Charan Singh (E&EC)

13105076
Solution 1
Emitter-Follower ConfigurationWhen the output is taken from the emitter terminal of the transistor as shown in figure , the
network is referred to as an emitter follower. The output voltage is always slightly less than
the input signal due to the drop from base to emitter, but the approximation Av = 1 is usually
a good one. Unlike the collector voltage, the emitter voltage is in phase with the signal Vi.
That is, both Vo and Vi will attain their positive and negative peak values at the same time.
The fact that Vo follows the magnitude of Vi with an in-phase relationship accounts for the
terminology emitterfollower.

Emitter follower configuration

ApplicationsThe emitter-follower configuration is frequently used for impedance-matching purposes. It
presents a high impedance at the input and a low impedance at the output, which is the direct
opposite of the standard fixed-bias configuration. The resulting effect is much the same as
that obtained with a transformer, where a load is matched to the source impedance for
maximum power transfer through the system.
Substituting the re equivalent circuit into the network of above figure will result in the
following network:

Using low frequency -hybrid model following parameters for this configuration can be
obtained

Solution 2
Construction of Logic Gates using Transistors
The use of transistors for the construction of logic gates depends upon their utility as fast
switches. When the base-emitter diode is turned on enough to be driven into saturation, the
collector voltage with respect to the emitter may be near zero and can be used to construct
gates for the TTL logic family. For the AND logic, the transistors are in series and both
transistors must be in the conducting state to drive the output high.

OR GATE: The use of transistors for the construction of logic gates depends upon their
utility as fast switches. When the base-emitter diode is turned on enough to be driven into
saturation, the collector voltage with respect to the emitter may be near zero and can be
used to construct gates for the TTL logic family. For the OR logic, the transistors are in
parallel and the output is driven high if either of the transistors is conducting.

NAND GATE: The use of transistors for the construction of logic gates depends upon
their utility as fast switches. When the base-emitter diode is turned on enough to be
driven into saturation, the collector voltage with respect to the emitter may be near zero
and can be used to construct gates for the TTL logic family. For the NAND logic, the
transistors are in series, but the output is above them. The output is high unless both A
and B inputs are high, in which case the output is taken down close to ground potential.

NOR GATE: The use of transistors for the construction of logic gates depends upon
their utility as fast switches. When the base-emitter diode is turned on enough to be
driven into saturation, the collector voltage with respect to the emitter may be near zero
and can be used to construct gates for the TTL logic family. In this alternative way to
achieve NOR logic, only one transistor is used with the two inputs tied to its base through
resistors. If either or both of the inputs is high, the output is driven low.

Solution 3
Applications of transistors
A relay is an electro-magnetic switch which is useful if you want to use a low voltage circuit
to switch on and off a light bulb (or anything else) connected to the 220v mains supply.

The diagram below shows a typical relay (with normally-open contacts). The current
needed to operate the relay coil is more than can be supplied by most chips (op. amps etc), so
a transistor is usually needed, as shown in the diagram below.

WORKING: When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic
field that activates the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s)
either makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If
the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the
contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the
current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as
strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a
spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. The diode is needed to
short circuit the high voltage back emf induced when current flowing through the coil is
suddenly switched off.

ALARM CIRCUIT
The circuit in the figure is a simple alarm circuit. Note that every element of the design is in a
series configuration. The power supply is a 5-V dc supply that can be provided through a dc
battery, or a combination of an ac and a dc supply that ensures that the battery will always be
at full charge. If all the sensors are closed, a current of 5 mA will result because of the
terminal load of the relay of about 1k. That current energizes the relay and maintains an off
position for the alarm. However, if any of the sensors are opened, the current will be
interrupted, the relay will let go, and the alarm circuit will be energized. With relatively short
wires and a few sensors, the system should work well since the voltage drop across each will
be minimal. However, since the alarm wire is usually relatively thin, resulting in a
measurable resistance level, if the wire to the sensors is too long, a sufficient voltage drop
could occur across the line, reducing the voltage across the relay to a point where the alarm
fails to operate properly. Thus, wire length is a factor that must be considered if a series
configuration is used. Proper sensitivity to the length of the line should remove any concerns
about its operation.

Solution 4
HYBRID EQUIVALENT MODEL
The hybrid equivalent model will begin with the general two port system as shown in figure.
The following set of equations is only one of a number of ways in which the four variables
can be related.

Vi = h11Ii + h12Vo (i)

Io =h21Ii + h22Vo
(ii)
The parameters relating the four variables are called h-parameters from the word hybrid.
If we arbitrarily set Vo=0 (short circuit the output terminals) and solve for h11, the following
will result:

ohms
The ratio indicates that the parameter h11 is an impedance parameter with the units of ohms.
Since it is the ratio of the input voltage to the input current with the output terminals shorted,
it is called the short-circuit input-impedance parameter. The subscript 11 of h11 defines the
fact that the parameter is determined by a ratio of quantities measured at the input terminals.
If Ii is set equal to zero by opening the input leads, the following will result for
h12:

unitless
The parameter h12, therefore, is the ratio of the input voltage to the output voltage with the
input current equal to zero. It has no units since it is a ratio of voltage levels and is called the
open-circuit reverse transfer voltage ratio parameter. The subscript 12 of h12 reveals that the
parameter is a transfer quantity determined by a ratio of input to output measurements. The
first integer of the subscript defines the measured quantity to appear in the numerator; the
second integer defines the source of the quantity to appear in the denominator. The term
reverse is included because the ratio is an input voltage over an output voltage rather than the
reverse ratio typically of interest.
If Vo is equal to zero by again shorting the output terminals, the following will result for h21:

unitless
Note that we now have the ratio of an output quantity to an input quantity. The term forward
will now be used rather than reverse as indicated for h12. The parameter h21 is the ratio of the
output current to the input current with the output terminals shorted.
This parameter, like h12, has no units since it is the ratio of current levels. It is formally called
the short-circuit forward transfer current ratio parameter. The subscript 21 again indicates that
it is a transfer parameter with the output quantity in the numerator and the input quantity in
the denominator.
The last parameter, h22, can be found by again opening the input leads to set
I1 = 0 and solving for h22:

siemens
Since it is the ratio of the output current to the output voltage, it is the output conductance
parameter and is measured in siemens (S). It is called the open-circuit output admittance
parameter. The subscript 22 reveals that it is determined by a ratio of output quantities.
Since each term of Eq. (i) has the unit volt, let us apply Kirchhoffs voltage law in reverse
to find a circuit that fits the equation. Since the parameter h11 has the unit ohm, it is
represented by a resistor. The quantity h12 is dimensionless and therefore simply appears as a
multiplying factor of the feedback term in the input circuit.
Since each term of Eq.(ii) has the units of current, let us now apply Kirchhoffs current law
in reverse to obtain the circuit . Since h22 has the units of admittance, which for the
transistor model is conductance, it is represented by the resistor symbol. Keep in mind,
however, that the resistance in ohms of this resistor is equal to the reciprocal of conductance
(1/h22).
The complete ac equivalent circuit for the basic three-terminal linear device is indicated
with a new set of subscripts for the h-parameters. The choice of letters is obvious from the
following listing:

h11 input resistance hi

h12 reverse transfer voltage ratio hr
h21 forward transfer current ratio hf
h22 output conductance ho
s

Hybrid Model of a transistor