Materials Science and Engineering A343 (2003) 235
/242

www.elsevier.com/locate/msea

Abrasive wear behaviour of a high carbon steel: effects of

microstructure and experimental parameters and correlation with
mechanical properties
O.P. Modi a,, D.P. Mondal a, B.K. Prasad a, M. Singh a, H.K. Khaira b
a

Regional Research Laboratory (CSIR), Hoshangabad Road, Near Habibganj Naka, Bhopal 462 026, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Maulana Azad College of Technology, Bhopal 462 007, India
Received 14 January 2002; received in revised form 17 May 2002

Abstract
This investigation deals with the observations made towards understanding the role of interlamellar spacing on the high-stress
abrasive wear behaviour of a high carbon steel. The samples revealed near-eutectoid (pearlitic) structure. The interlamellar spacing
was varied by altering the austenitization temperature. Abrasion tests were conducted over a range of applied load, sliding speed,
travel distance and abrasive size. Mechanical properties such as hardness, impact toughness and tensile strength, yield strength and
elongation at fracture of the samples were also evaluated. The nature of dependence of abrasive wear rate and the measured
mechanical properties on material related factors like interlamellar spacing of the samples has been analyzed. The study indicates
that the wear rate does not follow a Hall-Petch relationship with the interlamellar spacing of the samples unlike hardness and yield
strength. An analysis of the influence of abrasion test parameters suggested the wear rate to increase sharply with load initially. This
was followed by a lower rate of increase or even a reduction in wear rate at higher loads depending on the interlamellar spacing of
the samples. Increasing abrasive size caused the wear rate to practically remain unaffected initially. This was followed by a sharp
increase in wear rate beyond a critical abrasive size. Increasing speed led to higher wear rates upto a critical sliding speed beyond
which the wear rate decreased with a further increase in speed. The varying nature of influence of interlamellar spacing on
mechanical properties and interlamellar spacing and abrasion test parameters on the wear response of the samples has been
discussed in terms of wear-induced subsurface work hardening/deformation of the specimens, deteriorating cutting efficiency of the
abrasive particles, stability of the deformed (transfer) layer in the near vicinity of the wear surface during abrasion and hardening of
ferrite in the (eutectoid) cementite
/ferrite (pearlite) mixture in the steel prior to testing.
# 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Abrasive wear; Interlamellar spacing; Microstructure property correlation; Mechanical properties; Steel

1. Introduction
Steels containing (nearly) eutectoid composition are
extensively used for different engineering applications
such as AFC pans, grinding balls, rails etc. [1] wherein
severe abrasive wear conditions are encountered by the
components. Some attempts have been made to study
the wear behaviour of the steels [1
/7].
It has been reported that mechanical properties such
as hardness, strength and toughness of eutectoid steels

strongly depend on interlamellar spacing [8
/13]. The

strength and hardness follow Hall-Petch relationship
with the interlamellar spacing [8
/19]; the properties are
inversely proportional to the square root of interlamellar spacing. The wear resistance (inverse of wear rate) of
a material increases with yield strength/hardness [14
/
20]. The wear rate could be expressed as a function of
strength/hardness, strain to fracture and applied load by
the following equation [20]:
WR K

 Corresponding author. Fax: /91-755-587-042

E-mail address: opmodi@rrlbpl.org (O.P. Modi).

Po def
Ho o

(1)

where WR is the wear rate, P is the applied load, H is

the hardness, o def is the strain for asperity deformation,

0921-5093/02/$ - see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 1 - 5 0 9 3 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 3 8 4 - 2

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O.P. Modi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A343 (2003) 235
/242

o o is the fracture strain of the asperity (i.e. effective

deformation at which asperities break to form wear
particles) and K is the wear coefficient which indicates
the probability of wear particle generation. The above
equation clearly demonstrates that the wear rate of a
material decreases with increase in hardness and fracture
strain of the asperities. Atkins [21] also presented a
criterion for material removal on the basis of fracture
toughness, plasticity and friction. It has been reported
that wear resistance of a material decreases with
increasing fracture toughness. However, beyond a
critical fracture toughness a reverse effect is produced.
As the strength, hardness and fracture toughness
strongly depend on interlamellar spacing, the wear
resistance of the steel will also vary by bringing about
a change in interlamellar spacing. Studies pertaining to
the influence of interlamellar spacing on the wear
behaviour of (eutectoid) steels suggest wear rate to be
inversely proportional to interlamellar spacing [1,4
/6]
and can be expressed as follows:
WR8S n

(2)

where S is interlamellar spacing and exponent n varies

in the range 0.47
/0.97 depending on the applied load
and the nature of contact (i.e. sliding or sliding
/rolling).
This signifies no definite relationship between interlamellar spacing and (sliding/sliding
/rolling) wear rate. In
fact, other controlling factors such as load and nature of
contact also come into picture to govern the wear
behaviour of the samples. Accordingly, abrasive wear
characteristics of eutectoid steels having pearlitic structure is also expected to be controlled by their interlamellar spacing. However, no information appears to
exist in this context in spite of the fact that abrasive wear
is one of the major causes of failure of a number of
components like AFC pan, rail etc.
In view of the above, an attempt has been made in the
present investigation to understand the influence of
interlamellar spacing on the abrasive wear properties of
a (near-eutectoid) high carbon steel containing pearlitic
structure. The effect of load, abrasive size, speed and
traversal distance on wear rate was also studied.
Interlamellar spacing of the steel has been varied by
changing the austenitization temperature. Attempts
have also been made to correlate the abrasive wear
behaviour with the mechanical properties of the steel.

eutectoid). The steel was annealed at 1073, 1123, 1173,

1223 and 1273 K for a fixed duration of 1 h in order to
change its interlamellar spacing, S . Metallographically
polished specimens were etched with nital and examined
using optical and scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
for their microstructural characterization and measurement of interlamellar spacing. The etched specimens
were sputtered with gold prior to their SEM examination. The value of S was measured using intercept
method considering 1000 intercepts from different fields
[8
/12]. The hardness of metallographically polished
samples was measured at an applied load of 30 kg using
a Vickers hardness tester. An average of five measurements for each sample was considered in this study.
Tensile tests were conducted using a 20 T microprocessor controlled Hounsefield Universal testing machine.
Specimens (gauge diameter: 4 mm and gauge length: 16
mm) were tested at a strain rate of 10 3 s 1. Impact
tests were conducted using a Charpy impact tester on
specimens having 10 /10 mm2 cross section and 55 mm
length. A 458 V notch having 0.25 mm notch root
radius and 2 mm notch depth was made at the mid point
along the length of the sample for impact testing.

2.2. Abrasion tests

Two-body abrasive wear tests were performed on
metallographically polished cylindrical samples (8 mm
diameter and 30 mm length). The tests were conducted
using a pin-on-disc machine (DUCOM Bangalore,
India). Silicon carbide abrasive paper was fixed firmly
on the disc of the apparatus. Different loads (0.5
/2.0
kg), abrasive sizes (15
/115 mm), sliding speeds (0.2
/0.8
m s 1) and traversal distances (120
/720 m) were
adopted for testing the samples. A schematic representation of the test configuration is shown in Fig. 1. The
specimens were thoroughly cleaned, dried and weighed
prior to and after each wear test. The wear rate was
calculated from weight loss measurement.

2. Experimental
2.1. Material composition, heat treatment,
microstructure and mechanical property measurement
The steel selected in this study contained 0.65% C,
0.87% Mn, 1.7% Si, 0.02% S, 0.021% P and balance Fe.
Equivalent carbon content of the steel was 0.7% (near-

Fig. 1. A schematic view of the pin-on-disc wear test configuration.

O.P. Modi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A343 (2003) 235
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3. Results and discussion

3.1. Microstructure and mechanical properties
Fig. 2a is a typical optical micrograph of the sample
annealed at 1073 K showing the presence of pearlite
along with a small quantity of ferrite network around
the pearlite colonies. This could be attributed to the
0.70% carbon equivalent of the steel (0.65% C) suggesting the presence of mainly ( /90%) pearlite along with a
limited quantity (/10%) of ferrite. Microstructural
features of the steel samples annealed at different
temperatures were observed to be similar except the
variation in interlamellar spacing (Fig. 2b
/f). Measured
values of interlamellar spacing is plotted as a function of
the annealing temperature (Fig. 3). It may be noted from
Fig. 3 that the interlamellar spacing increased with
annealing temperature. This could be attributed to the
fact that in hypo-eutectoid steels like the one in the
present investigation, the first phase to nucleate is ferrite

237

in the grain boundary regions of austenite. If the (prior)

austenite grains are coarser, relatively less number of
grains of ferrite would be nucleated thereby leading to
the formation of coarser grains (of ferrite). Thus, in the
case of finer (prior) austenite grains, finer ferrite
structure would be developed first. As the grains are
finer, the grain boundary area would increase resulting
in an increase in the number of nucleation sites for
ferrite and cementite to form pearlite. This results in the
formation of finer pearlitic structure. Thus, the increase
in interlamellar spacing with annealing temperature
(Figs. 2 and 3) could be attributed to the formation of
larger prior austenitic grains at higher annealing temperatures [10].
Fig. 4 shows various mechanical properties (such as
hardness, yield strength, tensile strength, %elongation
and impact toughness) of the steel plotted as a function
of the inverse of the square root of the interlamellar
spacing (S1/2). The corresponding interlamellar spacing (S ) is also shown in the figure. It may be noted that

Fig. 2. Microstructure of the steel annealed at (a and b) 1073 K (c) 1123 K, (d) 1173 K, (e) 1223 K and (f) 1273 K.

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O.P. Modi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A343 (2003) 235
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Fig. 3. Influence of annealing temperature on interlamellar spacing of

the steel.

while hardness and strength increased (Fig. 4a), the

elongation and toughness (Fig. 4b) reduced with interlamellar spacing (S ). Further, hardness and yield
strength followed a linear relationship with S 1/2 (Fig.
4a) while ultimate tensile strength (Fig. 4a), and
%elongation and toughness (Fig. 4b) did not do so as
reported elsewhere also [8
/13]. This indicates that only
hardness and yield strength (Fig. 4a) follow a Hall-Petch
type relationship with interlamellar spacing [8
/13] and
not the remaining mechanical properties (Fig. 4a and b).
This could be attributed to the generation of thermal
residual stresses on the ferrite lamellae due to a
difference in the thermal expansion coefficient of ferrite
and cementite [8,9,22]. The thermal residual stresses may
be sufficient enough to cause plastic deformation of
ferrite in the (ferrite/cementite) interfacial regions. When
the lamellae are finer than critical value, the plastic zone
on the (ferrite/cementite) interface overlaps with each
other and the whole of ferrite gets plastically work
hardened. This also leads to higher strength and hardness with decrease in interlamellar spacing. Additionally, less ductility and toughness is noted in the case of
finer interlamellar spacings (Fig. 4) because of the
hardened ferrite.
3.2. Abrasive wear behaviour

Fig. 4. The influence of the inverse of the square root of the

interlamellar spacing (S 1/2) and interlamellar spacing (S ) on (a)
hardness (HV), yield strength (YS) and tensile strength (UTS) and (b)
elongation and impact toughness of the steel.

In order to effectively discuss the wear behaviour of

the samples, it would be worth analyzing the phenomena of high-stress abrasion and the factors controlling
the operating material removal mechanisms. It may be
mentioned that the specimens during abrasion are
subjected to a relative motion against the fixed abrasive
particles under load. As a result, the specimen surfaces

experience normal as well as shear stresses. The normal

stress helps to penetrate the abrasive into the specimen
surfaces and the shear stress facilitates scratching action
of the abrasive. Under the combined actions of normal
and shear stresses, the abrasive removes the material
from specimen surface by cutting and/or ploughing

O.P. Modi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A343 (2003) 235
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action. It is anticipated that the part of the total energy

supplied to the specimen surface through abrasion is
utilized for the plastic deformation of the subsurface
regions in addition to cutting and ploughing actions.
Such a kind of deformation affects the surface characteristics of the specimens and the wear performance at
latter stages. Hence, abrasive wear behaviour can be
considered to be dependent on the deformation behaviour of a material which is a strong function of material
hardness, ductility and fracture characteristics. These
parameters have been correlated with wear by Eq. (1).
Ultimately, these parameters depend on the microstructure of materials. However, due to subsurface deformation during wear, the microstructure in the subsurface
regions might be considerably different from that of the
bulk. This suggests that wear rate may not follow a
similar kind of relation with microstructure unlike other
material properties. Moreover, the configuration and
mode of abrasion tests, load, speed, and the nature,
shape, size and hardness of the abrasive particles as well
as their rake angle and the frequency of movement of
the specimen on the same abrasive also control the
abrasive wear behaviour of materials [23,24].
The wear rate of the samples has been plotted in Figs.
5
/8 as a function of the inverse of the square root of
their interlamellar spacing (S1/2) at different sliding
distances, speeds, loads and abrasive sizes. The wear rate
versus S1/2 plots were not linear in any case suggesting
that the wear rate does not follow a Hall-Petch relation-

239

Fig. 6. Abrasive wear rate vs S1/2/S for different sliding speeds under
the test condition of 25 mm abrasive, 0.5 kg load and 480 m sliding
distance.

Fig. 7. Abrasive wear rate vs S 1/2/S for different loads under the test
condition of 25 mm abrasive, 0.8 m s 1 speed and 480 m sliding
distance.

Fig. 5. Abrasive wear rate vs S 1/2/S for different sliding distances

under the test condition of 25 mm abrasive, 0.5 kg load and 0.8 m s 1
speed.

ship with interlamellar spacing. Moreover, the wear rate

reduced with decreasing interlamellar spacing, the extent
of reduction being considerable at interlamellar spacings

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O.P. Modi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A343 (2003) 235
/242

Fig. 8. Abrasive wear rate vs S1/2/S for different abrasive sizes under
the test condition of 0.8 m s 1 speed, 0.5 kg load and 480 m sliding
distance.

upto 712 nm. The reduced wear rate with decrease in

interlamellar spacing may be attributed to increased
hardness and strength of the steel samples which
primarily control the cutting efficiency of the abrasives.
A faster rate of reduction in wear rate with decreasing S
initially (upto a value of 712 nm) followed by a slower
rate of reduction for lesser values of S (increase in
S1/2) may be attributed to a change in surface and
subsurface characteristics and deformation behaviour
during abrasion. The pearlite lamellae may fracture and
fragment into nano-size particles during wear which are
easily picked up by the wear surface [25
/27]. A mixed
sub-layer may form over the deformed layer [27]. Finer
cementite particles will be generated as the lamellae
become finer. These generated particles would be more
easily picked up by the wear surface. This results in a
relatively harder mixed deformed transfer layer on the
wear surface and thus leads to a reduction in wear rate
with decrease in interlamellar spacing. The probability
of more effective formation of a stable work hardened
layer increases with finer interlamellar spacing upto a
limit, beyond which the decreasing interlamellar spacing
becomes less effective leading to less extent of reduction
in wear rate with decreasing interlamellar spacing (Figs.
5
/8). Moreover, for a coarse interlamellar spacing, a
stable mixed layer might not have formed leading to
considerably higher wear rate above the interlamellar
spacing of 712 nm. On the contrary, in the case of finer
lamellae, the ferrite region (between two cementite
lamellae) may be totally work hardened causing reduced
wear rate. Thus, the wear of the steel samples are
primarily being controlled by the subsurface hardness
resulting from wear-induced plastic deformation in the
subsurface regions [24]. Thus despite hardness and

strength following a Hall-Petch relationship (Fig. 4a)

with interlamellar spacing, the wear rate does not do so
(Figs. 5
/8). The hardness and strength also increase
with decreasing interlamellar spacing which in other
words reduces the cutting efficiency of abrasives [27].
Testing the samples under the conditions of a fixed
abrasive size (25 mm), sliding speed (0.80 m s 1) and
load (0.50 kg) led to lower wear rate with increasing
sliding distance, wherein the extent of the reduction in
wear rate became prominent initially (Fig. 5). This could
be a result of greater extent of reduction in the cutting
efficiency of the abrasive and work hardening in the
subsurface region [28]. The deterioration in the cutting
efficiency of the abrasive particles has been suggested to
be due to capping, clogging, attrition and shelling [25].
The effect of the above mentioned factors tends to
reduce with a further increase in sliding distance [28]
since the samples were abraded against the preworn
abrasive in due course.
Wear rate was noted to increase with sliding speed
upto 0.40 m s 1 followed by a reversal in the trend at
higher speeds (Fig. 6) when the samples were tested
under the conditions of fixed abrasive size (25 mm), load
(0.50 kg) and sliding distance (480 m). The observed
effect of sliding speed on wear rate could be explained
on the basis of the two operating wear mechanisms
namely microcutting and microploughing during abrasion. Microcutting dominates under low operating
temperature conditions such as at the low sliding speeds
in this study involving the generation of less frictional
heat. With increasing sliding speed, the frictional heat
generated becomes greater causing the generation of
high operating temperature conditions. Under the
circumstances, capability of the specimen surface to
deform plastically increases. This also causes material
removal to take place by microploughing to a greater
extent. During abrasion testing with the test configuration used in this study, some of the removed debris gets
entrapped in the inter (abrasive) particle spacing and
remaining is thrown out of the wear track due to
centrifugal force in subsequent passes. Initial increase
in wear rate with sliding speed could be attributed to an
increasing extent of damage caused by the abrasive
particles. A reduction in wear rate beyond a critical
value of speed, could be attributed to a larger extent of
entrapment of debris particles in the inter (abrasive)
particle spacing causing a reduction in the cutting
efficiency of the abrasive particles through capping
and clogging [25,29]. At higher speeds, there is also a
greater possibility of abrasive particles undergoing
slipping action in view of increasing capping and
clogging [24,25,29]. Probability of the formation of a
more stable transfer layer also increases at higher
speeds. The mentioned factors jointly lead to reduced
wear rate with speed beyond the critical one (Fig. 6).

O.P. Modi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A343 (2003) 235
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Increasing load led to higher wear rate (Fig. 7), the

increase in wear rate being appreciable upto 1.0 kg load
under the test conditions of 0.80 m s 1 speed, 25 mm
abrasive and 480 m sliding distance. It may be noted
that abrasive particles make indentations on the specimen surface during the course of abrasion. The specimen surface gets work hardened while the cutting
efficiency of the abrasive reduces through capping,
clogging, attrition and shelling jointly leading to less
wear rate [25,29]. The extent of work hardening of the
samples and capping, clogging, attrition and shelling of
the abrasive increases with applied load. On the
contrary, larger depth of cut by the abrasive on the
specimen causes higher wear rates with load. Upto an
applied load of 1.0 kg, the wear rate increased with load
(Fig. 7) due to the predominant effect of increasing
depth of cut by the abrasive. However, the predominant
effect of deteriorating cutting efficiency because of
capping, clogging, shelling and attrition of the abrasive
particles and work hardening of the wear surface led to
reduced wear rate with a further increase in load beyond
the critical load [25,29]. A counterbalancing effect of
increasing depth of cut with load and decreasing cutting
efficiency of the abrasive as discussed earlier caused the
wear rate to remain practically unaffected with load
(Fig. 7).
Testing the samples for a fixed sliding distance of 480
m, 0.50 kg load and 0.80 m s1 speed against different
abrasive sizes revealed increasing wear rate with abrasive size, the severity of increase being considerably large
against the coarsest abrasive (Fig. 8). The wear rate was
noted to be practically unaffected by the abrasive size
upto a critical abrasive size of 25 mm (Fig. 8). However,
beyond the critical value, the wear rate increased
significantly as the abrasive became coarser. The cutting
efficiency of the finer size abrasive particles deteriorates
rapidly by severe clogging [24,25]. As a result, the
cutting efficiency of the abrasive decreases to a great
extent due to less depth of cut on the specimen surface
by the fine abrasive particles forming shallow grooves
[25,29]. In the case of coarser abrasive particles, the
inter-abrasive particle spacing becomes larger and
abrasive particles are protruded more over base. It has
been reported that the critical contact stress required to
cause fracture/microcracking reduces with increasing
abrasive size [24,25]. Further, the effective stress on
each individual abrasive is higher when the abrasive size
is coarser. As a result, the cutting efficiency of the
abrasive increases which leads to significantly higher
wear rate (Fig. 8).
A comparison of Fig. 4 and Figs. 5
/8 shows that the
wear rate reduced with increasing hardness and strength.
On the contrary, the wear rate increased with elongation
and impact toughness. In this connection, it may be
noted that the overall wear rate depends on the
contribution from the cutting, ploughing, microcracking

241

and microfatigue induced wear [25,27]. Depending on

the dominating wear mechanism, the wear rate varies
differently with hardness and strength [27,30]. It has
been reported that the wear rate gradually reduced with
hardness, as in the present study (Fig. 4a, and Figs. 5
/
8), if (plastic) deformation induced-wear dominates
[25,27,30,31]. This is also very much expected from the
fairly low range of hardness of the steel samples
generated through heat treatment in this study. As the
hardness and yield strength are proportional to each
other, the wear rate vs S1/2 plot (Figs. 5
/8) follows a
similar trend to the one observed in Fig. 4a. Reduced
wear rate with increasing hardness and yield strength
(Fig. 4a, and Figs. 5
/8) may be attributed to a higher
degree of resistance against the cutting action of the
abrasive. The trend of variation of wear rate with
hardness and yield strength suggests that the contribution of deformation induced-abrasive wear emanating
mainly due to ploughing action of the abrasive is
dominating over that of cutting induced-wear in the
present study [27,30]. As such wear rate of the steel
samples may be a strong function of the other deformation involving parameters like ultimate tensile strength,
ductility and impact toughness (Figs. 4
/8). This may be
attributed to the fact that UTS takes into account both
elastic and plastic deformation and the stress/strain level
for initiation of subsurface cracks [27,30]. It has been
reported by Sundararajan et. al. [32] that an optimum
width of mixed zone is beneficial for controlling
deformation induced wear. If the thickness of the mixed
zone is greater than the optimum thickness, cracks will
easily initiate at the interface between different layers of
the deformed zone and propagate longitudinally or
transversely therein leading to an unstable mixed zone
and higher wear rate. If the material becomes tougher,
there may be a possibility of the formation of a thicker
mixed layer which is more susceptible to cracking
causing higher wear rate. However, at higher impact
toughness relatively slower rate of increase in wear rate
may be due to the fact that higher toughness reduces the
microfatigue cracking of the material generated due to
cutting and ploughing actions [27,30]. The width of the
layer subjected to wear induced deformation may
increase with increase in ductility [24]. Additionally,
the depth of cut (contribution from cutting) also
increases with increase in ductility. As a result, beyond
a critical value of ductility, the mixed layer gets removed
due to greater instability. This leads to increase in wear
rate with the increase of elongation, especially beyond a
specific level of elongation.

4. Conclusions
Following conclusions can be drawn from the above
study:

O.P. Modi et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A343 (2003) 235
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242

(1) The wear rate was a strong function of interlamellar spacing but it did not follow a Hall-Petch type
relationship. The wear rate decreased with decrease in
interlamellar spacing to a great extent initially. This was
followed by a lower extent of decrease.
(2) The wear rate decreased with increase in sliding
distance. The extent of the decrease was high initially
followed by a lower degree of reduction in wear rate at
longer distances.
(3) The wear rate increased with load initially. This
was followed by the attainment of either practically
constant or marginal variation in wear rate at higher
loads. Maximum wear rate was obtained at an intermediate sliding speed irrespective of applied load,
abrasive size and interlamellar spacing.
(4) The wear rate remained practically unchanged by
the abrasive size upto 25 mm. However, beyond this size,
the abrasive wear rate increased significantly with
abrasive size.
(5) Material removal was dominated by deformation
induced wear i.e. ploughing.

Acknowledgements
Authors are thankful to Dr N. Ramakrishnan,
Director, Regional Research Laboratory (CSIR), Bhopal for granting permission to publish this paper.

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