ABSTRACT

The Batteries form a significant part of many electronic devices. Typical electr
ochemical batteries or cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy. Bat
teries based on the charging ability are classified into primary and secondary c
ells. Secondary cells are widely used because of their rechargeable nature. Pres
ently, battery takes up a huge amount of space and contributes to a large part o
f the device's weight. There is strong recent interest in ultrathin, flexible, s
afe energy storage devices to meet the various design and power needs of modern
gadgets. New research suggests that carbon nanotubes may eventually provide the
best hope of implementing the flexible batteries which can shrink our gadgets ev
en more. The paper batteries could meet the energy demands of the next generatio
n gadgets. A paper battery is a flexible, ultra-thin energy storage and producti
on device formed by combining carbon nanotubes with a conventional sheet of cell
ulose-based paper. A paper battery acts as both a high-energy battery and super
capacitor, combining two components that are separate in traditional electronics
. This combination allows the battery to provide both longterm, steady power pro
duction and bursts of energy. Non-toxic, flexible paper batteries have the poten
tial to power the next generation of electronics, medical devices and hybrid veh
icles, allowing for radical new designs and medical technologies.
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Table of Contents Chapter Page no

1. Introduction to batteries4 1.1 Terminologies....5 1.2 Principle

nt developments.....9 1.5 Life of battery...10 1.6 Hazards...
king of paper battery......16 6. Advantages of paper battery.....17 7. L
pplications of paper battery...20 9. Conclusion....21
References22
2

List of Figures Figures Description

Figure 1aSymbolic View of the Battery Figure 1b...Conventional Bat

1.3a....Primary cell Figure 1.3b....Secondary cell Figure 1.4
Figure 3.....Carbon nanotubes Figure 4.....Fabrication Process Fig
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored c
hemical energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first battery
in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, batteries have become a common power source for man
y household and industrial applications. Batteries are represented symbolically
as
Fig. 1a: Symbolic view
Fig. 1b; conventional battery
Electrons flow from the negative terminal towards the positive terminal. Based o
n the rechargeable nature batteries are classified as a. Non rechargeable or pri
mary cells b. Rechargeable or secondary cells Based on the size they are classif
ied as a. Miniature batteries b. Industrial batteries Based on nature of electro
lyte a. Dry cell b. Wet cell
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1.1 Terminologies
1.1.1 Accumulator - A rechargeable battery or cell
1.1.2
Ampere-Hour Capacity - The number of ampere-hours which can be delivered
by a battery on a single discharge.
1.1.3
Anode - During discharge, the negative electrode of the cell is the anode.
During charge, that reverses and the positive electrode of the cell is the anode
. The anode gives up electrons to the load circuit and dissolves into the electr
olyte.
1.1.4
Battery Capacity - The electric output of a cell or battery on a service test
delivered before the cell reaches a specified final electrical condition and may
be expressed in ampere-hours, watt- hours, or similar units. The capacity in wa
tt-hours is equal to the capacity in ampere-hours multiplied by the battery volt
age.
1.1.5
Cutoff Voltage final - The prescribed lower-limit voltage at which battery
discharge is considered complete. The cutoff or final voltage is usually chosen
so that the maximum useful capacity of the battery is realized.
1.1.6
C - Used to signify a charge or discharge rate equal to the capacity of a batter
y
divided by 1 hour. Thus C for a 1600 mAh battery would be 1.6 A, C/5 for the sam
e battery would be 320 mA and C/10 would be 160 mA.
1.1.7
Capacity - The capacity of a battery is a measure of the amount of energy that i
t
can deliver in a single discharge. Battery capacity is normally listed as amp-ho
urs (or milli amp-hours) or as watt-hours.
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1.1.8
Cathode - Is an electrode that, in effect, oxidizes the anode or absorbs the
electrons. During discharge, the positive electrode of a voltaic cell is the cat
hode. When charging, that reverses and the negative electrode of the cell is the
cathode.
1.1.9
Cycle - One sequence of charge and discharge.
1.1.10
Cycle Life - For rechargeable batteries, the total number of charge/discharge
cycles the cell can sustain before its capacity is significantly reduced. End of
life is usually considered to be reached when the cell or battery delivers only
80% of rated ampere- hour capacity.
1.1.11
Electrochemical Couple - The system of active materials within a cell that
provides electrical energy storage through an electrochemical reaction.
1.1.12
Electrode - An electrical conductor through which an electric current enters or
leaves a conducting medium
1.1.13
Electrolyte - A chemical compound which, when fused or dissolved in certain
solvents, usually water, will conduct an electric current.
1.1.14
Internal Resistance - The resistance to the flow of an electric current within
the cell or battery.
1.1.15
Open-Circuit Voltage - The difference in potential between the terminals of a
cell when the circuit is open (i.e., a no-load condition). 6

1.1.16 point.)
Voltage, cutoff - Voltage at the end of useful discharge. (See Voltage, end1.1.17
Voltage, end-point - Cell voltage below which the connected equipment will
not operate or below which operation is not recommended.
1.2 Principal of Operation of cell
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energ
y. It consists of a number of voltaic cells. Each voltaic cell consists of two h
alf cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and
cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (n
egatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode. The othe
r half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively
charged ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox rea
ction that powers the battery, cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the
cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode. The ele
ctrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyt
e. Some cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. A separator betwee
n half cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.
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Fig. 1.2 principle operation

Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to
drive electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The volta
ge developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chem
ical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and carbon-zinc cells
have different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts. Likewis
e NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf
of 1.2 volts. On the other hand the high electrochemical potential changes in t
he reactions of lithium compounds give lithiumcells emf of 3 volts or more.
1.3 Types of batteries
Batteries are classified into two broad categories. Primary batteries irreversib
ly (within limits of practicality) transform chemical energy to electrical energ
y. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be readily r
estored to the battery by electrical means. Secondary batteries can be recharged
. That is, they can have their chemical reactions reversed by supplying electric
al energy to the cell, restoring their original composition. Primary batteries:
This can produce current immediately on assembly. Disposable batteries are inten
ded to be used once and discarded. These are most commonly used in portable devi
ces that have low current drain, are only used intermittently, or are used well
away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and communication circui
ts where other electric power is only intermittently available. Disposable prima
ry cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easi
ly reversible and active materials may not return to their original forms. Batte
ry manufacturers recommend against attempting
recharging primary cells. Common types of disposable batteries include zinc-carb
on
batteries and alkaline batteries. Secondary batteries: These batteries must be c
harged before use. They are usually assembled with active materials in the disch
arged state. Rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be recharged by apply
ing electric current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during it
s use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers or recharge
rs. 8

Fig. 1.3a Primary cell

Fig. 1.3b Secondary cell
1.4 Recent developments
Recent developments include batteries with embedded functionality such as USBCEL
L, with a built-in charger and USB connector within the AA format, enabling the
battery to be charged by plugging into a USB port without a charger USB Cell is
the brand of NiMH rechargeable battery produced by a company called Moixa Energy
. The batteries include a USB connector to allow recharging using a powered USB
port. The product range currently available is limited to a 1300 mAh.
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Fig. 1.4: USB cell

1.5 Life of battery
Even if never taken out of the original package, disposable (or "primary") batte
ries can lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge every year at a temperatu
re of about 2030C. [54] This is known as the "self-discharge" rate and is due to no
n-currentproducing "side" chemical reactions, which occur within the cell even i
f load is applied to it. The rate of the side reactions is reduced if the batter
ies are stored at low temperature, although some batteries can be Fig 1.5: Life
damaged by freezing. High or low temperatures may reduce battery performance. Th
is will affect the initial voltage of the battery. For an AA alkaline battery th
is initial voltage is approximately normally distributed around 1.6 volts. Recha
rgeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries
, especially nickel-based batteries a freshly charged NiCd loses 10% of its char
ge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a mon
th. Most nickelbased batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must
be charged before first use. no
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1.6 Hazards related to batteries 1.6.1 Explosion

A battery explosion is caused by the misuse or malfunction of a battery, such as
attempting to recharge a primary (non-rechargeable) battery, or short circuitin
g a battery.
1.6.2
Corrosion
Many battery chemicals are corrosive, poisonous, or both. If leakage occurs, eit
her spontaneously or through accident, the chemicals released may be dangerous
1.6.3
Environmental pollution
The widespread use of batteries has created many environmental concerns, such as
toxic metal pollution. Battery manufacture consumes resources and often involve
s hazardous chemicals. Used batteries also contribute to electronic waste. Ameri
cans purchase nearly three billion batteries annually, and about 179,000 tons of
those end up in landfills across the country.
1.6.4
Ingestion
Small button/disk batteries can be swallowed by young children. While in the dig
estive tract the battery's electrical discharge can burn the tissues and can be
serious enough to lead to death.
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Fig. 1.6: Electronic wast

CHAPTER 2 PAPER BATTERY
Energy has always been spotlighted. In the past few years a lot of inventions ha
ve been made in this particular field. The tiny nuclear batteries that can provi
de energy for 10 years, but they use radioactive elements and are quite expensiv
e. Few years back some researchers from Stanford University started experiments
concerning the ways in which a copier paper could be used as a battery source. A
fter a long way of struggle they, recently, concluded that the idea was right. T
he batteries made from a plain copier paper could make for the future energy sto
rage that is truly thin. The anatomy of paper battery is based on the use of Car
bon Nanotubes tiny cylinders to collect electric charge. The paper is dipped in
lithium containing solution. The nanotubes will act as electrodes allowing stora
ge device to conduct electricity. Its astounding to know that all 12

the components of a conventional battery are integrated in a single paper struct

ure; hence the complete mechanism for a battery is minimized to a size of paper.
One of the many reasons behind choosing the paper as a medium for battery is th
e well-designed structure of millions of interconnected fibers in it. These fibe
rs can hold on carbon nanotubes easily. Also a paper has the capability to bent
or curl. You can fold it in different shapes and forms plus it as light as feath
er. Output voltage is modest but it could be increased if we use a stack of pape
rs. Hence the voltage issues can be easily controlled without difficulty. Usage
of paper as a battery will ultimately lead to weight diminution of batteries man
y times as compared to traditional batteries. It is said that the paper battery
also has the capability of releasing the energy quickly. That makes it best util
ization for devices that needs burst of energy, mostly electric vehicles. Furthe
r, the medical uses are particularly attractive because they do not contain any
toxic materials.
Fig.2: Paper battery
CHAPTER 3 CARBON NANOTUBES
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are allotropes of carbon with a cylindrical nanostructur
e. Nanotubes have been constructed with length-to-diameter ratio of up to 132,00
0,000:1, significantly larger than any other material. These cylindrical carbon
molecules have novel properties, making them potentially useful in many applicat
ions in nanotechnology, electronics, optics, and other fields of materials scien
ce, as well as potential uses in architectural fields. They may also have applic
ations in the construction of body armor. They exhibit extraordinary strength an
d unique electrical properties, and are efficient thermal conductors.
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Their name is derived from their size, since the diameter of a nanotube is on th
e order of a few nanometers (approximately 1/50,000th of the width of a human ha
ir), while they can be up to 18 centimeters in length (as of 2010). Nanotubes ar
e categorized as single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled nanotubes (MWN
Ts). In theory, metallic nanotubes can carry an electric current density of 4 10
9 A/cm2 which is more than 1,000 times greater than metals such as copper, where
for copper interconnects current densities are limited by electro migration. In
paper batteries the nanotubes act as electrodes, allowing the storage devices t
o conduct electricity. The battery, which functions as both a lithium-ion batter
y and a super capacitor, can provide a long, steady power output comparable to a
conventional battery, as well as a super capacitors quick burst of high energy a
nd while a conventional battery contains a number of separate components, the pa
per battery integrates all of the battery components in a single structure, maki
ng it more energy efficient. Carbon nanotubes have been implemented in Nano elec
tromechnical systems, including mechanical memory elements(NRAM being developed
by Nantero Inc.)
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Fig 3: Carbon nanotubes

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CHAPTER 4 FABRICATION OF PAPER BATTERY

The materials required for the preparation of paper battery are a. Copier paper
b. Carbon nano ink c. Oven The steps involved in the preparation of the paper ba
ttery are as follows Step 1: The copier paper is taken. Step 2: carbon Nano ink
which is black in color is taken. Carbon nano ink is a solution of nano rods, su
rface adhesive agent and ionic salt solutions. Carbon nano ink is spread on one
side of the paper. Step 3: the paper is kept inside the oven at 150C temperature
. This evaporates the water content on the paper. The paper and the nano rods ge
t attached to each other. Step 4: place the multi meter on the sides of the pape
r and we can see voltage drop is generated.
Fig 4: Fabrication process
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After drying the paper becomes flexible, light weight in nature. The paper is sc
ratched and rolled to protect the nano rods on paper.
CHAPTER 5 WORKING OF PAPER BATTERY
The battery produces electricity in the same way as the conventional lithium-ion
batteries that power so many of today s gadgets, but all the components have be
en incorporated into a lightweight, flexible sheet of paper. The devices are for
med by combining cellulose with an infusion of aligned carbon nanotubes. The car
bon is what gives the batteries their black color. These tiny filaments act like
the electrodes found in a traditional battery, conducting electricity when the
paper comes into contact with an ionic liquid solution. Ionic liquids contain no
water, which means that there is nothing to freeze or evaporate in extreme envi
ronmental conditions. As a result, paper batteries can function between -75 and
1500C. The paper is made conducting material by dipping in ink. The paper works
as a conductive layer. Two sheets of paper kept facing inward act like parallel
plates (high energy electrodes). It can store energy like a super capacitor and
it can discharge bursts of energy because of large surface area of nano tubes.
Fig.5: Working of a Paper Battery Chlorine ions flow from the positive electrode
to the negative one, while electrons travel through the external circuit, provi
ding current. The paper electrode stores charge while 17

recharging in tens of seconds because ions flow through the thin electrode quick
ly. In contrast, lithium batteries take 20 minutes to recharge.
CHAPTER 6 ADVANTAGES
The flexible shape allows the paper battery to be used small or irregularly-shap
ed electronics: One of the unique features of the paper battery is that it can b
e bent to any such shape or design that the user might have in mind. The battery
can easily squeeze into tight crevasses and can be cut multiple times without r
uining the battery s life. For example if a battery is cut in half, each piece w
ill function, however, each piece will only contain 1/2 the amount of original p
ower. Conversely, placing two sheets of paper battery on top of oneanother will
double the power. The paper battery may replace conventional batteries completel
y: By layering sheets of this paper, the battery s voltage and current can be in
creased that many times. Since the main components of the paper battery are carb
on nanotubes and cellulose, the body structure of the battery is very thin, "pap
er-thin". Thus to maximize even more power, the sheets of battery paper can be s
tacked on top of one another to give off tremendous power. This can allow the ba
ttery to have a much higher amount of power for the same size of storage as a cu
rrent battery and also be environmentally friendly at the same times. Supply powe
r to an implanted pacemaker in the human body by using the electrolytes in human
blood: An improvement in the techniques used in the health field can be aided b
y the paper battery. Experiments have taken place showing that batteries can be
energized by the electrolyte emitted from one s own blood or body sweat. This ca
n conserve the usage of battery acid and rely on an environmental friendly mecha
nism of fueling battery cells with the help from our bodies.
18


The paper battery can be molded to take the shape of large objects, like a car d
oor:
As stated earlier, the key characteristics that make the paper battery very appe
aling are that it can be transformed into any shape or size, it can be cut multi
ple times without damaging it, and it can be fueled through various ways besides
the typical harmful battery acid that is used in the current day battery.
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CHAPTER 7 LIMITATIONS
Presently, the devices are only a few inches across and they have to be scaled u
p to sheets of newspaper size to make it commercially viable. Carbon nanotubes a
re very expensive, and batteries with large enough power are
unlikely to be cost effective. Cutting of trees leading to destroying of the nat
ure.
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CHAPTER 8 APPLICATIONS
Pace makers in heart (uses blood as electrolyte)

Used as alternate to conventional batteries in gadgets

21

Powered smart cards RF id tags

Smart toys, children sound books

E-cards, greetings, talking posters Girls/boys apparel

CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSION
We have discussed the various terminologies, principle of operation of a battery
and recent developments related to it. The life of a battery is an important pa
rameter which decides the area of application of the battery. Increased use of b
atteries gives rise to E-waste which poses great damage to our environment. In t
he year 2007 paper battery was manufactured. The technology is capable of replac
ing old bulky batteries. The paper batteries can further reduce the weight of th
e electronic gadgets. 22

The adaptations to the paper battery technique in the future could allow for sim
ply painting the nanotube ink and active materials onto surfaces such as walls.
These surfaces can produce energy.
REFERENCES

Thin, Flexible Secondary Li-Ion Paper Batteries Liangbing Hu, Hui Wu, Fabio La M
antia, Yuan Yang, and Yi Cui Department of Materials Science and Engineering, St
anford University, Stanford, California 94305.

David Linden Handbook of batteries

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