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    Gathering operating linguistic logics should rule traceability tractability of using utility investing inside integration of intellectual inspiration insight during performing processing of resulting in reality fashion flow of digital computing. Hence, digital computing is serving to understand in deep any measurable metric approach, which should link measurable metric amount quantity into mathematical modeling mode engines exerting expertise exploitation of linguistic logics. Therefore, using utility of digital computing should comply with measurable mount management dynamics that is ready to operate concerning linguistic logics of mapping pair (parametrization, valuation), whereby inquiry question string "proposal parametrization should schedule fundamental options functioning optimization" and inquiry question string "disposal valuation should then determine sign symbolism functions ordering faithful options of optimistic behavior handling psyche soul breath satisfaction". However, basic built in behavior of liable linguistic logics should then generate intentional implementation of (parametrization, valuation) processing to provide resulting in reality fashion flow of (genuine, unjust) mapping pair in order to invoke systematic linguistic logics of uncertainty measurement and valid variation of traceability tractability such that: 1. valuable mathematical modeling modes :: proposal height, which has been fixed at the initial start up of corresponding simulation. Thus, this proposal height is serving to operate accordingly to linguistic logics during resulting in reality fashion flow of growing up faithful orders such that: initial*[f²() / (1 + f²())], initial*[abs{f()} / (1 + abs{f()})], initial*[1/(1 + f²()), 1/(1 + abs{f()}], initial * [exp(-abs{f()}], initial * [exp(-1 / abs{f()})], initial*[Log(1 + abs{f()}) /(1 + Log(1+ abs{f()})], initial * [exp(f()) /(1 + exp(f()))], .... 2. invest intentional resulting in reality fashion flows to integrate valid business benefits involving within concrete control configuration of linguistic logics mount management techniques. Hence, this concrete controlling configuration should perform basic built in behavior of (burrow, narrow) mapping pair principle processing. In fact, using this major main mount management dynamics to perform sufficient suitable reality fashion flow of valid variation concerning job scheduling and corresponding timing simulation, in order to implement simple functionalism of inquiry question string "initial * [f²()/(1 + f²())]" during trustful traceability tractability using operation utility of linguistic logics and its growing focus on accordingly to invasive intellectual inspiration insight of linguistic logics concerning free path modeling mode theory and translation transformation traceability and tractability. In fact, desirable wishes of concerning computing customization should handle resulting in processing of control data flow graph theory and its valid variation growing upon traceability tractability of using utility of mount management through theology of mapping pair (x, y), whereby x and y should depict measurable metric equivalence quantity of fashionable flows. Hence, searching (x, y) mapping pair to fix driven dynamics concerning mathematical modeling modes of expertise exploitation enjoying energy environment of translation transformation providing transaction technique tractability. Although, associate mapping pair (x, y) should integrate major main principle designs of (w R x, m R y) mapping pair, concerting associate assignment matrix should then deliver sign symbolism functions ordering faithful outlets of system signals feathering optimizing function outputs. Even though, many several mount management of mathematical modeling modes should comply with easy simple representation of (x, y) mapping pair to invoke basic built in behavior of (parametrization, valuation) dynamics, which could the prescribe linguistic logics

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    Gathering operating linguistic logics should rule traceability tractability of using utility investing inside integration of intellectual inspiration insight during performing processing of resulting in reality fashion flow of digital computing. Hence, digital computing is serving to understand in deep any measurable metric approach, which should link measurable metric amount quantity into mathematical modeling mode engines exerting expertise exploitation of linguistic logics. Therefore, using utility of digital computing should comply with measurable mount management dynamics that is ready to operate concerning linguistic logics of mapping pair (parametrization, valuation), whereby inquiry question string "proposal parametrization should schedule fundamental options functioning optimization" and inquiry question string "disposal valuation should then determine sign symbolism functions ordering faithful options of optimistic behavior handling psyche soul breath satisfaction". However, basic built in behavior of liable linguistic logics should then generate intentional implementation of (parametrization, valuation) processing to provide resulting in reality fashion flow of (genuine, unjust) mapping pair in order to invoke systematic linguistic logics of uncertainty measurement and valid variation of traceability tractability such that: 1. valuable mathematical modeling modes :: proposal height, which has been fixed at the initial start up of corresponding simulation. Thus, this proposal height is serving to operate accordingly to linguistic logics during resulting in reality fashion flow of growing up faithful orders such that: initial*[f²() / (1 + f²())], initial*[abs{f()} / (1 + abs{f()})], initial*[1/(1 + f²()), 1/(1 + abs{f()}], initial * [exp(-abs{f()}], initial * [exp(-1 / abs{f()})], initial*[Log(1 + abs{f()}) /(1 + Log(1+ abs{f()})], initial * [exp(f()) /(1 + exp(f()))], .... 2. invest intentional resulting in reality fashion flows to integrate valid business benefits involving within concrete control configuration of linguistic logics mount management techniques. Hence, this concrete controlling configuration should perform basic built in behavior of (burrow, narrow) mapping pair principle processing. In fact, using this major main mount management dynamics to perform sufficient suitable reality fashion flow of valid variation concerning job scheduling and corresponding timing simulation, in order to implement simple functionalism of inquiry question string "initial * [f²()/(1 + f²())]" during trustful traceability tractability using operation utility of linguistic logics and its growing focus on accordingly to invasive intellectual inspiration insight of linguistic logics concerning free path modeling mode theory and translation transformation traceability and tractability. In fact, desirable wishes of concerning computing customization should handle resulting in processing of control data flow graph theory and its valid variation growing upon traceability tractability of using utility of mount management through theology of mapping pair (x, y), whereby x and y should depict measurable metric equivalence quantity of fashionable flows. Hence, searching (x, y) mapping pair to fix driven dynamics concerning mathematical modeling modes of expertise exploitation enjoying energy environment of translation transformation providing transaction technique tractability. Although, associate mapping pair (x, y) should integrate major main principle designs of (w R x, m R y) mapping pair, concerting associate assignment matrix should then deliver sign symbolism functions ordering faithful outlets of system signals feathering optimizing function outputs. Even though, many several mount management of mathematical modeling modes should comply with easy simple representation of (x, y) mapping pair to invoke basic built in behavior of (parametrization, valuation) dynamics, which could the prescribe linguistic logics

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    Sewell

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    ssfofo
    Gathering operating linguistic logics should rule traceability tractability of using utility investing inside integration of intellectual inspiration insight during performing processing of resulting in reality fashion flow of digital computing. Hence, digital computing is serving to understand in deep any measurable metric approach, which should link measurable metric amount quantity into mathematical modeling mode engines exerting expertise exploitation of linguistic logics. Therefore, using utility of digital computing should comply with measurable mount management dynamics that is ready to operate concerning linguistic logics of mapping pair (parametrization, valuation), whereby inquiry question string "proposal parametrization should schedule fundamental options functioning optimization" and inquiry question string "disposal valuation should then determine sign symbolism functions ordering faithful options of optimistic behavior handling psyche soul breath satisfaction". However, basic built in behavior of liable linguistic logics should then generate intentional implementation of (parametrization, valuation) processing to provide resulting in reality fashion flow of (genuine, unjust) mapping pair in order to invoke systematic linguistic logics of uncertainty measurement and valid variation of traceability tractability such that: 1. valuable mathematical modeling modes :: proposal height, which has been fixed at the initial start up of corresponding simulation. Thus, this proposal height is serving to operate accordingly to linguistic logics during resulting in reality fashion flow of growing up faithful orders such that: initial*[f²() / (1 + f²())], initial*[abs{f()} / (1 + abs{f()})], initial*[1/(1 + f²()), 1/(1 + abs{f()}], initial * [exp(-abs{f()}], initial * [exp(-1 / abs{f()})], initial*[Log(1 + abs{f()}) /(1 + Log(1+ abs{f()})], initial * [exp(f()) /(1 + exp(f()))], .... 2. invest intentional resulting in reality fashion flows to integrate valid business benefits involving within concrete control configuration of linguistic logics mount management techniques. Hence, this concrete controlling configuration should perform basic built in behavior of (burrow, narrow) mapping pair principle processing. In fact, using this major main mount management dynamics to perform sufficient suitable reality fashion flow of valid variation concerning job scheduling and corresponding timing simulation, in order to implement simple functionalism of inquiry question string "initial * [f²()/(1 + f²())]" during trustful traceability tractability using operation utility of linguistic logics and its growing focus on accordingly to invasive intellectual inspiration insight of linguistic logics concerning free path modeling mode theory and translation transformation traceability and tractability. In fact, desirable wishes of concerning computing customization should handle resulting in processing of control data flow graph theory and its valid variation growing upon traceability tractability of using utility of mount management through theology of mapping pair (x, y), whereby x and y should depict measurable metric equivalence quantity of fashionable flows. Hence, searching (x, y) mapping pair to fix driven dynamics concerning mathematical modeling modes of expertise exploitation enjoying energy environment of translation transformation providing transaction technique tractability. Although, associate mapping pair (x, y) should integrate major main principle designs of (w R x, m R y) mapping pair, concerting associate assignment matrix should then deliver sign symbolism functions ordering faithful outlets of system signals feathering optimizing function outputs. Even though, many several mount management of mathematical modeling modes should comply with easy simple representation of (x, y) mapping pair to invoke basic built in behavior of (parametrization, valuation) dynamics, which could the prescribe linguistic logics

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    of 12

    ReunificationoftheFields:

    ImplicationsforHistoryandtheSocialSciencesinLogicsofHistory

    MiriamE.Wells
    History691P
    December13,2009

    InLogicsofHistory,WilliamH.SewellJr.critiquesthemethodandtheoretical
    underpinningsofthescholarshipproducedinthefieldsofthesocialsciences,andinthe
    amphibious1fieldofhistory,whichstraddlesthelinebetweenhumanitiesandsocial
    sciences.Hisreasonsfordoingthisareroughlythreefold.First,hechroniclescreationof
    categories,andthesubsequentriftsthe20thcenturywroughtbetweenthesocialandthe
    cultural,betweenthesocialsciencesandthehumanities,andbetweenthequantifiable
    andthelinguistic.Second,hereexamineshisownhistoricalscholarship,andthe
    anthropologicalresearchofMarshallSahlinsandCliffordGeertz.Inthesechaptershe
    examineshowtheoreticalstructurecanbeblendedwithhistoricaltemporality,and
    quantitativeandinterpretivemethodsshouldbeappliedinunitytoproducequality
    scholarship.Third,Sewellarguesthat,aboveall,scholarsshouldbeexplicitaboutboth
    methodologyandontology.Henotestendencyofsocialscientiststoignoretheontology
    thatgovernstheirfields,oreventheirfailuretoaccountforthemeaningofsocial.
    Likewise,recenthistorianshavebeenguiltyofawholesalerejectionofthequantitativeand
    structuralmethodsofsocialscience,whileunreservedlyembracingsemiotics(usually
    linguistic),andculturalanthropology.Usedinisolation,theseapproachesareonlypartofa
    whole,anincompleteandultimatelyunsatisfyingpicture.
    Sewellattemptstoaddresstheseproblems,notdefinitively,butatleastthrougha
    lifetimeofwork.HisdualpositionasanhistorianandpoliticalscientistgiveSewella
    uniqueperspectiveonthebenefitsandshortcomingsofbothhistoryandthesocial
    sciences.Inaddition,headmitstoanevolutionofthoughtinhisownworkwhichmirrors

    1Sewellsword.WilliamH.Sewell,Jr.,LogicsofHistory:SocialTheoryandSocialTransformation(Chicagoand

    London:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,2006)319.

    academictrendsbetweenthe1960sandthe2000s,andwhichisbasedinchangesin
    thoughtandhistoricalcircumstancesoverthosefourdecades.Throughcasestudiesand
    personalexamples,Sewellisabletoexplorehisownearlydissatisfactionwiththepurely
    quantitativeofworkinthesocialsciences,andinthenewsocialhistoryofthe1960sthat
    ignoredhistoricaltemporalityoreventfulness.Heisalsoabletotalkabouttheshiftinthe
    fieldofhistorytowardsaculturalapproach,whichwasinitiallytiedcloselytothe
    trajectoryoftheanthropologicalfieldinthe20thcentury.
    Becausehistorianshave,toagreaterextent,engagedtheconcepts,structuresand
    theoriesofthesocialsciencesinrecentdecades,Sewellsargumentplacesagreaterburden
    onthesocialsciencestoadoptorintegratehistoricalthinkingintotheirownscholarship.
    Thedialoguebetweenhistoryandthesocialscienceshasbeenlargelyonesided,andthus
    isnodialogueatall.2Hedoesntlethistoriansoffthehook,however,fortheirown
    rejectionofquantitativeorstructuralmethods.Hecallsforanendtowhatheseesasthe
    artificialdistinctionsbetweenquantitativemethodologyandinterpretivemethodology(or
    hermeneutics).Stronglyagainstepistemologicaldualism,Sewellbridgesthegapwitha
    theoryofhermeneuticquantification.3Furthermore,inamostcollegialway,Sewellhas
    askedforfurtherdebatebyprofessionalsinboththehumanitiesandthesocialsciences.
    WhileSewellsobjectiveinLogicsofHistoryismoreorlessexplicit,hiswritingisimbued
    withgenuineawarenessoftheshiftingnatureofhistoryandthesocialsciences,and
    humilityabouttheplaceofhisownscholarshipwithinthosecontexts.Inthespiritof
    engagingwithSewellsconclusions,Iwillattempttothebestofmyabilitytotracethe
    evolutionofhistheoreticalapproach,describetheconceptsthatareessentialtoit,andthen
    talkabouttheimplicationsofSewellstheoryforexistingscholarship,andformyownwork
    aswell.

    TheCaseforHermeneuticalQuantification

    Tomakethecaseforhermeneuticalquantification,Sewellhasassembledtenpiecesof
    workthatspanseventeenyearsaperiodbetween1988and2005.ClearlySewellsown

    2SeeSewell,5.
    3Sewell,370.

    interestinthetopicislongstanding,andhasevolvedalongsidethechangesinthe
    historicalandsocialsciencefieldsoverthoseseventeenyears.Hispremiseisduallystated
    inhissecondandhisfinalchaptersthatculturalhistorianswouldbenefitfrom
    reintroducingquantitativedata,mechanicalstructuresandtheoryintotheirwork;
    similarlysocialscientistswouldbenefitfromtheintroductionofhistoricaltemporality,and
    hermeneuticinvestigation.Itcomesasnosurprise,then,thatthesetwochaptersrepresent
    theculminationoftheworkinLogicsofHistory.Theywerethelasttwochapterstobe
    written,in2005and2001,respectively.4
    Sewellsarrangementofthebookinnonchronologicalordersayssomethingabout
    hisintendedpurpose.LogicsofHistorybeginsinarelativelyconcreteway,andfinishesin
    theabstractionsthataresofamiliartosocialscientists.Sewellbeginswithanintroduction
    toaproblembetweenthefieldofhistory,anditsrelativesinthesocialsciencesincluding
    anthropology,politicalscience,economics,andsociology.Inmanywayshisfirstand
    secondchapters(Theory,HistoryandSocialScience,andThePoliticalUnconsciousof
    SocialandCulturalHistory,or,ConfessionsofaFormerQuantitativeHistorian)seem
    directedathistorians.Hefirstilluminatesthedifferentwayshistoriansandsocial
    scientistsapproachtheworld,andthestrengthsofeachgroup.Inthecaseofhistorians,
    theirunderstandingofsocialtemporalityasfateful,contingent,complex,eventful,and
    heterogeneous,isthebasisforanimplicittheoryofhistory.5
    Theproblemwiththistheoreticalapproachisthathistoriansdontconsiderita
    theoryatall,butseeitasprofessionalcommonsensebasedonreadingotherhistorians
    andinternalizingthewaystheynarrateaccountsofhistoricalchangeandcontinuity.6
    WhileSewellappreciatestheunstated,intrinsichistoricalunderstandingofsocial
    temporality,heistroubledbythelackofexplicitconceptualgroundinginmosthistorical
    narratives.Historiansthemselveswouldbenefitfromanincreasedawarenessoftheirown
    thoughtprocessesandontologicalassumptions.Furthermore,readersinandoutsidethe

    4DylanRileyhasreconstructedtheoriginalpublicationofthechaptersasarticlesinhisownresponsetothe

    book.DylanRiley,TheHistoricalLogicofLogicsofHistory:LanguageandLaborinWilliamH.Sewell,Jr.,
    SocialScienceHistory32:4(Winter2008)556.
    5Sewell,11.
    6Sewell,11.

    disciplinewouldbenefitfromanunambiguousdiscussionofthetheoriesandassumptions
    atworkinthetexts.
    Ifhistorianshavetroublemakingcleartheirassumptionsaboutthenatureofthe
    world,Sewellwouldarguethatsocialscientistshavethesameproblem.Prefacinghis
    discussionofthemeaning,usesandreintroductionofthesocialintothesocialsciences,
    Sewellsuggeststhatsocialscientistshaveoveremphasizedtheirmethodologyandlefttheir
    ontologyunspecified.Thisisagapforwhichthereisnoaccounting,because
    methodologiesinfactalwaysimplyontologies,whetherstatedorassumed.Furthermore,
    Sewellbelievesthatsocialscientistsshouldconceptualizethesocialexplicitly,ratherthan
    letconceptualizationsbeunstatedanunexaminedcorollariesof...methodological
    positions.7Thisisaverysimilarmessagetotheoneheespousesforhistorians.
    Ultimately,Sewelldoesnotbelievethathistoriansaredoingtheirworkwithout
    usingstructure,theory,orquantitativemethodsbutrathertheyarehidingthosethings
    fromview...orevenhavefailedtorecognizetheirexistenceatall.Likewise,eventhe
    mostpositivistsocialscientistsusehermeneuticalinvestigationtogainenoughsenseof
    theinherentstructuresoftheirquantitativetextstobeabletoreadthemeffectively,to
    plumbtheirdepths.8Andsocialsciencemethodologiesimplybothontologiesand
    assumptionsaboutthemeaningofsocial,regardlessofwhethertheyhavebeenmade
    explicitinthescholarship,orif,infact,thescholarinquestionisawareofthem.Sewell
    approachesthehistoricalaudiencefirstasitismorelikelytobereceptiveoftheideas
    herein,asneitherconvincedpositivistsorresolutepostmodernists9andfinisheswithhis
    appealtothemoreentrenchedsocialsciences.Sewelladvocatesexplicithermeneutical
    quantification,ortheintegrationofinterpretiveandstructuralmethods.Buthowhasthis
    beendone,orcanthisbedoneeffectively?

    CaseStudies

    7Sewell,320.
    8Sewell,371.Here,Sewellsuseofquotationmarksaroundtextandreadismeanttoimplyalinguistic,

    semioticuseofquantitativedatatoshowthatthereislittleincompatibilitybetweenquantitativeand
    interpretiveevidence,andhowweunderstandthem.
    9Sewell,177.

    BetweenthetwoparallelstatementsofintentatthebeginningandendofLogicsof
    History,Sewellhasincludedessaysintendedtobridgethegapbetweenthefields,clarify
    thetermswhichareessentialtohistoryandthesocialsciencesbutwhichremain
    undefined,andtoprovidecasestudiesofwhatamoreseamlessblendingofhistoryand
    socialscienceconceptswouldlooklike.Hisfirstcasestudyisreallyanexplorationofthe
    popularityofCliffordGeertzamonghistorians.Ananthropologicalambassadortohistory,
    Geertzhasprovidedseveralideaswhichareontologicallycrucialtocontemporary
    historians,andwhichprovideabridgebetweenpractitionersofsemioticanalysis,and
    mechanicalorstructuralanalysis.10
    First,Sewelltalksinamoregeneralsenseabouttherevelationofanthropology.In
    thiscase,therevelationheisreferringtoistheconceptthattheworldiscontingentrather
    thannecessary.11Historiansfeelaparticularaffinityforthisconceptoftheworldbecause
    theirownconceptofthepastasunfamiliarcanbeconsideredanalogoustothe
    anthropologicalinvestigationofthe(contemporaneous)exoticandforeign.Bothfieldscan
    portrayanopenended,nondeterministicviewoftheworld.ThesecondconceptSewell
    addressesisGeertzsuseofsynchronyinhiswork.Sewelldescribessynchronynotasa
    momentintime,butasasuspensionoftime,inwhich(forGeertz,andothers)itispossible
    todrawtogetherthemultiplesymbolsandpracticesthatmakeupaculture.Thesethreads
    comenotfromonemoment,butfrommany,andyettheyareallpresentatanygiven
    momentGeertzchoosestodocument.12
    Onthefaceofit,synchronyhastheappearanceofbeingahistorical.Historyis
    generallyconceivedasdiachronic:aseriesofunfoldingevents.Sewellarguesthatthe
    conceptofsynchronyisessentialtohistory,evenasdiachronismisacceptable,butnot
    essential.Here,Sewellgivesexamplesofacclaimedhistoricalworkthatisalmostsolely
    synchronic,suchasRobertDarntonsarticle,TheGreatCatMassacre.Ratherthansimply
    tellthestoryoftheeventitself(themassacre)andthenexplaintheramificationsofitfor
    theindividualsinvolved,Darnton,choosestoexplainthespecificgestaltoftheperiod

    10Oneofseveralambassadorsofanthropologytohistory.SewellmentionsMargaretMeadandRuthBenedict

    aswell.Sewell,175.
    11Sewell,179.ThephraserevelationofanthropologycomesfromGayleRubin.Asecondrevelationfrom

    theworldofanthropologytothehistoricalfieldmightbetheintroductionofthetermculture,asweuseand
    understanditincontemporaryhistory.Iwilladdressthislateroninthepaper.
    12Sewell,181182.

    throughlanguage,jokes,art,literature,assumptions,classstructure,ceremonies,
    superstitions,andotherelementsthatcometogetherfromavarietyoftimesandplacesto
    affectthisoneparticularmoment.13Inthiswayhegetsatwhytheeventmighthave
    occurredinthefirstplace.
    Thisdoesnotmeanthereisntaplacefordiachronyinhistorysimplythat,onits
    own,itisnotenough.Eveninthemostdiachronicofnarratives(andhereIamthinkingof
    DavidHackettFischersChamplainsDream,andJonathanSpencesGodsChineseSon)
    incorporatesynchronyintotheirnarratives.Iftheyhadnt,theywouldsurelyhavebeen
    lesssuccessful.FischerandSpencesolvetheproblemofsynchronyinverydifferent
    waysbutthefactthattheydosolveitisessentialtotherespectabilityandlongevityof
    theirwork.MuchofFischerssynchrony,inanarrativethatisveryeventful,canbefound
    inhisappendices,whichgiveafullerandricherpictureoftheworldinwhichChamplain
    livedandworked,butwhichseeminglyhavenoplaceinthenarrativeitself.14Spences
    incorporationofsynchronyisdirect.BeforeintroducingtheTaipingmovement,oreven
    tracingtheeventsthatledtoit,Spenceimmersesthereaderintheworldof1830sChina,
    whichincludesthenontemporalelementsofancestorworship,ethnictension,Western
    trade,andtheConfucianeducationalsystemallelementsthatarrivefromvarioustimes
    toaffectasinglemoment.15Thereisonetypeofworkthatlendsitselfalmostsolelyto
    diachronicnarrative,andinwhichthereappearstobeanabsenceofsynchrony,andthatis
    thefieldofbighistory.Ifthereisapresenceofsynchronyatall,itissolargeastobe
    meaningless.
    Ifsynchronyasanhistoricalconceptmakesagreatdealofsense,16thenwhatareits
    implicationsforthesocialsciences?Sewellcorrelatestheminthisway:thepresenceof
    synchronyindicatesaculturalstructure,orasystem.Geertz,inparticular,makesa
    connectionbetweenculturalpatterningandgeneticprogramming.ThisGeertzianrelation
    ofthebiologicaltothelinguisticorsymbolicisthefirstpartofSewellsattempttobridge
    thetheoreticalgaphewritesthatsemioticsystemsarenotunworldlyorghostlyor

    13RobertDarnton,WorkersRevolt:TheGreatCatMassacreoftheRueSaintSverin,inTheGreatCat

    MassacreandOtherEpisodesinFrenchCulturalHistory(NewYork:VintageBooks,1983).

    14DavidHackettFischer,ChamplainsDream(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2008).

    15JonathanSpence,GodsChineseSon(NewYorkandLondon:W.W.NortonandCompany,1996).
    16Sewellsaysthiswithaplombonpage185.

    imaginary;theyareasintegraltothelifeofourspeciesasrespiration,digestion,or
    reproduction.Materialists,thissuggests,shouldstopworryingandlovethesymbol.17So,
    whatmakesGeertzsovilifiedbysomeinthesocialsciencesishiswillingnessto
    understandthesemioticandthestructuralaspartsofawhole.PresumablyforSewell,this
    tooisarevelation.
    Sewelldoesntallowustolingertoolongintheworldofsynchrony.Hefollowsa
    chapterreunitingthesymbolwithstructure(throughsynchrony),withachapterthat
    intendstoreunitestructurewithevent.18Hedoesthisusingtheworkandtheoryof
    MarshallSahlins,astructuralistanthropologist.Togivethepropercontextforthis,Sewell
    relatestheturnawayfromaneventfulnarrativehistory,toaformofhistorythatexamines
    structuresoflongduration,aphenomenonwhichbeganwiththeFrenchAnnalesschool
    ofsocialhistory.Sahlins,Sewellargues,returnstheeventtothestructure,andinsodoing
    providesatheoryofeventthatisindispensabletohistorians.
    Sahlinsswork,asrelatedbySewellinthischapter,proposesatheoryofstructure
    andeventasrelatedtooneanother:Events,inSahlinssreformulation,are
    transformationsofstructure,andstructureisthecumulativeoutcomeofpastevents.19
    Onecannotexistwithouttheothereventscanonlyoccurwithinaculturalstructure,and
    theculturalstructureiscreatedfrompriorevents.Sahlinssworktodemonstratethishas
    todowithHawaiiantabu(culturalstructure),theviolationoftabuinHawaiiatCaptain
    Cooksarrivaltotheislands(theevent)andthesubsequentchangeintheculturaltabu
    system(thenewstructure).20Itisimportanttorealizethatinthistheoryofevent,theonly
    eventsthatareofanyimportancearethosethatshapeandalterstructures.Whilethecase
    mightbemadethatanyeventchangesastructure,howeverslightly,thisemphasizes
    turningpoints,orparadigmsinhistory.
    Insomewaysthisconceptofstructure,andtheinfluencethateventshaveuponit,
    bearssomesimilaritytoThomasKuhnsTheStructureofScientificRevolutions.21Atext
    originallyintendedforthesciencestoexplainhowparadigms(orcriticalchangesin

    17Sewell,189.
    18Itsenoughtomakeyourheadhurt,really!
    19Sewell,199.

    20Sewell,202209.
    21ThomasS.Kuhn,TheStructureofScientificRevolutions,2ndedition(Chicago:TheUniversityofChicago

    Press,1970).

    structure)occurred,Kuhnsworkwaspickedupquicklybythesocialsciences,andtosome
    extenthistory,inamovementthatdovetailedwiththerisingschoolsofsocialhistoryand
    themoveawayfromeventbasednarrative.However,Sahlinsstheoryincorporates
    culture(thecrucialanthropologicalelement)anditsbasisinsymbol.
    ItwouldbeinterestingtoseehowSewell(orSahlins)mightseeaworklikeDonald
    WorstersDustBowl,inwhichtheevent,whichappearsnaturalandnotculturallycreated
    onthesurface,isportrayedastheresultofaculturalstructurecapitalism.22DustBowl
    appearstometobeapeculiarapplicationofthistheoryofevent.ClearlyWorsterbelieves
    thattheevent,thedustbowl,occursbecauseoftheoverfarmingoflandthatisdirectly
    correlatedwiththecapitalistethosthatpervadesAmerica.However,itisdifficulttoseea
    changeinstructurebasedontheevent.Thisissurprising,sinceclearlytheeventisa
    momentousonebutperhapsitcannotbeclassifiedaseventusingSahlinsstheory,
    becausecapitalismretaineditsholdonAmericanculture.Ontheotherhand,smallchanges
    instructuremaybenotedtheriseofregulation,andofgovernmentsubsidieswhichcan
    surelybeclassifiedasastructuralchangeinAmericanpolitics.
    FollowinghisintroductionofSahlinsstheoryofevent,Sewellprovidesacasestudy
    fromhisownwork,whichusesanhistoricalevent(thetakingoftheBastille)toexplainthe
    transformationofstructuresbyevents.Sewellbeginsthecasestudywithwhatamountsto
    anarrativeaccountofthetakingoftheBastille.Hethenfollowsthisnarrativewitha
    complexaccountofhowhehasusedthehistoricaleventsinquestionasdislocationsand
    transformativerearticulationsofstructures.23Whilethiscanseemcumbersome,Sewell
    seesthisasanimportantprocessofmakingexplicittheauthorsassumptions,andhisuse
    ofcategoriestocreatemeaningfromtheevent.Inadditiontoeventsrearticulating
    structuresandtransformingculture,heexplainsthemasshapedbyparticularconditions,
    ascharacterizedbyheightenedemotion,asactsofcollectivecreativity,aspunctuatedby
    ritual,asspatialandtemporalprocesses,andmore.Hisconclusions,basedonthe
    discussionheprovides,stillleavetheevent,thetakingoftheBastille,breathtakinglyopen
    forotherinterpretations.ThisisbecausethetransformationthatSewellhaschosentolink

    22DonaldWorster,DustBowl:TheSouthernPlainsinthe1930s(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2004).
    23Sewell,245.

    totheeventisnottheonlytransformationthatcamefromthetakingoftheBastille.24In
    thisway,event,structure,narrativeandsynchronycanexistinexcitingfluidity,always
    readyforfurtherexplorationbysocialscientistsorhistorians.
    SewellendshiscasestudieswiththeoldestpieceofworkincludedinLogicsof
    History,andtheonethatprobablyspeaksmosteffectivelytosocialscientists.Stilldealing
    witheventfultemporality,Sewellapproachestheconnectionbetweeneventsand
    structuresfromanoppositestandpointfromthatofhispreviousessay.Theappealfor
    socialscientistsinSewellscasestudyofMarseillesdockworkerstradeunionsinthe19th
    centuryishowcertainstructurescantranscendperiodsinwhichstructuresarebeing
    radicallytransformedbyevents.25Inadditiontotheemphasisonaspecificstructureto
    shedlightonthenatureofstructures,generally,thearticlealsomakesuseofthesortof
    quantitative,physicaldatatowhichsocialscientistsareaccustomed.Butlestthearticle
    seemsolelyintherealmofthesocialsciences,Sewellwouldarguethatinordertoreadthe
    data,hefirsthadtoapplysomesemioticinterpretationtoitandinordertosituatethe
    readerintheperiod,applybothsynchronyanddiachrony,fullyintherealmofhistory.

    ASearchforMeaning

    Perhapsunderstandingthatcasestudiesalonecannotfullyarticulateatheory,orblenda
    bodyofworkwrittenoverseventeenyearsintoonevolume,Sewellhasspentsometime
    morefullyelaboratingtheconceptsheusesinthosecasestudies.Inordertowrite
    effectivelyabouttheperceived(ifimaginary)breakbetweensocialandcultural,Sewell
    understandsthathisreadersneedtounderstandthehistoricalchangesthetwoterms
    underwent,andtheirmostcommonlyacceptedormostusefuldefinitions.These
    definitionsareusefultoexplaintheownershipofthetermculturebyanthropologists,or
    todocumentthenearrejectionofthetermsocialbysocialscientists,aswell.What
    appeartobesimple,sharedconceptsareinfacttwocomplextermswhichhaveundergone
    substantivechangesoverthecourseofthe19thand20thcenturies.

    24Sewell,261.
    25Sewell,273.

    Themostsalientpointinallofthisdiscussionisthefundamentalconnections

    betweenthetwoconcepts.Itisimportanttoviewcultureasanoutgrowthofanthropology,
    andculturalhistorytosomeextentalogicalprogressionfromwhatistermedsocial
    history,orthehistoryofgroupsofordinarypeople.Becausehistoriansinmostfieldslack
    anoverabundanceofsourcesfromwhichinformationaboutordinarypeople(thelower
    classes,marginalizedgroups,ethnicgroups,nonliterategroupsandmore)canbegleaned.
    However,indefiningcultureasremovedfromitsanthropologicalcontext,Sewellfindsthe
    twomostusefulmeaningstobe:cultureasasystemofsymbolsandmeanings,andculture
    aspracticeorpracticalactivityshotthroughbywillfulaction,powerrelations,struggle,
    contradiction,andchange.26
    Thisisnotsoremovedfromthecurrentlydominantformofthetermsocial,which,
    definedbyDurkheim,isacollectiverealitythatactsuponindividualsasarestraining
    force.27Whilethisimpliesastructure,Sewelldemonstratesagainandagainthatstructure
    isnotsomethingthatoccursalone,onitsownterms,butisaproductofhumansemiotic
    constructions,andoftheeventsthatchangethem.Thetermssocialandculturalneed
    tobeperceivedastwohalvesofawholecompletingapicture,notdividingit.

    Sewellalsotalksatlengthaboutthesemioticandthestructuraltwomore

    conceptsthathavebeenusedinopposition,butthatcanbeusedtocomplementeachother.
    Sewellincludes,inthelastchapter,somediscussionofthesemiotic,notjustaslinguistic
    symbol,butalsoasnonlinguisticcreationofmeaningthroughpolitics,orthebuilt
    environment,or,infact,socialstructures.UmbertoEcosTheMysteriousFlameofQueen
    LoanacanbeusedatoolforconcretelyunderstandingSewellsintegrationofsemiotics
    withstructures.28Init,theprotagonistYamboawakenswithnosemblanceofpersonal
    memory,butinsteadwithamemoryofwhathehasread,andofthebasicstructuresofthe
    worldthatcanbegleanedfromthem.Intheprocessoftryingtoreconstructhisown
    personalmemories,YamboreturnstohischildhoodhomeinSolara,andproceedstoreread
    hisbooksandcomics,andlistentohisoldphonographrecords,hopingtoignitethose
    mysteriousflamesofmemorywhicharetieddirectlytotextswhichonthesurfacehaveno

    26Sewell,160161.
    27Sewell,322.

    28AndwhenIsaythisImeanrelativelyconcretely!UmbertoEco,TheMysteriousFlameofQueenLoana

    (GeoffreyBrock,Trans.)(NewYork,NY:Harcourt,2005).

    10

    relationtoYambospersonallife.However,becauseoftheirlargerimplications,andtheir
    personaleffectonhim,theyareabletoreconstitutehislife.
    ThusthisworkoffictionoperatesasapersonalhistoryofYambointhebiographical
    formcreatedsolelyfromexternalsourcesasifthesubjecthadleftnowritingsofhisown.
    Itisalsothesynchronichistoryofaperiod,painstakinglyrecreatingalifeformedamid
    ItalianPartisansduringaFascistregime.Itdemonstratesnotonlytheeffectthatlanguage
    andtheproductsoflanguagehaveuponanindividual,butalsothestructuralcomposition
    ofSolaraintheyearsofWorldWarII.ThetextsthatYambousestorecreatehislifewere
    createdby,andinturnchangedapoliticalandsocietalstructure.Inthisway,semioticsand
    structurecoexist,onceagain,aspartsofawholethatneednothavebeendivided.

    ImplicationsforExistingandFutureWork

    Althoughalloftheseessaysarecouchedintermsthatinvitefurtherdiscourse,itseems
    clearthatSewellintendshisworktohaveimplicationsfornewworkbeingwrittenin
    historyandthesocialsciences.Whatdoesallthisdiscussionofintegrationmeanforthe
    futureofhistory,andforthefutureofthesocialsciences?
    Thisbringsusback,fullcircle,toSewellsagendaforhermeneuticalquantification.
    Hechastisessocialscientistsforobscuringtheirownuseofinterpretivemethodsintheir
    work,aswellasculturalhistorianswhohefindsguiltyofveilingordownplayingthe
    importanceofquantitativedata.Ineithercase,themethodstheyobscuremayhelpform
    thequestionstheyask,ortheassumptionstheymakeabouttheirperiodofresearch.For
    example,AliceFahssworkofculturalhistory,TheImaginedCivilWar:PopularLiteratureof
    theNorthandSouth,18611865,isaworkbasedfirmlyintheculturalrubric,butitseems
    unlikelythatFahswasunawareof,orfailedtousequantitativesourcesorstructural
    assumptionstogroundherwork.However,shedidnotfullyexploretheminthetext.
    Sewellwouldarguethatincludingtheassumptionsthatshemakesabouthertexts,based
    onquantitativedata,wouldonlyincreasethequalityofscholarship.
    InmyownworkregardingtheWorksProgressAdministrationfederalartprojects
    intheSanFranciscoBayArea,Sewellstheorywouldhavehelpedmediscoverwhich
    questionswereimportanttoask,andmighthavechangedmyapproachtothewriting,or

    11

    evenmyconclusions.Forexample,Imighthaveaskedthequestion:whatwerethe
    responsestothecontroversialartworkthatwascommissionedandexecutedintheBay
    Area?
    Toanswerthisspecificquestion,mysourceswereprimarilytheartiststhemselves,
    theprojectadministrators,andasmatteringofpublicresponses.IfIhadpursuedsome
    quantitativedataaboutthedemographiccompositionoftheBayArea,andthevisitorsto
    thosesites,Iwouldhavehadaricherunderstandingof,attheveryleast,theviewersofthe
    art.HadIaddedtothatthestructuresoflife(fortheworkingclasses,forartists,orfor
    immigrants)inandoutsidetheBayAreaatthetime,Iwouldhavehadamoresynchronic
    picture,andacomparisontootherpartsofthecountry.AndifIincludedthese
    observationsinmynarrative,Iwouldnotonlyhavebeenabletomoresuccessfully
    interpretthedataIdidhave,butIwouldalsohaveprovidedmyreaderswithanexplicit
    andclearjustificationfortheassumptionsandconclusionsImade.Incidentally,Ifindit
    extremelylikelythatmyconclusionswouldhavebeendifferent.Forthisalone,Ifind
    Sewellstheoryuseful.
    Intheend,Sewellsargumentwontconvinceallhistorians.Somewillseeitas
    needlessobfuscationofanarrative,whichcanbeinterpretedbythereaderwithoutexplicit
    claimsabouttheory.AuthorsmaychoosenottoconsiderSewellstheoreticalapproach
    becausetheyseeitasunnecessarytotheiraudience(forexample,historianswhowritefor
    apopularaudience).Butforprofessionalsspeakingtootherprofessionals,Sewellsclarity
    ofintention,combinedwithhisintegrationofconceptsthathavebeensplitforsolong,is
    enticing.ThebeautyofLogicsofHistoryisitsapplicability.Ifindmyselfmaking
    connectionsbetweenthisworkandamyriadofothers.Itpromptsquestions,anddemands
    clarityfromotherworks.Thislevelofengagementwithaworkissurelywhatallauthors
    hopefor.

    12

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