LINGUISTICS IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

I.

Preliminaries.
A. Objectives: the fundamental empirical problems.
1.
The grammatical characterization problem.
2.
The grammatical realization problem.
B. Assumptions.
1.
The competence/performance distinction.
2.
Universal grammar.
Linguistic universals.
Substantive universals.
Formal universals.
3.
Innateness hypothesis.
C. Methodology.
1.
Goal: construct grammars that are explicit, formal, and testable.
The importance of ungrammatical sentences.
Grammatical versus ungrammatical.
Acceptable versus unacceptable.
2.
Goal: discover principles of UG; explanatory adequacy.
3.
Diagnostics.
4.
Some principles.
D. Changes in the theory.
1.
New data not accounted for.
2.
Data incorrectly described.
3.
Data described in an ungeneralized way.
4.
Grammar inexplicit.
5.
Principles are not generalizable across languages.
E.
Levels of adequacy
1.
Observational adequacy
2.
Descriptive adequacy
3.
Explanatory adequacy
F.
Recurring themes.
1.
Subclassification: syntactic categories break down into different subclasses.
2.
Ambiguity.
3.
Paraphrase.
4.
Anaphora: the study of reference, what pronouns and other forms refer to.
5.
Empty categories.
G. A Fundamental Issue: What is innate?
1.
Pioneering studies on universals.
2.
Null Subject Parameter; Pro-drop Languages.
3.
Adjective Placement in NP and Complementizer Omission.
4.
Adverb Placement.
H. A Fundamental Issue: Does a research agenda determine the results?
1.
UTAH (Uniformity of -Assignment Hypothesis).
2.
EPP (Extended Projection Principle): Verbs must have local subjects.
3.
Movement.

2
II.

The antecedents of transformational generative grammar.

A.
Philosophical/psychological theories of language.
1.
Empiricism (behaviorism, nurturism).
2.
Rationalism (mentalism, nativism).
B. Descriptive and prescriptive grammar.
C. Synchronic and diachronic linguistics.
D. Taxonomic linguistics (Structuralism, Bloomfieldian linguistics).
E.
Ferdinand de Saussure.
F.
Franz Boas, Edward Sapir, and Benjamin Whorf.
G. Leonard Bloomfield.
H. Structuralism.
I.
Post-Bloomfieldian linguistics.
J.
Typological Classification.

III.

Transformational grammar: a new paradigm; Noam Chomsky.

A. References.
B. The search for a grammatical model.
1.
Rejection of taxonomic syntax.
2.
Rejection of taxonomic phonology.
3.
Rejection of finite state grammars.
4.
Limitations on grammars that contain only phrase structure rules.
5.
Aside: the fruits of taxonomic linguistics.
C. The essential structure of the new model: three major components.
1.
The phrase structure component.
2.
The transformational component.
3.
Morphophonemic component (context sensitive rules).
D. The English auxiliary.
E.
Problems.
1.
Phrase structure component.
2.
Transformational component.

IV.

The standard theory.

A. References and comments.
B. The organization of Aspects of the Theory of Syntax.
1.
Chapter one: refinement of the scope of the fundamental empirical problems and
of the nature of the theory of language.
2.
Chapter two: refinement of the phrase structure component; discussion of
abovementioned problems.
3.
Chapter three: refinement of the transformational component; discussion of
abovementioned problems.
C. Schematic difference between Syntactic Structures and Aspects.

3
D.

E.
F.
G.
H.

I.
J.
K.
L.

M.
V.

Particulars of the standard theory.

1.
Sample phrase structure rules.
2.
Sample lexicon.
3.
Sample base phrase marker, tree diagram (deep structure).
4.
Sample transformational rules.
5.
Sample Prules for regular verbs.
6.
Sample derivation: Does Sue know Ray?
The interplay between PS-rules and T-rules.
Transformatonal rules and/or filters.
Distinctive feature theory.
Rule ordering.
1.
Transformational rules.
2.
Phonological rules.
3.
Phonology morphology interface.
4.
English stress.
5.
Feeding and bleeding orders.
6.
Language change.
7.
Example of rule change.
8.
Historical change and language acquisition.
Integrating Phonology, Morphology, the Lexicon and Language History.
Language History and Language Comparison.
Comparative Morphology.
Problems with the Standard Theory.
1.
Lexicon.
2.
Meaning and Rule Operation.
3.
Movement Paradoxes.
Generative Semantics; The Transformationalist Hypothesis.

The extended standard theory (EST); The lexicalist or Intrepretivist Hypothesis.

A. Schematic representation of the model.
B. Innovations.
1.
Semantics.
2.
Syntax.
C. Changes (improvements) over the Standard Theory.
D. Characteristics of the EST Model.
E.
The Standard Theory , EST and Generative Semantics Compared.
F.
Other developments: Case Grammar.
1.
Data.
2.
Thematic relations.
3.
Sample lexical entry.
4.
Sample derivation.
5.
Problems with case grammar.

4
G.
H.

I.

J.

K.

L.

VI.

Semantic Networks.
The Meanings of Words and Phrases.
1.
Some useful distinctions.
2.
Problems.
3.
Lexical Insertion.
Studies in Lexical Semantics.
1.
Charles Fillmores work on lexical entries.
2.
Factive and nonfactive predicates.
3.
Conjunctions.
General Semantic Problems.
1.
Ambiguity and Paraphrase.
2.
Ungrammaticality.
3.
Disparity in meaning.
4.
Challenges to Theories of Acquisition.
Broader Semantics Problems.
1.
Possible worlds.
2.
Beliefs and presuppositions.
3.
Extra-sentential information and knowledge.
4.
Hedges.
5.
Strength of Association and Metaphor.
Pragmatics.
1.
Common Sense Knowledge.
2.
Units beyond the Sentence
3.
Speech Act Theory (Searle 1969, 1979).
4.
Attitude, Setting and Style.

Further work in EST: constraints on phrase structure; X syntax.

A. The data.
1.
Endocentricity.
2.
Intermediate phrasal levels.
3.
Nominalizations.
B. The analysis.
1.
Intermediate phrasal levels: general schema.
2.
Verb phrases and noun phrases.
C. Problems.

VII. Further work in EST: constraints on transformations.

A. General constraints.
1.
The cyclic principle.
2.
The structure preserving principle.
3.
The empty node principle.
4.
The trace principle

5
B.

C.

D.

E.

Ross constraints.
1.
The complex noun phrase constraint.
2.
The sentential subject constraint.
3.
Coordinate structure constraint.
4.
The left branch condition.
Chomskys conditions.
1.
The tensedS condition (TSC).
2.
Specified subject condition (SSC).
3.
The escape hatch.
4.
WHisland condition.
5.
The opacity condition.
6.
The principle of subjacency.
Filters.
1.
The doubly filled comp filter.
2.
The empty subject filter (the thattrace filter).
3.
The forto filter.
4.
The NPtoVP filter.
5.
The root clause filter.
Chomskys On Binding.
The nominative island constraint (NIC).

VIII. Governmentbinding theory (GB); Principles and parameters theory P&P).

A. Schematic representation of the model.
1.
Dstructure.
2.
Move.
3.
Sstructure.
4.
PF (phonetic form).
5.
LF (logical form).
6.
Principles: universal properties of language that are innately specified.
7.
Parameters: limited options set by the language learner based on available data.
B. A modular approach the modules.
1.
Theta () theory.
2.
Government theory.
3.
Case theory.
4.
X syntax theory.
5.
Control theory.
6.
Bounding theory.
7.
Binding theory; Characteristics of referential constituents.
C. Typical examples.
D. Summary of types of movement.
E.
Syntactic issues: raising versus control.

6
IX.

Minimalism; minmalist program (MP).

A. References and comments.
B. Majors characteristics.
1.
Economy.
2.
Lexical and functional categories.
3.
Bare phrase structure (zero syntax).
4.
Move and merge.
5.
Little (light) verbs and VP-shells.
6.
Predicate-internal arguments; subjects in Spec VP.
7.
UTAH.
8.
Numeration and computation.
9.
Features and checking theory.
10. Split projections.
11. A return to generative semantics?
12. Spellout and phase.
13. Convergence and crash.
14. Sample simplified derivation.

X.

Working Hypotheses; Assumptions.

A. Number of X projections; levels between X and XP.
B. Funtional Heads.
C. Binary Branching.
D. Movement.
E.
EPP.
F.
UTAH.

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