B io Factsheet

April 1998

Number 21

Support in Plants and Animals

Why is Support needed?

Fig 2. Collenchyma

Animals and plants require support in order to maintain their shape. Plants
must support their above-ground structures so that they can:

Thick cellulose
walls

1. maximise light absorption and therefore maximise the rate of

photosynthesis,
2. produce flowers and pollen, and
3. disperse seeds

Support via turgidity and

extra cellulose thickening

Similarly, animals require support to maintain their body shape so that

internal tissues and organs are not damaged. Often the supporting tissues
are arranged to form a hard skeleton against which muscles can act, allowing
movement to escape predators or to capture prey. Although plants do not
move from place to place, supporting tissues are involved in tropic and
nastic responses. In both plants and animals, supporting tissues provide
protection for delicate tissues and internal organs. In plant stems, for
example, the sclerenchyma fibres of the bundle cap protect phloem tissue.
In crustacea, the calcium carbonate carapace protects the body tissues and,
in mammals, the rib cage protects the heart and lungs and vertebrae protect
the spinal cord.

Similarly, collenchyma (Fig 2) consists of living cells, but with extra cellulose
thickening in the corners to provide flexible support to stems. The
collenchyma is situated in a peripheral cylinder towards the outer
circumference of the stem and leaf petiole and this allows both the stem
and the leaves to withstand the lateral force of the wind.
When greater tensile strength is needed, plant tissues may become lignified.
Tissues such as sclerenchyma (sclereids and fibres) are found in bundle
caps (stems) and as a central stele in dicot roots. When mature, sclerenchyma
cells are dead and lignin provides great strength. Sclereids may be scattered
or concentrated in, for example, the testa of seeds, whereas fibres are
arranged as concentric cylinders to provide mechanical support to stems
and to provide anchorage for roots. The cylindrical arrangement of flexible
and inflexible supporting tissues in dicot stems therefore represent a form
of endoskeleton (Fig 3).

Supporting tissues
All plants and animals derive some support from water. Most organisms
contain a high percentage of water, a high-density, incompressible liquid
which provides support wherever it occurs. This water may help to
support the entire body, as in the hydrostatic skeleton of the earthworm
or leech. Such organisms have a coelom - fluid filled cavity against which
longitudinal and circular muscles can act and which, therefore, also provide
a means of locomotion.

Fig 3. The distribution of supporting tissues in the stem

epidermis
(thinner)

In other cases the water may be used to support particular organs, eg. in
the aqueous and vitreous humour of the human eye.
All plants and animals possess cells or tissues which are in some way
specialised for support. Plants rely mainly on internal skeletons, whereas
in the animal kingdom, skeletons may be internal (endoskeletons) or
external (exoskeletons).

outer ring of
collenchyma
provides
flexible
strength

In plants, water provides support through turgidity and this is important

in parenchyma and collenchyma tissue. Parenchyma cells are living,
have thin cellulose cell walls and make up a large proportion of ground or
packing tissue in stems (Fig 1)

turgid parenchyma

sclerenchyma
distributed
around outer
circumference
to provide
mechanical
strength

Some protozoans possess endoskeletons which are usually composed of

silica or calcium carbonate but, in general, such internal skeletons are rarely
found in invertebrates. Endoskeletons are, however, the norm in all large
vertebrates. Here they are composed of bone and/or cartilage with connective
tissue supporting the tissues and internal organs. Like parenchyma and
collenchyma, bone is a living tissue that consists of cells (osteocytes)
surrounded by a crystalline matrix (see Fig 4 overleaf).

Fig 1. Parenchyma
Tightly packed cells,
with air spaces (cells
are living) and thin
cell walls = support
through turgidity

Exam hint - Questions are commonly set on individual tissues,

especially parenchyma and bone. Questions which ask candidates
to discuss support in plants and animals usually come up as synoptic
essays and their equivalent. For maximum marks candidates should:
(i) Focus on the principles - both have skeletons
(ii) Discuss a range of tissues
(iii) Include annotated sketches

Thin
cellulose
walls

Bio Factsheet

Support in Plants and Animals

Fig 4. Compact bone

Table 1. Supporting tissues in plants and animals

osteocyte

bone
matrix

Plants

canaliculi - allow
exchange of materials
between osteocyte and
blood vessels

The matrix of bone contains:

1. calcium phosphate which gives strength and
2. collagen which provides elasticity.
Just as in plants, it is essential that mammals provide flexible support and
the most important tissue in this respect is cartilage (Fig 5). Cartilage
tissue consists of cells (chondrocytes) which secrete a matrix but, unlike
the matrix of bone, this does not contain calcium phosphate and is therefore
more flexible.

Fig 5. Cartilage

matrix

layer of connective
tissue - perichondrium

Animals

Have a form of endoskeleton

May have endoskeleton,

exoskeleton or hydrostatic
skeleton

Water provides support through

turgidity eg. in parenchyma and
collenchyma

Water may provide support for

individual organs eg. eye or for
entire body eg. hydrostatic
skeleton of earthworm

Living tissues specially adapted

to provide support eg.
collenchyma contains extra
cellulose thickening in corners to
withstand lateral forces.
Cellulose found in all plants

Living tissues specially adapted

to provide support eg. bone
matrix contains calcium
phosphate to give strength and
collagen to provide elasticity.
Cellulose never occurs in animals

Supporting tissue may be used

for storage eg. parenchyma may
be used for starch storage

Supporting tissue may be used

for storage eg. bones may act as
store of calcium and phosphate

Supporting tissues may be

involved in growth movements

Supporting tissues often used as

hard structure upon which
muscles can act, allowing
locomotion

Supporting tissues provide

protection for delicate tissues
eg. sclerenchyma may protect
delicate phloem tissues

Supporting tissues such as ribs

protect heart and lungs. Insect
cuticle provides protection
against desiccation and predators

Practice Questions
1. The diagram shows the structure of compact bone

A
chondryte
B
Exoskeletons or outer skeletons are found in arthropods. The exoskeleton
of insects is made of chitin, a tough polysaccharide which may be
waterproofed in terrestrial arthropods with a coating of wax. The insect
exoskeleton contains movable joints between the segments of the cuticle.
Pairs of antagonistic muscles at each joint allow insects to move. However,
exoskeletons must be periodically shed for growth to occur, a period during
which the insect is extremely vulnerable both to desiccation and predators.
Whilst exoskeletons provide support, their weight effectively limits the
maximum size of such organisms.

(a) Name components:

(i) A
(ii) B

(1 mark)
(1 mark)

(b) How does the structure of compact bone differ from that of
cartilage?
(2 marks)

Answers
Marking points are shown by semicolons

Some of the most important similarities in the nature of supporting tissues

in plants and animals are summarised in Table 1.

1. (a) (i) Osteocyte;

(ii) Canaliculi;
(b) Compact bone composed of cells called osteocytes, cartilage of
cells called chondrocytes;
Compact bone contains deposits of calcium salts whereas
cartilage is not calcified;

Acknowledgements;

This Factsheet was researched and written by Jim Sharpe

Curriculum Press, Unit 305B, The Big Peg, 120 Vyse Street, Birmingham. B18 6NF
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