AE114: Monday February 16, 2015

Finishing the Cantilevered Wing in Compression

Shear Flow of Members in Torsion

Assignment 5 due Wednesday 2/18

Assignment 6 due Wednesday 2/25 (posted soon)
Exam 1 Wednesday 3/4

Wing Example: Draw the approximate shear and bending moment

diagrams for the following wooden wing beam due to the lift force as
shown. Also show the location and magnitude of the maximum
bending moment.
Use Modulus of Elasticity: E = 1.3 x 106 lb/in2 (pine)
and moment of inertia: I = 17 in4.
25 lb/in

F
u
s
e
l
a
g
e

30

Wooden
Wing

Cable
96 in

40 in

25 lb/in

F
u
s
e
l
a
g
e

30

Wooden
Wing

Cable
96 in

40 in

Solution

25 lb/in

AH
A

TH

30

AV

96 in

TV

40 in

First, solve for reaction forces TV, TH, AV and AH:

=0

25 lb/in

AH

136
TV (96) {(25)(136)}(
)=0
2
TV = 2410lb
Also: TH =

= 0 = A H TH

= 0 = A V TV + (25)(136)

TH

30

AV

TV
2410
=
= 4180lb
tan30 0.577

AH = 4180lb

AV = (25)(136) - 2410 = 990 lb

96 in

TV

40 in

Next, solve the compression problem:

25 lb/in
M2 = 20,000 lb-in

M1 = 0
P = AH

P = TH = 4180 lb
1000 lb

AV = 990lb

TV = 2410lb
96 in

6
EI
(1.3

10
) 17
2
j = =
= 5280
P
4180

j = 72.7in
L
96
=
= 1.32rad = 75.75
j 72.7
=

L
cos = 0.246
j
L
sin = 0.968
j

L
D2 D1cos
x C1
j 112,000 ( 132,000)(0 .246)
tan tan= x max
== C1 =
=
j Cj2
( 132,000)(0 .968)
CD2 1sin L
j

112,000 + 32,500 79,500

=
=
= 0.622
127,800
127,800

x max
= 0.556rad
j
x max = (72.7in)(0.556) = 40.4in

Mmax =

D
132,000
C12
++wj
+ 132,000 = 155,000 + 132,000 = 23,500 in - lb
wj22 =
x
x
0.849
cos max
cos
jj

20,000

40.4 in

Mmax=-23,500 in-lb

96 in

40 in

What is the difference if we neglect Axial Force?

25 lb/in

AH
TH

30

AV

= 990 lb

96 in

990

TV = 2410 lb

40 in

1410

Without axial force:

xmax = 39.6 in

2410

Mmax = -19,602 in lb

39.6
-1000

Torsion: Stresses and Deflections

This figure shows a straight cylindrical bar subjected to a torque, T.
As the bar twists, each section is subjected to a shearing stress.
Assuming the left end is stationary relative to the rest of the beam,
a line AB will move to AB under these shearing stresses.
The longitudinal lines become twisted.

BB' r
=
(at surface)
Shear strain, =
AB L

Shear strain is a function of:

angle of twist,
distance from center of beam,

= (at an arbitrary distance)

L

max

=
r

{}

ratio of (shear strain) : (max shear strain) =

ratio of (distance from center) : (radius of beam)

For linearly elastic material, Hookes Law is:

=G

max

=
r

where G = shear modulus

For a cross-section:
T=

dT = ( dA) = (

area

T=

area

max
r

area

max

dA)

dA

area

J (Polar Moment
of Inertia)

= dF / dA
(force / area)
So: dA = force (dF)

T=

max
r

 max

Tr
=
J

T
=
J

To find polar moment of inertia (J):

1 Solid shaft:
c

J = 2 dA = 2 (2d ) = 2 3 d
0

change from dA to d

= 2

4 r

r 4
4
= 2 0 = r
4
2

2 Tubular shaft: same as previous slide, just change limits

of integration to:

ro

ri

(ri = inside radius, ro = outside radius)

Relating Shear Stress and Torque to

Angle of Twist

Recall: = (at an arbitrary distance)

Writing this in differential form:

dx
d =

varies along the length of the beam also varies with applied torque.
is a function of .

Rewriting Hookes Law:

Shear strain: =

T
=

J = T
G
GJ

Substituting for , the differential angle of twist is:

dx T dx
T
d =
=
=
dx

GJ JG

Integrating along the length:

L

T
TL
dx =
= d =
JG
JG
0
0

Bruhn A6.8: Torsion of Thin-Walled Closed Sections

Aircraft wings, fuselages, tails, control surfaces are
thin-walled tubes of one or more cells.
Flight and landing loads produce torques (twisting
moments) on these structural elements.
Designers must determine the torsional stresses and
deformations of these structures.

This figure shows a portion of a wing which is subjected to

pure torsion. There are no end restraints on the tube so the
tube ends and tube cross-sections are free to warp out of
their plane.

Shearing stresses are uniformly distributed through the

skin thickness.
Define: shear flow q = t

How is Shear flow, q, related to applied torque, T?

ds = differential length of the skin

q: force/unit length
ds: length

dF = q ds = differential shearing force

dT = (dF) (h) = q h ds = 2q dA
h = moment arm of dF about O
dA = area of shaded triangle

Area of triangle
= h ds = dA

The total torque due to the shear flow over the

entire wing section can be obtained by integrating dT
over the entire boundary curve of the section.

T = dT = 2q dA
T = 2qA
where : A = total area enclosed in the wing section

Solving for shear flow (shear force intensity):

T
q=
2A
and for shearing stress:

T
=
2At

Bruhn A6.9: Torsion of Multiple-cell Closed Sections

In a wing cross section, there will be spars which
divide the section into cells.
nx
ny

How can we relate applied torque to shear flow when

the wing section has more than one cell?

We can choose any axis (coming out of the page)

as our moment axis and sum moments caused by the
shear flow. Let us choose an axis through point O.
We know that: T = 2qA, so if we multiply the shear
flow by the area it encloses, we will know the torque
about that part of the wing.

 q1 causes a positive moment about point O

q2 also causes a positive moment about point O
q3 causes a negative moment about point O

nx
ny

To = 2q1 (A1 + A2) + 2q2 A3 2q3 A2

(To = resisting moment of the shear flow about
an arbitrary point O)

For equilibrium of shear at the junction point

of the interior web and the outside wall:
q3 = q1 q2

Substituting this equality gives us:

To = 2q1 (A1 + A2) + 2q2 A3 2q3 A2
To = 2q1 (A1 + A2) + 2q2 A3 2(q1 q2)A2
= 2q1 A1 + 2q1 A2 + 2q2 A3 2q1 A2 + 2q2 A2
= 2q1 A1 + 2q2 (A2 + A3)
= 2q1 A1 + 2q2 A2

We can generalize for a multiple-cell wing structure:

n

To = 2qi A i
i=1

What is the rotation of the cross-section due to torsion?

A single cell wing is fixed at one end and subjected to torsion

on the other end.
The torsion produces a shear flow, q, on the cross section.

Consider differential segment abcd as a free body.

Due to the shear flow, the lines ad and bc rotate by an angle .
How can we define ?

Define: A = cross sectional area enclosed by skin

= angle of twist in radians per unit length of the wing
dU = strain energy of the element abcd
(area = ds x 1) due to the twisting deformation
Strain energy = energy stored by structure during deformation.

Defining Strain Energy

dU = (q)(ds)

Also, we know that:

T
q=
2A

Assuming small :

tan
1

q
T
(1)() = =
=
G tG 2AGt

1
dU = q ds
2
1 T T
=

(ds )
2 2A 2AGt
T2
=
ds
2
8A Gt

We can find the total energy by integrating dU

over the entire skin boundary:

U=

T2
dU =
8A 2G

ds
t

From Castiglianos Theorem:

dU = dT

dU
T
=
=
2
dT 4A G
1
=
2AG

ds
q
t

In summation form:

1
L
=
q

2AG
t

ds
t
T
(where : q =
)
2A
where: L = length of skin
section with
thickness t
= angle of twist of
the cross section
per unit length

Example: Find the shear flow and angle of twist in a 3-cell

thin-wall closed section.

Let us use the symbol:

L
a=
t

1
L
=
q

2AG
t

1
L
2G = q
A
t

1
{q1a10 + (q1 q2 )a12 }
2G1 =
A1

2G 2 =

1
{q2a20 (q1 q2 )a12 + (q2 q3 )a23 }
A2

2G3 =

1
{ (q2 q3 )a23 + q3a30 }
A3

Compatibility Condition

During torsion of the wing, each common junction point

(between a pair of adjacent cells)
must be displaced by the same amount.
This is a compatibility condition which requires
1 = 2 and 2 = 3
So the equations can be solved simultaneously for
q1, q2, q3 and in terms of applied torque, T,
and the geometric constraints.

How many equations do we have?

1
{q1a10 + (q1 q2 ) a12 }
2G1 =
A1
1
{q2a20 (q1 q2 ) a12 + (q2 q3 ) a23 }
2G 2 =
A2
1
{ (q2 q3 ) a23 + q3a30 }
2G3 =
A3

T = 2q1 A1 + 2q2 A2 + 2q3 A3

How many unknowns?

We can solve for the qs and

if we know applied torque and section geometry.
Or, we can find T if we know the resisting qs and
resulting angle of twist, .

Numerical Example
of a simple two-cell wing section
Page A6.8 of Bruhn
The wing section shown is subjected to torque, T (clockwise).
Find the shear flows and the angle of twist.
T

Loading and geometric conditions:

A1 = 105.8 in2
T = 83,450 in lb
CW

A2 = 387.4 in2
Total A1 + A2 = 493.2 in2

L10 = 26.9 in
L12 = 13.4 in
AB = 25.25 in
BC = 15.7 in
CD = 25.3 in
T

Solution

Find a10, a12, a20:

26.9in
a10 =
= 1075
0.025in
13.4in
a12 =
= 335
0.04in
a 20

25.25in 15.7in 25.3in

=
+
+
= 1735
0.04in 0.05in 0.032in

Find the angles of twist:

1
{ q1a10 (q1 q2 )a12 }
2G1 =
A1
1
{ 1075 q1 335 (q1 q2 )}
=
105.8
= 13.33 q1 + 3.166 q2

1
{ q2a20 + (q1 q2 )a12 }
2G 2 =
A2
1
{ 1735 q2 + 335(q1 q2 )}
=
387.4
= 0.865 q1 5.343 q2

13.33 q1 + 3.156 q2 = 0.865 q1 5.343 q2

q1 = 0.5994 q2

Also : T = 2A 1= q1 + 2A 2q2
= 211.6 q1 + 774.8 q2
= 211.6 (0.5994 q2 ) + 774.8 q2
= 901.63 q2

 q2 = T

901.63

= 83,450

lb
= 92.55
901.63
in

lb
lb
q1 = 0.5994 (92.55 ) = 55.48
in
in
lb
q12 = q1 q2 = 37.07 (opposite of assumed direction )
in
Angle of twist: 2G1 = 446.54 lb/in
2G2 = 446.5 lb/in
1 = 2 = 0.032 deg

55.48 lb/in
92.55 lb/in

37.07 lb/in