Chapter 6 and 7

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FactorialANOVA:MoreThanOne
IndependentVariable
LearningObjectives
Afterreadingthischapter,youshouldbeableto:
ContrastonewayANOVAwithfactorialANOVA.
Explainastatisticalinteraction.
Demonstratetheimpactonerrorofaddingindependentvariablestotheanalysis.
CalculatetheeffectsizeforthedifferentelementsofthefactorialANOVA.
Introduction
Inthedaytodayworldofbusiness,therearepreciousfewproblemsforwhichonefactorprovidesanadequate
explanation.AlthoughonewayANOVArepresentsanimportantadvancementinstatisticalanalysisfromthe
independentsamplesttest,boththosetestsimposeasubstantiallimitationbecauseneitherallowsformorethan
oneindependentvariableatatimetobeelementsoftheanalysis.Theonewayprocedureallowsanynumberof
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categories,buttheymustbethecategoriesofjustoneIV.Asvitalastheyaretounderstandingtheevolutionof
modernstatisticalanalysis,theindependentsamplesttestandtheonewayANOVAmakeiteasytooversimplify
complexproblems,focusingonthemostobviousvariableandignoringotherimportantfactorsthatmightalso
explainthedependentvariable.
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RepeatedMeasuresDesignsfor
IntervalData
LearningObjectives
Afterreadingthischapter,youshouldbeableto:
Explaintheadvantagesanddrawbacksofusingdatafromnonindependentgroups.
Completeapairedsamplesttest.
CompleteawithinsubjectsF.
Describe"power"asitrelatestostatisticaltesting.
Introduction
Someofthemostcriticalquestionsinmanagementrelatetochangeovertime.Forexample,managersaredeeply
interestedinassessingsalesgrowth,shiftsinshoppingtrends,improvementsinemployeeattitudes,increasesin
employeeperformance,anddecreasesinabsenteeismorturnover.Theyarealsooftenkeentofindoutthe
influenceofvariousmanagerialdecisionsandbusinessstrategiesontheseandmanyotherchangeoriented
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outcomes.However,noneoftheanalysescompletedtothispointaddressthesechangerelatedquestions,
becausetheseanalysesdonotaccommodaterepeatedmeasuresofthesamevariableswithinthesamegroupof
subjectsovertime.Forinstance,thettestsandANOVAsdiscussedsofarcomparedindependentgroups,groups
thathavecompletelyseparatesubjects.Eachsubjectwasonlymeasuredonceoneachvariableofinterest.The
samegroupofsubjectswasnotmeasuredrepeatedlyonthesamevariablestoassesschangeovertime.
AnotherimportantissueisthatindependentsamplesttestsandANOVAsassumethatthegroupsbeingcompared
areequivalentonmostaspectstobeginwith,exceptfortheindependent(groupingortreatment)variablebeing
investigated.Whengroupsarelargeandindividualsarerandomlyselected,thisisusuallyareasonable
assumption,becauseanydifferencesbetweengroupstendtoberelativelyunimportant.Thelogicbehindrandom
selectionisthatwhengroupsarerandomlydrawnfromthesamepopulationtheywilldifferonlybychancethe
largertherandomsample,thelowertheprobabilityofasubstantialpreexistingdifference.However,when
groupsarerelativelysmallitcanbedifficulttodeterminewhetheradifferenceinthemeasuresofthedependent
variableoccurredbecausetheindependentvariablehadadifferentimpactonthedifferentgroupsorbecause
thereweredifferencesbetweenthegroupstobeginwith.
ReviewQuestionA:Howdo
dependentgroupstestsmanage
theerrorvariancethatcomes
fromcomparingnonequivalent
groups?
Whenvariablesnotincludedintheanalysispromptdifferencesin
dependentvariablescores,theresultisinflatederrorvariance.
Reducingerrorvariancewasoneofthebenefitsofincludingmultiple
independentvariablesinfactorialANOVA.However,sometimesan
analystcannotknowallthepotentialvariablesthatcaninfluencethe
dependentvariable,oriftheyareknown,itisn'tfeasibletoinclude
theminthesameanalysis.Measuringthesamesubjectsrepeatedly
andcomparingtheirscoresovertime,especiallyafterintroducing
importanttreatmentsorinterventions,makesinitialequivalencelessofanissuefromastatisticalstandpoint.This
isbecauseitisthesamegroupofsubjectsbeingmeasuredrepeatedly.Alloftheirothercharacteristics,exceptfor
theindependentvariable(beingintroducedasatreatmentorintervention),arestillthesame,soinessencethey
areheldconstant,controlled,oraccountedfor.
Athirdissueisthatevenifcomparinggroupsisthegoal,manyofthequestionsmanagersareinterestedinrelate
togroupsthatarenotentirelyindependent.IndependentsamplesttestsandANOVAsassumethatthegroups
beingcomparedareindependent.Forexample,whileitwouldbeappropriatetouseanindependentsamplest
testtocompareholidayspendingdollaramountsofmaleandfemaleshoppers,itwouldbeinaccuratetousean
independentsamplesttestifthequestioniswhethermalesorfemaleswithinhouseholdsareresponsiblefor
moreholidayspending.Thisisbecauseinthatcasethemaleandfemalewithineachhouseholdare
interdependent.Theholidayspendingononepartnerinfluencesthatoftheother.
Insuchsituations,whetherdataarecollectedonthesamedependentvariablefromthesamesubjectsmorethan
once,orcollectedfromdifferentbutrelatedsubjects,thegoalistoaccountforthisinterdependenceandcontrol
errorvarianceduetoinitialbetweengroupsdifferences.Thisisoneoftheprimarypurposesofthedependent
groupsdesignsdiscussedinthischapter.
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7.1DependentGroupsDesigns
Dependentgroupsdesignsarestatisticalproceduresinwhichthegroupsarerelated.Therearethreetypesof
dependentgroupdesigns:
Intherepeatedmeasuresdesign,multiplemeasures
aretakenofthesamegroupofparticipants.For
example,anorganizationmayimplementanew
rewardssystemandmeasureemployeesatisfaction
beforeandafterthenewsystemisimplementedto
KeyTerms:Dependentgroupsdesignsreduce
errorvariancethatcomesfromusingnon
equivalentgroups.Thisallowstheimpactof
theindependentvariabletoemergemore
readily.
assessitseffectivenessinincreasingemployee
satisfaction.
Independentsamplesdesign,eachparticipantina
particulargroupisrelatedtoaparticipantintheothergroup(s)oncharacteristicsrelevanttotheanalysis.The
samehouseholdmaleandfemalepartners'holidayspendingexamplelendsitselftoadependentsamples
design.
Inthematchedpairsdesign,separategroupsareused,buteachindividualinonegroupismatchedwith
someoneintheothergroupswhohasthesameinitialcharacteristics,whichmakesthegroupsseparatebutnot
independent.Forexample,employeesfromtwodifferentbranchescanbematchedontheirlevelsofjob
satisfactionanddemographiccharacteristicssuchasage,gender,ethnicbackground,education,andpaygrade.
Ifarewardsystemisthenimplementedinoneofthebranches,anydifferencesinjobsatisfactionbetweenthe
twobranchesaftertheimplementationwillprobablynotbeduetothecharacteristicsonwhichthesubjects
werematched,sincetheyarethesameforsubjectsineachgroup.Thegroupsweremadeequivalentthrough
thematchingprocess.
Thedifferencesbetweenthethreedesignsaboveareconceptual,notmathematical,sincetheyareallcalculated
thesameway.Thethreeapproacheshavethesamestatisticalpurpose,tocontroltheerrorvariancethatcomes
fromusingnonequivalentgroups,whichshouldmoreaccuratelyreflecttheimpactoftheindependentvariable.
Managersshouldchoosethedesignthatbestfitsthequestionstheyareinterestedinansweringandthedata
sourcesthatareavailabletothem.
ReconsideringthetandFratios
RecallthatthetandFvaluesproducedintheindependentttestandtheonewayANOVAareratios.The
denominatorsinboththetandFratiosaremeasuresofhowmuchscoresvarywithinthegroupsinvolvedinthe
analysis.Ifaplantmanagercomparestheproductivityofdayandnightshiftworkersinanindependentttest,the
denominatorinthetratiomeasureshowmuchvariabilitythereisamongthedayshiftworkersplushowmuch
variabilitythereisamongthenightshiftworkers,
SEd =
Scorevariabilitywithinthetwogroupsincreasesthestandarderrorofthedifference.Thelargerthestandard
errorofthedifferencebecomes,thelargertheM1 M2 differenceinthenumeratormustbeforttobe
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statisticallysignificant.
Thepointofallofthisisthatthevalueoftintheindependentttestandit'sthesameforFinaonewayor
factorialANOVAisgreatlyaffectedbytheamountofvariabilitywithinthegroups.Substantialvariabilitywithin
thegroupstranslatesintodiminishedvaluesoftandF.Differenceswithingroupsreflectdifferencesintheway
individualsinthesamesamplesreacttoatreatment.Ifaservicemanagerinanautomobiledealershipoffers
bonusestoworkerstokeepthemfromleavingtoworkforcompetitors,therewillstillbedifferencesinhowlong
individualemployeesremainwiththedealershipbecausefactorsbesidesmoneyareinvolved.Thiswillparticularly
beaproblemwhenthegroupsthatareusedinthecomparisonarenotequivalenttobeginwith.
Thereareseveralapproachestocalculatingthetstatisticintwogroupdependentgroupstests.Whatevertheir
differences,theyalltakeintoaccountthefactthatthescoresfromthetwogroupsarerelatedormatchedon
somerelevantcharacteristic.Oneapproachistodealwiththerelationshipdirectlybycalculatingthecorrelation
betweenthetwosetsofscoresandthenusingthestrengthofthecorrelationvalueasamultiplierinthe
reductionoftheerrorvariancethehigherthecorrelationbetweenthetwosetsofscores,thegreaterthe
multipliereffectandthelowertheresultingerrorvariance.BecausecorrelationisnotdiscusseduntilChapter8,
wewilluseanalternativeapproachinvolvingwhatarecalled"differencescores."However,whetherthetvalue
wascalculatedwiththecorrelationvalueorthedifferencescores,theresultwillbethesame.
Liketheindependentsamplest,thedependentsamplestisbasedonthedistributionofdifferencescores.Recall
thatintheindependentsamplesttest,thedistributionofdifferencescoresindicatedhowmuchdifference
betweenapairofsamplemeans(M1 M2)couldbeexpectedtooccurbychanceifaninfinitenumberofpairsof
samplemeansweredrawnfromthesamepopulation.Inotherwords,thedistributionindicatesthepointat
whichthedifferencebetweenapairofmeansissogreatthatthesampleswereprobablydrawnfromdistinct
populations.
Thedependentgroupstestsarebasedonthissamedistribution.Thedifferenceisthatthenumeratorvalueinthe
teststatisticisthemeanofthedifferencesbetweeneachpairofscores,ratherthanthedifferencebetweenthe
meansoftheindependentsamples.Whenthemeanofthedifferencescoresvariesfromthemeanofthe
distributionofdifferences(which,recall,was0)byavalueaslargeasthecriticalvaluedeterminedbythedegrees
offreedomfortheproblem,thetvalueisstatisticallysignificant.Thedegreesoffreedomforapairedsamplest
testarethenumberofpairsofdata,minus1.
Thestandarderrorofthedifferenceintheindependentsamplesttest"pooled"thevariabilitywithinbothgroups
involvedintheanalysis
(
Forthedependentgroupstest,thedenominatoristhestandarderrorofthemeanforthedifferencebetween
eachpairofscores.Theteststatistichasthisform:
Formula7.1
t=Md/SEMd
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Where
Md =themeanofthedifferencescores
SEMd =thestandarderrorofthemeanforthedifferencescores
Thestepsforthetestareasfollows:
1. Withthescoresfromthebeforeandaftermeasureslistedintwocolumns,subtractthe"after"scorefromthe
"before"todeterminethedifferencescore,d,foreachpair.
2. Determinethemeanofthedscores,Md.
3. Calculatethestandarddeviationofthedvalues,Sd.
4. Calculatethestandarderrorofthemeanforthedifferencescores,SEMd'bydividingtheresultofstep3bythe
squarerootofthenumberofpairsofscores,
SEMd=
5. t=Md/SEMd.
AnExample
Ahomeimprovementchainintroducedanewtrainingprogramforitscustomerserviceassociates.Togaugethe
effectivenessofthetrainingprogram,associateswereaskedtotakethesamewrittenassessmentbeforeand
afterattendingthetraining.Thisisalsocommonlyreferredtoasabeforeandafter,orprepost,design.Thegoal
istoseeifthescoresoftheassociatesontheassessmentsignificantlyincreaseafterattendingthetraining.The
assessmentscoresofthecustomerserviceassociatesbeforeandaftertraining,aswellasthesolutiontothe
problem,areshowninFigure7.1.
Figure7.1:Calculatingthebefore/aftert
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Thecalculatedvalueoftexceedsthecriticalvaluefromthetable.Theresultisstatisticallysignificant.Thefact
thatitisnegativeinthisexampleindicatesthatthescoreswerehigherafterthetrainingthanbefore(becausewe
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subtractedtheaftertrainingfromthebeforetrainingscores),whichiswhatisexpectedifthetrainingiseffective.
Weknowthetrainingwaseffectivebecausethecustomerserviceassociates'scoresshowedasignificantincrease.
Recallthatwithttests,whenthequestionspecifiesthedirectionofthedifference(didscoresincreaseafterthe
training,asopposedtodidtheychange),thetestbecomesaonetailedtestandthecriticalvalueforonetailed
testsisused.
ThemeanofthedifferencescoresisjustMd =1.1.Itindicatesthatthereiscomparativelylittledifference
betweenthetwosetsofscores,andatfirstglanceitmightseemsurprisingthatsuchaminormeandifference
canproduceastatisticallysignificantresult.Theexplanationisintheamountoferrorvarianceinthisproblem.
Whentheerrorvarianceisalsoverysmallthestandarderrorofthedifferencescoresisjust.348comparatively
smallmeandifferencescanresultinastatisticallysignificanttvalue.
AMatchedPairsExample
Anotherformofthedependentgroupsttestisthe"matchedpairs"design.Inthisapproach,ratherthanmeasure
thesamepeoplerepeatedly,thoseinthesecondgroupofsubjectsareeachpairedwithsomeoneinthefirst
group.Thepairingisbasedonsomequalitythatwouldotherwisedifferbetweenthegroupsandincreaseerror
variance.
Amarketanalystwishestodeterminewhetheranewcommercialwillinduceconsumerstospendmoreona
particularproduct.Theanalystselectsagroupofconsumersenteringaretailestablishment,asksthemtoview
thecommercial,andthentrackstheirexpenditures.Asecondgroupofshoppersalsoisselected,buttheyarenot
askedtoviewthecommercial.Wishingtocontrolforageandgenderbecausethosecharacteristicsmightaffect
spendingfortheparticularproduct,theanalystselectspeopleforthesecondgroupwhomatchtheageand
gendercharacteristicsofthoseinthefirstgroupsothateachindividualfromgroup1ismatchedtosomeoneof
thesameageandgenderingroup2.Theexpendituresindollarsforthemembersofeachgroupandthesolution
totheproblemareinFigure7.2.
Figure7.2:Calculatingamatched
pairsttest
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Theabsolutevalueoftislessthanthecriticalvaluefromthetablefordf=9.Thedifferenceisnotstatistically
significant.Thereareprobablyseveralwaystoexplaintheoutcome,includingthefollowing:
Themostobviousexplanationisthatthecommercialdidnotwork.Theshopperswhoviewedthecommercial
werenotinducedtospendsignificantlymorethanthosewhodidnotviewit.
Samplesizemayalsohavebeenaproblem.Recallthatsmallsamplestendtobemorevariablethanlarger
samplesandwithingroupvariabilityiswhatthedenominatorinthetratioreflectsaswenotedearlier.Perhaps
ifthishadbeenalargersample,theSEMdwouldhavehadasmallervalueandthetwouldhavebeensignificant.
Asanalternativeexplanation,perhapsageandgenderarenotrelatedtohowmuchpeoplespendshoppingfor
theparticularproduct.Perhapstheshopper'slevelofincomeisthemostimportantcharacteristic.Shoppers
werenotmatchedonthatcharacteristic,whichmeansthatitwasleftuncontrolled.
Thelastexplanationpointsoutthedisadvantageofmatchedpairsdesignscomparedtorepeatedmeasures
designs.Thematchingmustneutralizethecharacteristic(s)mostlikelytocloudtherelationshipbetweenthe
treatmentthecommercialintheexamplejustaboveandthedependentvariable.Otherwiseitisimpossibleto
knowwhetheranonsignificantoutcomereflectsaninadequatematchoratreatmentthatdoesnotaffectthe
DV.
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ComparingtheDependentSamplestTesttotheIndependenttTest
Agoodwaytocomparethedependentsamplesttestwiththeindependentsamplestistoapplybothteststo
thesamedata.Wewilldothathere,butfirstawordofcaution.Thefactorthatshoulddictatethechoiceof
analyticalprocedureistheindependenceofthegroupsfromwhichthedataweregathered.Whenthegroupsare
independent,theindependentsamplesttestistherelevanttest.Whenthegroupsarenotindependent,the
procedurebasedonlackofindependencebetweengroupsisthecorrectchoice.Oncethedataaregathered,
thereisnosituationwherebothtestsmightbeappropriate.Eitherthegroupsareindependentortheyarenot.
Theproblembelowisanacademicexercisecompletedsothatthetwoprocedurescanbedirectlycontrasted.
AsatelliteTVcompanyprovidesamonthoffreeprogrammingasan
incentivetocustomerswhorefertheirfriendstothecompanyfor
service.Inanefforttoincreasesales,foraparticularperiodthe
ReviewQuestionB:Howisitthat
adependentgroupsttestcan
companyaddsafreemonthofapremiummoviechannelasabonus.
Thedependentvariableisthenumberofpeoplecustomersreferfor
haveasmallervalueoftthanan
independentsamplestandstillbe
service.Theindependentvariableiswhetherthemoviechannelbonus
wasoffered.
morelikelytobestatistically
significant?
Fortheindependentsamplesttest,thefirstgroupiscustomers
whowereofferedtheextrabonus.Thesecondgroupisthosewhowerenot.
Forthedependentgroupsttest,thosewhoreceivedtheextrabonuswerematchedwithanothercustomerin
thesameneighborhoodwhowasnotofferedtheadditionalincentive.
ThedataandthesolutionsforbothoftheseproceduresareinFigure7.3.
Figure7.3:Thedependentsamplestversusthe
independentsamplest
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Fortheindependentsamplesttest,thegroupsareunrelated,sotheerrorvarianceisbaseduponthedifferences
withinbothgroupsofscoresthatarecombined.TheresultisavalueofSEd thatislargeenoughthatthetvalue
isnotsignificant.Ontheotherhand,thereisverylittlevarianceinthedifferencescoresfromthematchedpairs
example.Thisresultsinacomparativelysmallstandarddeviationofdifferencescore,asmallstandarderrorofthe
mean,andastatisticallysignificantvalueoft.
ThePoweroftheDependentGroupsTest
InTable4.1,criticalvaluesoftdeclineasdegreesoffreedomincrease.Thatisthepatternforallofthe
procedureswehaveused,anditwillholdforthoseyettocome.Recallthatthedegreesoffreedomina
dependentsamplesttestarethenumberofpairsofscores1.
Incomparison,inanindependentsamplesttest,thedegreesoffreedomarethetotalnumberofscores2.Thus,
independentsamplesttestswilltendtohavemoredegreesoffreedomandthereforealowercriticalvalue,as
youcanseeinthesatelliteTVexampleabove(t.05(18) =2.101;t.05(9) =2.262).
However,inthepairedsamplesttest,thereismorecontroloferrorvariance.Theadvantagegainedwiththe
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dependentgroupstestisthatwheneachpairofscorescomesfromthesameparticipant,orfromamatchedpair
ofparticipants,thescorestendtovarysimilarly,whichreduceserrorvariance.ThesmallSEMd valueinthe
denominatorwillmakethetvaluelarger,whichwillusuallymorethancompensateforthelargercriticalvalue
connectedtodependentgroupstests.Toillustrate,inthesatelliteTVexampleabove,althoughthenumeratorsof
thetratioshappenedtobeequalfortheindependentsamplesandpairedsamplestvalues(M1 M2 andMd are
both.650),thedenominatorfortheindependentsamplest,SEd,ismorethantwiceaslargeasthedenominator
forthepairedsamplest,SEMd (.533versus.211).
AsmentionedinChapter3,instatisticaltesting,powerisdefinedasthelikelihoodofdetectingasignificant
differencewhenitispresent.Themorepowerfulastatisticaltestis,themorereadilyitwilldetectasignificant
difference.Aslongasthesetsofscoresarecloselyrelatedsothaterrorvarianceisreduced,dependentgroups
teststendtobemorepowerfulthantheirindependentgroupsequivalents.
TheDependentGroupstTestonExcel
IftheprobleminFigure7.3iscompletedinExcelasadependentgroupstest,theprocedureisasfollows:
FirstcreatethedatafileinExcel.
ColumnAislabeledBonustoindicatethosewhoreceivedthemoviechannelbonus,andcolumnBis
labeledNoBonus.
EnterthedatabeginningwithcellA2andthendownforthefirstgroupandfromcellB2downforthe
secondgroup.
ClicktheDatatabatthetopofthepage.
Attheextremeright,chooseDataAnalysis.
IntheAnalysisToolswindowselectttest:PairedTwoSampleforMeansandclickOK.
TherearetwoblanksnearthetopofthewindowforVariable1RangeandVariable2Range.Inthefirstenter
A2:A11indicatingthatthedataforthefirst(Class)groupareincellsA2toA11.InthesecondenterB2:B11for
theNoBonusgroup.
Indicatethatthehypothesizedmeandifferenceis0,whichisthemeanofthedistributionofdifferencescores.
IndicateD1fortheoutputrangesothatthesolutiondoesnotoverwritethedatascores.
ClickOK.
Theresultisshowninthevideo(Figure7.4).
Figure7.4:TheDependentGroupstTestonExcel*
*Toseethistutorialwithoutvideo,pleasedownloadthePDFversionofthischapter.
IntheExcelsolution,t=3.074ratherthanthe3.081fromthelonghandsolution.TheExcelapproachisto
calculatethecorrelationbetweenthetwosetsofscores,andthentousethatvaluetocalculatethestandard
errorofthedifference.NotethatthePearsoncorrelation,whichiscoveredinChapter8,isindicatedtobe
.909344.Itisquiteahighcorrelation,whichallowsthestandarderrorofthedifferencetobecorrespondingly
smaller.
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Inourapproach,thecorrelationbetweenthescoresisimplicitinthefairlyconsistentdvaluesfrompersonto
person.Inanyevent,theveryminordifferenceof.007betweentheExcelsolutioninFigure7.4andthelonghand
calculationdoesnotaltertheoutcome.TheExceloutputalsoindicatesresultsforoneandtwotailedtests.Atp
=.05,theoutcomeisstatisticallysignificantineithercase.
TheAlternateApproachestoDependenttTests
Therepeatedmeasuresandthematchedpairsapproachestocalculatingadependentgroupsttesteachhave
theiradvantages.Therepeatedmeasuresdesignprovidesthegreatestcontroloverextraneousvariablesthatcan
confoundresultswhentherearedifferentsubjectsineachgroup.Ascarefulasananalystmightbeinmatching,
thechanceremainsthatsomeothercharacteristicthataffectsthedependentvariablewillbemoreprevalentin
onegroupthanintheother,anderrorvarianceinflatedasaresult.
Notethatthematchedpairsapproachalsoassumesalargesamplefromwhichtodrawparticipantsforthe
secondgroupwhomatchthoseinthefirstgroup.Asthenumberofvariablesonwhichparticipantsmustbe
matchedincreases,somustthesizeofthesamplefromwhichtodrawinordertofindparticipantswiththe
correctcombinationofcharacteristics.
Theadvantageofthematchedpairsdesign,ontheotherhand,isthatoncethegroupsareformedittakesless
timetoexecute.Thetreatmentgroupandthecontrolgroupcanbeinvolvedsimultaneously.Figure7.5
summarizesthecomparisonamongindependentsamples,repeatedmeasures,andmatchedpairsttests.
Figure7.5:Comparingthettests
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7.2TheWithinSubjectsF
Sometimestwomeasuresofthesamegrouparenot
enoughtotrackchangesintheDV.Maybetheanalystsin
thesatelliteTVexamplewishtocomparetheeffectof
offeringseveralkindsofbonusesoveralengthierperiodto
determinewhichprovidesthebestresponse.Thewithin
subjectsFisadependentgroupsprocedurefortwoor
KeyTerm:ThewithinsubjectsFisthe
dependentgroupsequivalenttotheoneway
ANOVA.Ittypicallyemploysonegroup
measuredrepeatedlyovertime.
moregroupswhenthedependentvariableisintervalorratioscale.Justasthedependentgroupsttestisthe
repeatedmeasuresequivalentoftheindependentttest,thewithinsubjectsFistherepeatedmeasuresor
matchedpairsequivalentoftheonewayANOVA.Fisher,whodevelopedanalysisofvariance,alsodevelopedthe
withinsubjectstest,whichiswhytheteststatisticisstillF.
Althoughthedependentgroupscanbeformedbyeitherrepeatedlymeasuringthesamegrouporbymatching
participantsfromeachgroup,whentherearemorethantwogroups,matchingbecomesuntenable.While
theoreticallypossibletomatchparticipantsinanynumberofgroups,itbecomesincreasinglydifficulttomatch
participantsformorethantwoorthreegroups.Multiplemeasuresofthesamegrouparefarmorecommon.
ManagingErrorVarianceintheWithinSubjectsF
RecallfromChapter5thatthevariabilitymeasureinANOVAisthesumsofsquares,SS.IntheonewayANOVA,
therewereSSvaluesfortotalvariability(SStot),betweengroupsvariability(SSbet),andwithingroupsvariability
(SSwith).Althoughtheterminologychangesandtherearesomeconceptualdifferencesbetweentheoneway
ANOVAandawithinsubjectsF,theprocedureshaveagreatdealincommon.
Ifagroupofparticipantsinastudyismeasuredonadependentvariableatthreedifferentintervalsandtheir
scoresrecordedinparallelcolumns,thedatasheetmightbeasfollows:
1stmeasure
2ndmeasure
3rdmeasure
Participant1
Participant2
Thescoresineachcolumnaresimilartowhattheindependentgroups'scoreswereinaonewayANOVA.
DifferencesfromcolumntocolumnprimarilyindicatetheeffectthedifferentlevelsoftheIVhaveonthesubjects'
DVscores.Withinanyparticularcolumnthedifferencesfromrowtorowarethedifferencesfromsubjectto
subjectthatwerethewithingroupdifferences(SSwith)intheonewayANOVA.Thosedifferencesarealsoerror
varianceinthewithinsubjectsANOVA,butthewithinsubjectsFapproachistocalculatetherowtorow
variabilityandtheneliminateitfromtheanalysis.Itmakessensetodothisbecauseeachgroupinvolvesthesame
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people,andthissourceoferrorvarianceshouldbethesameforeachgroup.
Evenaftereliminatingpersontopersondifferences,however,factorsnotincludedintheanalysisstillcontribute
toerrorvariance.Thosesourcesoferrorarereflectedintheresidualvarianceandremain,buttherow
differencestendtorepresentasubstantialpartoftheoverallerrorvariance.Eliminatingittypicallyresultsina
morepowerfulFtest.
Inthedependentsamplesttestthewithinsubjectsvariancewasmanagedbyrelyingonthestandarddeviationof
thedifferencescores,orbyreducingthedenominatorinthetratioaccordingtohowhighlycorrelatedthetwo
setsofmeasureswere(theExcelapproach).
InthewithinsubjectsFthevariabilityduetopersontopersondifferencesiscalculatedandthensimplydiscarded
sothatitisnolongerapartoftheanalysis.ThatwasnotpossibleintheonewayANOVAbecausewithdifferent
subjectsineachgrouptherewasnowaytoseparatepersontopersondifferencesfromothersourcesoferror
varianceintheproblem.
AWithinSubjectsFExample
Theproductiondepartmentwouldliketotrackproductivitychangesovertimeinanelectronicscomponents
assemblyfacility.Fivenewlyhiredworkersareselectedforthestudy.Thenumberofcomponentseachemployee
averagesperhourismeasuredatthreedifferenttimes:oneweek,onemonth,andtwomonthsafterhire.The
questioniswhetherthereisarelationshipbetweenthelengthofemploymentandnumberofsuccessfully
assembledcomponents.Thedataforthefiveemployeesareasfollows:
AverageNumberofComponentsAssembledperHour
1week
1month
2months
Diego
John
Ann
Carol
Dan
Theindependentvariable(IV,ortreatmentvariable)isthetimeemployed.
Thedependentvariable(DV)istheaveragenumberofcomponentsassembledperhour.
Theissueiswhethertherearesignificantdifferencesinthemeasuresfromcolumntocolumndifferencesover
time.
ThedifferencesovertimeareequivalenttotheSSbet intheonewayANOVA.Forthisprocedure,thatsourceof
varianceiscalledthesumofsquaresbetweencolumns,SScol.
CalculatingtheWithinSubjectsF
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AswiththeonewayANOVA,webeginbydeterminingallvariabilityfromallsources,SStot.Itiscalculatedthe
samewayasbefore:
1. Thesumofsquarestotal.
a. Subtracteachscorefromthemeanofallthescoresfromallthegroups.
b. Squarethedifference.
c. Thensumthesquareddifferences.
2. Thesumofsquaresbetweencolumns(SScol),issimilartotheSSbetintheonewayANOVA.Forcolumns1,2
through"k,"theformulais:
Formula
7.2
SScol =(McolMG)2ncol1 +(Mcol2 MG)2ncol2 +...+

(Mcolk MG)2ncolk
a. Calculatethemeanforeachcolumnofscores.
b. Subtractthemeanforallthedata(MG)fromeachcolumnmean.
c. Squaretheresult.
d. Multiplythesquaredvaluebythenumberofscoresinthecolumn.
3. Thesumofsquaresbetweenrows.
Herethescoresforeachrowaretreatedasaseparategroup.
Forrows1,2through"i":
Formula
7.3
SSrows =(Mr1 MG)2nr1 +(Mr2 MG)2nr2 +...(Mri

MG)2nri
a. Calculatethemeanforeachrowofscores.
b. Subtractthemeanforallthedatafromeachrowmean.
c. Squaretheresult.
d. Multiplythesquaredvaluebythenumberofscoresintherow.
4. TheresidualsumofsquaresistheerrorterminthewithinsubjectsFandisusedthesamewaythatSSwithwas
usedintheonewayANOVA.Itisdeterminedbysubtractionasfollows:
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Formula7.4
SSresid =SStot SScol SSrows
a. Takethevariancefromallsources,SStot.
b. SubtractthevariabilityduetotheIV,whichisSScol.
c. Thensubtractthepersontopersondifferences,SSrows,toproducetheSSresid.
UnderstandingtheResult
TheANOVAtableiscompletedwiththefollowingdegreesoffreedomvalues:
dftotal=N1
dfcolumns=numberofcolumns1
dfrows=numberofrows1
dfresidual=dfcolumnstimesdfrows
LikeallANOVAproblems,themeansquarevaluesarecalculatedbydividingthesumsofsquaresbytheirdegrees
offreedom.TheonlyMSvaluesrequiredaretheMScol,whichincludesthetreatmenteffect,andtheMSresid,
whichistheerrorterm.TheMSisnotnecessaryforthetotalortherows.Theratiooftreatmenteffectto
residualerrorisF:
Formula7.5
Figure7.6showsthecalculationsandthetableforthe"averagecomponentsassembledperhour"problem.
Figure7.6:AwithinsubjectsFexample
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ThecalculatedvalueofFexceedsthecriticalvalueofFfromthetable.Thelengthofemploymentissignificantly
relatedtothenumberofcomponentsassembledperhour.
ThePostHocTest
Ordinarily,thecalculationofFleavesunansweredthequestionofwhichsetofmeasuresissignificantlydifferent
fromwhich.Inthisparticularproblem,however,thereisonlyonepossibility.Sincethetwolatergroupsof
measureshavethesamemean(M=6.20),theymustbothbesignificantlydifferentfromtheonlyothergroupof
measuresintheproblem,theoneweekonthejobcolumnforwhichM=3.6.Asademonstration,Tukey'sHSDis
completedanyway.TheHSDerrortermisnowMSresid.SubstitutingMSresid forMSwith intheformulaprovides:
Formula7.6
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Where
xisatablevalue(Table5.4)basedonthenumberofmeans,whichisthesameasthenumberof
setsofmeasures,3;thedfforMSresid are8
n=thenumberofscoresforanyonemeasure,5inthisexample
Forthenumberofproductscomponentsperhourstudy,
adifferencebetweenanypairofmeans1.190,orgreater,isstatisticallysignificant.
UsingamatrixindicatingthedifferencebetweeneachpairofmeansmakesiteasiertointerprettheHSDvalue.
1week(3.6)
1week(3.6)
1month(6.2)
diff=2.6*
1month(6.2)
2months(6.2)
diff=2.6*
diff=0
2months
Theoneweekmeasuresofproductivityaresignificantlydifferentfromeitheroftheothertwo,andofcourse
sincethemeanvaluesoftheoneandtwomonthmeasuresarethesame,neitherofthelasttwomeasuresis
significantlydifferentfromtheother.Thelargestincreaseinproductivitycomesbetweenthefirstweekandthe
firstmonthofemployment.
CalculatingtheEffectSize
TheotherquestionwhenFissignificantisregardingthepracticalimportanceoftheresult.Etasquaredisperhaps
theeasiestmeasureofeffectsizetocalculate.Itisadjustedfromtheindependentgroupstestapplicationby
substitutingSScol forwhatwasSSbet intheearlierapplication,whichgivesitthisform:
Formula7.7
Fortheproblemjustcompleted,2 =22.533/49.333=.457.Aboutindicatesthatabout46%ofthevariancein
productivitycanbeexplainedbyhowlongemployeeshavebeenonthejob.
ComparingtheWithinSubjectsFandtheOneWayANOVA
IntheonewayANOVA,withingroupvarianceisdifferentforeachgroupbecauseeachgroupismadeupof
differentparticipants.Thatmeansthatthewithingroupvarianceisdifferentforeachgroup,andbecausethat
variancecannotbedistinguishedfromthebalanceoftheerrorvariance,itremainsintheanalysis.Eliminating
withingroupvariancefromtheerrortermallowsrelativelysmalldifferencesbetweengroupstobestatistically
significant.
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ReviewQuestionC:Whatisthe
equivalentintheonewayANOVA
ofthebetweencolumnsvariability
inthewithinsubjectsF?
ThisisillustratedbyapplyingonewayANOVAtothewithinsubjectsF
testjustcompleted.Aswiththettestcomparisonearlier,thisisfor
illustrationpurposesonly.Groupsareeitherindependentor
dependent,andthatshouldbethedeterminingcriterionfortest
selection.
TheSStot andtheSSbet willbethesameastheSStot andtheSScol wereinthewithinsubjectsproblem.

SStot =49.333
SSbet =22.533
SSwith =(xa Ma)2 +(xb Mb)2 +(xc Mc)2 (Formula6.3)
=(23.60)2 +(43.60)2 +...+(96.20)2 =26.80
Becauseparticipanttoparticipantdifferencescannotbeseparatedfromthebalanceoftheerrorvariance,the
SSwith inaonewayANOVAisthesameasSSrows +SSresid inthewithinsubjectsF.WiththeSSrows addedbackin
totheerrorterm,noteinFigure7.7thechangethatmakestotheANOVAtable,andtoFinparticular.
Figure7.7:ThewithinsubjectsFexamplerepeatedasa
onewayANOVA
Thedegreesoffreedomfor"within"changeto12fromthe8forresidualwhichresultsinasmallercriticalvalue
fortheindependentgroupstest,butthatadjustmentdoesnotcompensatefortheadditionalvarianceinthe
errorterm.
Notethatthesumofsquaresforwithinbecomes26.800comparedto3.475inthewithinsubjectstest.
Becauseofthelargererrorterm,theFvalueisreducedfrom25.961inthewithinproblemto5.046intheone
wayproblem,afactorofabout1/5th.
Thecalculationsillustratethegainsinstatisticalpowerfromdependentgroupsdesigns.
AnotherWithinSubjectsFExample
Ahumanresourcesspecialististaskedwithexaminingwhetheremployeeswhohavebeenwiththeorganization
fordifferentperiodshavedifferentpatternsofsickleave.Examiningtherecords,theHRspecialistdeterminesthe
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numberofsickdaystakenbyemployeesduringtheirfirst,second,third,andfourthyearsofemployment.The
dataandthesolutionareshowninFigure7.8.
Figure7.8:Numberofsickdaysduringthefirst,second,third,andfourthyearsof
employment
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Theresults(F)indicatethatthenumberofsickdaystakendepends,tosomedegree,onthelengthof
employment.Theposthoctestindicatesthatthoseintheirfirstyearofemploymenttakeasignificantlygreater
numberofsickdays(thenewestemployeeshadthehighestmeannumberofsickdays)thanthoseintheir
secondorthirdyearofemployment.Thosewhohavebeenemployedforthreeyearshavesignificantlyfewersick
daysthanthoseemployedforfouryears.Theetasquaredvalueindicatesthatabout37%ofthevariancein
numberofsickdaystakenisafunctionofthelengthofemployment.
AWithinSubjectsFinExcel
DependentgroupsANOVAisnotoneoftheoptionsExceloffersinthelistofDataAnalysisTools.However,like
anydataanalysistaskinvolvinganumberofrepetitivecalculations,anybusinessspreadsheetcanbeagreathelp.
ThelastproblemwillbecompletedinExcelasanexample.
1. BeginbysettingthedataupinfourcolumnsjustastheyareinFigure7.8,butinsertablankcolumntotheright
ofeachdatacolumn.Witharowatthetopforthelabels,dataforthefirstyearbeginincellA2.ColumnBwillbe
blank.ThedataforthesecondyearwillbeincolumnC,andsoon.
2. Calculatetherowandcolumnmeansaswellasagrandmeanasfollows:
a. Forthecolumnmeans,placethecursorincellA7justbeneaththelastvalueinthefirstcolumnandenter
theformula=average(A2:A6)followedbyEnter.
Torepeatthisfortheothercolumns,leftclickonthesolutionthatisnowinA7,dragthe
cursoracrosstoG7,andreleasethemousebutton.IntheHometabclickFillandthen
Right.Thiswillrepeatthecolumnmeanscalculationsfortheothercolumns.Deletethe
entriesthismakestocellsB7,D7,andF7sincetherearen'tyetanydatainthose
columns.
b. Fortherowmeans,placethecursorincellI2andentertheformula=average(A2,C2,E2,G2)followedby
Enter.
Torepeatthisfortheothercolumns,leftclickonthesolutionthatisnowinI2,dragthe
cursordowntoI6,andreleasethemousebutton.IntheHometabclickFillandthen
Down."Thiswillrepeatthecalculationofmeansfortheotherrows.
c. Forthegrandmean,placethecursorincellI7andentertheformula=average(I2:I6)followedbyEnter(the
meanoftherowmeanswillbethesameasthegrandmeanthesamecouldhavebeendonewiththe
columnmeans).NotethatMG=2.75.
3. TodeterminetheSStot:
a. IncellB2entertheformula=(A22.75)^2andpressEnter.Thiswillsquarethedifferencebetweenthevalue
inA2andthegrandmean.
Torepeatthisfortheotherdatainthecolumn,leftclickthecursorincellB2anddrag
downtocellB6.ClickFillandDown.WiththecursorincellB7,clickthesummationsign
()attheupperrightofthescreenandhitEnter.RepeatthesestepsforcolumnsC,E,
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andG.
b. WiththecursorinH9typeinSStot=andclickEnter.IncellI9entertheformula=Sum(B7,D7,F7,H7)and
pressEnter.Thevaluewillbe31.75,whichisthevalueofSStot.
4. FortheSScol:
a. IncellA8entertheformula=(3.62.75)^2*5andpressEnter.Thiswillsquarethedifferencebetweenthe
columnmeanandthegrandmeanandmultiplytheresultbythenumberofmeasuresinthecolumn,5.
IncellsC8,E8,andG8,repeatthisforeachoftheothercolumns,substitutingthemean
fortheeachcolumnforthe3.60thatwasthecolumn1mean.
b. WiththecursorinH10typeinSScol=andclickEnter.IncellI10entertheformula=Sum(A8,C8,E8,G8)and
pressEnter.Thevaluewillbe11.75,whichisthesumofsquaresforthecolumns.
5. FortheSSrows:
a. IncellJ2entertheformula=(I22.75)^2*4andpressEnter.RepeatthisinrowsJ3J6byleftclickingon
whatisnowJ2anddraggingthecursordowntocellJ6.ClickFillandDown.
b. WiththecursorinH11typeinSSrow=andclickEnter.IncellI11entertheformula=Sum(J2:J6)andpress
Enter.Thevaluewillbe15.0,whichisthesumofsquaresfortheparticipants.
6. FortheSSresid,incellH12enterSSresid=andclickEnter.IncellI12entertheformula=I10I11I12.Theresulting
valuewillbe5.0.
HavingusedExceltodetermineallthesumsofsquaresvalues,themeansquaresaredeterminedbydividingthe
sumsofsquareforcolumnsandresidualbytheirdegreesoffreedom:
MScol =11.75/3=3.917
MSresid =5/12=.417
F=MScol/MSresid =3.917/.417=9.393,whichagreeswiththeearliercalculationsdoneby
hand.
TocreatetheANOVAtable:
BeginningincellA10,typeinSource,inB10SS,dfinC10,MSinD10,FinE10,andFcritinF10.
BeginningincellA11andworkingdowntypeintotal,columns,rows,residual.
Forthesumofsquaresvalues:
IncellB11enter=I9.
IncellB12enter=I10.
IncellB13enter=I11.
IncellB14enter=I12.
Forthedegreesoffreedom:
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IncellC11enter19fortotaldegreesoffreedom.
IncellC12enter3forcolumnsdegreesoffreedom.
IncellC13enter4forrowsdegreesoffreedom.
IncellC14enter12forresidualdegreesoffreedom.
Forthemeansquares:
incellD12enter=B12/C12.TheresultisMScol.
incellD14enter=B14/C14.TheresultisMSresid.
FortheFvalueincellE12enter=D12/D14.
IncellF12enterthecriticalvalueofFfor3and12degreesoffreedom,whichis3.49.
Thelistofcommandslooksintimidating,butmostlybecauseeverykeystrokehasbeenincluded.Withsome
practice,mostofwhat'sbeendoneherewillbecomesecondnature.TheresultisshowninthevideoinFigure
7.9.
Figure7.9:AWithinSubjectsFinExcel*
*Toseethistutorialwithoutvideo,pleasedownloadthePDFversionofthischapter.
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ChapterSummary
Inanyanalysisinvolvinggroupsofsubjects,individualswithinthesamegroupmaystillrespondtothesame
stimulusdifferently.Thosedifferencesconstituteerrorvariance,whichiscompoundedinindependentgroups
testswheretheindividualsaredifferentforeachgroup.Nomatterhowcarefullyaresearcherrandomlyselects
thegroupstobeusedinastudy,peopleinthesamegrouparegoingtoresponddifferentlytowhateveris
measured.Thebefore/afterorpairedsamplestandthewithinsubjectsFtestseliminatethatsourceoferror
variancebyeitherusingthesamepeoplerepeatedlyormatchingsubjectsonthemostimportantcharacteristics
(Objective1).Controllingerrorvarianceinthisfashionresultsinwhatisordinarilyamorepowerfultest(Objective
4).
Usingthesamegrouprepeatedlyrequiresfewerparticipantsfordependentgroupsdesigns,butbecausethesame
groupsareusedrepeatedly,completinganalyseswithmultiplemeasuresrequiresmoretime.Onewaytorespond
tothetimerequirementistomatchsubjectssothatthedifferentlevelsoftheindependentvariablecanbe
administeredconcurrently.However,findingmatchingsubjectsonalloftherelevantcharacteristicscreatesits
owndifficulty.Usingthesamegroupmultipletimeseliminatesthatdifficulty(Objective1).
Havingnotedsomeofthedifferencesbetweendependentgroupsdesignsandtheirindependentgroups
equivalents,itisimportanttonotetheirconsistenciesaswell.Independentsamplesttests,pairedsamplesttests,
onewayANOVA,andwithinsubjectsFallhaveacategoricalindependentvariable(nominalscale)anda
continuousdependentvariable(intervalorratioscale).Liketheztest,thettestsandANOVAstestforsignificant
differencesbetweenmeans(Objectives1,2,and3).
AnswerstoReviewQuestions
A. Thedependentgroupsdesignsmanagethenonequivalenceofgroupsbyeitherusingthesamegroup
repeatedlyormatchingsubjectsinmultiplegroupsonthemostrelevantcharacteristics.
B. Thekeytothedependentgroupstest'spowerisinthemagnitudeoftheerrorterm.Smallercalculatedvaluesof
tmaystillbesignificantbecausetheerrortermthedenominatorinthetratioisrelativelysmall.Theerroris
controlledbyusingthesamegrouprepeatedlyorbymatchingsubjects.
C. TheSSbet(thesumofsquaresbetweengroups)intheonewayANOVAgaugesthesamevariancethattheSScol
(betweencolumns)measuresinthewithinsubjectsF.
ChapterFormulas
Formula
7.1
t=Md/SEmd
Thisistheformulaforeitherthepairedsamples,ormatchedpairsttest.The
numeratoristhemeanofthedifferencesbetweenthefirstandsecondscore,
andthedenominatoristhestandarderrorofthemeanforthedifference
scores.
Formula
7.2
SScol =(Mcol1 MG)2ncol1 +(Mcol2 MG)2ncol2 +...+(Mcolk

MG)2ncolk
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Thisistheformulafordeterminingthesumofsquaresbetweencolumnsfora
withinsubjectsF.Itindicatesthetreatmenteffect.
Formula
7.3
SSrows =(Mr1 MG)2nr1 +(Mr2 MG)2nr2 +...(Mri MG)2nri
Thisformuladeterminesthepersontopersonvariancewithinagroup.Itisa
sourceoferrorvariance,andsinceitiscommontoeachgroupinarepeated
measuresdesign,itiscalculatedtoeliminateitfromwhatwillbethe
denominatorintheFratio.
Formula
7.4
SSresid =SStot SScol SSrows
TheerrorterminthewithinsubjectsFisdeterminedbysubtractingthe
columntocolumn(treatments)andtherowtorow(participants)differences
fromallvariance.Whateverisleft,SSresid,whendividedbyitsdegreesof
freedom,becomestheerrortermintheFratio.
Formula
7.5
TheFstatisticindependentgroupsANOVA.
Formula
7.6
Tukey'sposthocHSDtestindependentgroupsANOVA.
Formula
7.7
Etasquaredasanestimateofeffectsize,adaptedfordependentgroups
ANOVA.
ManagementApplicationExercises
Unlessotherwisestated,usep=.05inallyouranswers.
1. Adentalofficewantstogaugepatients'reactiontoanewcleaningprocedure.Eightpatientsareaskedabout
theirlevelofanxietybeforeandafterreceivingthenewprocedure.
Before
After
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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8.
a. Whatisthestandarddeviationofthedifferencescores?
b. Whatisthestandarderrorofthemeanforthedifferencescores?
c. Whatisthecalculatedvalueoft?
d. Arethedifferencesstatisticallysignificant?
e. Whatwastheimpactofthenewprocedure?Shouldthedentalofficecontinuetouseit?
2. Acourierserviceinalargecitytracksthenumberofdeliveriesitisaskedtomakeby10clientsbeforeandafter
itoffersaprogressivediscountforrepeatbusinesstoassesstheeffectsofthediscount.
Before
After
1.
10
2.
20
20
3.
10
4.
25
50
5.
6.
50
75
7.
10
20
8.
20
9.
50
60
10.
25
35
a. Whatisthemostappropriatestatisticaltestinthissituation?Why?
b. Aretheresignificantdifferencesinthenumberofdeliveries?
c. Ifthegoalistopromoterepeatbusiness,shouldthediscountbecontinued?
3. Eightparticipantsattendthreeconsecutivesessionsinabusinessseminar.Inthefirstthereisnoreinforcement
forrespondingtothesessionmoderator'squestions.Inthesecond,thosewhorespondareprovidedwith
positivefeedbackasreinforcement.Inthethird,respondersreceivecafeteriadiscountcoupons.Thenumberof
timestheparticipantsrespondedineachsessionisprovidedbelow.
None
Feedback
Coupons
1.
2.
3.
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
a. Didthedifferentreinforcershavesignificantlydifferenteffectsonthenumberofresponses?Ifso,which
reinforcersaresignificantlydifferentfromwhich?Rankthereinforcersfrommosttoleasteffective.
b. Calculateandexplaintheeffectsize.
c. Ifinsteadofhavingthesameparticipantsattendthethreesessions,threedifferentgroupsofparticipants
attendedonesessioneach,andthetableaboveshowedthenumberofresponsesineachofthosegroups,
howwouldyouranswerstotheabovetwoquestionshavechanged?Performallyourcalculationsagain.
d. WhyaretheFvaluesofthetwoanswersdifferent?
4. Eightcollegestudentstakesummerjobsasdoortodoorsalesrepresentativesforacleaningsuppliescompany.
Theirnumberofsalesmadeperweekduringtheirfirstfourweeksofsummeremploymentareasfollows.
Week1
Week2
Week3
Week4
1.
2.
10
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
a. Aretheresignificantdifferencesamongtheweeks?
b. Whichweeksaresignificantlydifferentfromwhich?
c. Issalessuccessrelatedtoexperience?
d. Howmuchofthevariationsinsalescanbeexplainedbyamountofexperience?
5. Abusinessdepartmentatauniversitysponsorsastudyoftherelationshipbetweenparticipationinasummer
internshipprogramandstudents'gradepointaverage(GPA).Eightstudentswhoparticipateinasummer
internshiparematchedwitheightstudentsinthesameyearwhoreceivenointernship.Students'GPAsatthe
endoftheacademicyeararecompared.
Internship
Nointernship
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1.
3.6
3.2
2.
2.8
3.0
3.
3.3
3.0
4.
3.8
3.2
5.
3.2
2.9
6.
3.3
3.1
7.
2.9
2.9
8.
3.1
3.4
a. Althoughtherearetwoseparategroups,anindependentsamplesttestisnotappropriateforthisanalysis.
Why?
b. Arethedifferencesstatisticallysignificant?
c. Writeaparagraphexplainingyourfindingstonewstudentswhohavenotyettakenanystatisticsclasses.
6. Autilitycompanynotesthenumberofcomplaintsinaparticularcommunityaboutthequalityofservice
providedbyservicerepresentatives.Thecompanythenrequiresservicerepresentativestoattendaquality
trainingclass,andthenthenumberofcomplaintsistrackedinasecondcommunityservicedbythesamegroup
ofrepresentativesandwhereresidentshavesocioeconomiccharacteristicssimilartothoseinthefirst
community.Thedataareasfollows:
Beforetraining
Aftertraining
1.
12
2.
10
3.
4.
5.
6.
12
10
7.
8.
a. Whatisthemostappropriatestatisticaltestinthissituation?Why?
b. Arethedifferencesstatisticallysignificant?
c. Towhatextentwasthetrainingeffectiveinreducingcomplaints?
7. Asupervisorismonitoringthenumberofsickdaysemployeestakebymonth.Forsevenemployeesreportingto
him,thenumberofsickdaysareasfollows:
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Oct
Nov
Dec
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
a. Whataretheindependentanddependentvariablesinthisanalysis?Whatisthetypeofdatascaleofeach?
b. Arethemonthtomonthdifferencessignificant?
c. Howmuchofthevariancedoesthemonthexplain?
d. Ifinsteadoftrackingthenumberofsickdaysofthesamesevenemployees,themanagerrandomlyselected
sevendifferentemployeeseverymonthandusedtheirnumberofsickdays,howwouldyouranswerhave
changed?Performallyourcalculationsagain.
e. WhyaretheFvaluesofthetwoanswersdifferent?
KeyTerms
Dependentgroupsdesignsarestatisticalproceduresinwhichthegroupsarerelated,eitherbecausemultiple
measuresaretakenofthesameparticipantsorbecauseeachparticipantinaparticulargroupismatchedwith
participantsintheothergrouporgroupsaccordingtowhichevercharacteristicsarerelevanttotheanalysis.
Repeatedmeasuresdesignisatypeofdependentgroupsdesignwheremultiplemeasuresaretakenofthe
samegroupofparticipants.
Dependentsamplesdesignisatypeofdependentgroupsdesignwhereeachparticipantinaparticulargroupis
relatedtoaparticipantintheothergroup(s)oncharacteristicsrelevanttotheanalysis.
Matchedpairsdesignisatypeofdependentgroupsdesignwhereseparategroupsareused,butwith
individualsineachgroupmatchedwithsomeoneineachoftheothergroupswhohasthesameinitial
characteristics.
ThewithinsubjectsFisthedependentgroupsequivalentoftheonewayANOVA.Inthisprocedure,either
participantsineachgrouparepairedontherelevantcharacteristicswithparticipantsintheothergroupsorone
groupismeasuredrepeatedlyafterdifferentlevelsoftheindependentvariableareintroduced.
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Chapter 6 and 7

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2/20/2015

SScol =(McolMG)2ncol1 +(Mcol2 MG)2ncol2 +...+

SSrows =(Mr1 MG)2nr1 +(Mr2 MG)2nr2 +...(Mri

SSresid =SStot SScol SSrows

TheSStot andtheSSbet willbethesameastheSStot andtheSScol wereinthewithinsubjectsproblem.

SScol =(Mcol1 MG)2ncol1 +(Mcol2 MG)2ncol2 +...+(Mcolk

SSrows =(Mr1 MG)2nr1 +(Mr2 MG)2nr2 +...(Mri MG)2nri

SSresid =SStot SScol SSrows

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