence

Little
competence

Moderate

competence

Much
competence

1
1
1

2
2
2

3
3
3

4
4
4

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395

Appendix B (continued)

10
11
12
13
14
15

Solve simple problems in

operating computers
Operate a graphics program
(e.g., Photoshop)
Use computers for grade
keeping
Select and evaluate
educational software
Create and organize computer
les and folders
Remove computer viruses

No
competence

Little
competence

Moderate
competence

Much
competence

Section (5) Instructions: Please identify how often you have computer access in the following
contexts:

1
2
3

In your home
At school (computer lab
or library)
Other (like Internet
cafes, etc.)

Daily

2 or 3
times a week

Once a week

Once a month

Never

1
1

2
2

3
3

4
4

5
5

Section (6) Instructions: Please indicate you response to the following questions by checking the
appropriate boxes:
1 What is your genderh Male h Female
2 What is your age? h 2029 h 3039 h 4049 h 5059 h60 and over
3 What is your monthly average household income in Syrian Liras? h 50009000 h10,000
14,000 h15,00019,000 h 20,00024,000 h 24,000 and over
4 Including the current year, how many years have you been teaching?
h 15 h 610 h 1115 h 1620 h over 20
5 In what type of school do you teach h Urban h Suburban h Rural
6 What is your highest completed academic degree?
h Teacher Certicate h Bachelors h Masters
7 Have you ever attended any training course, workshop, or seminar on using computers?
h No h Yes.
If Yes, please specify the number of hours and/or days: - - - -hours - - - -days

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A. Albirini / Computers & Education 47 (2006) 373398

8 What is the teaching method you use most often?

h Active discussion
h Collaborative activities
h Demonstration
h Hands-on learning
h Lecturing
h Role playing
h Computer-assisted instruction
h Other (please specify):

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