_____ Notes _____

Contents
6.0 Antennas
6.2 Antennas
6.2.1 Marconi Antennas
6.2.2 Hertzian Antennas
6.2.3 Dipole Antenna
6.2.4 Halfwave Dipole
6.2.4.1 Loop Antenna
6.2.4.3 Log Periodic Dipole Array [LPDA]
6.2.4.4 Yagi Uda Antenna
6.2.5 Array Factor
6.2.5.1 Broadside Array
6.2.5.2 End-fire Array
6.2.5.4 Phased Array
6.3 TV Broadcast Antennas
Max Height [ft]
6.3.1 Superturnstile or Batwing
6.3.2 Panel Antennas
6.3.3 Circularly Polarized Antennas
6.3.4 Helical Antennas
6.3.5 Slot Antenna
Assignment Questions
For Further Research

Wireless Communications Systems

5- i

_____ Notes _____

6.0 Antennas
Antenna Basics by the US Navy
Antenna Characteristics by Harris
Antenna Gain Measurements Part 1 by Brown
Antenna Gain Measurements Part 2 by Brown
Parabolic Antennas & Their Feeds by Comly
Smart Antenna Systems by ArrayCom
Shortwave Antenna by Gmbh
http://news.wirelessdesignonline.com/content/hubs/dir.asp?hub=news
http://www.borg.com/~warrend/guru.html
The purpose of an antenna is to collect and convert electromagnetic waves to
electronic signals. Transmission lines then guide these to the receiver front
end.
In order for a picture to be usable, a high signal to nose ratio must be
achieved. A video signal with an S/N of 10 dB is not usable whereas a S/N of
40 dB results in an excellent picture.
Although most TV receiving antennas are simply a piece of bent wire, their
interaction with electromagnetic fields is quite complex, and a whole array of
terms is needed to characterize them:
Beamwidth: the angle defines by the radiation pattern where the signal
strength drops 3 dB of its maximum value in a given plane.
Polarization: the plane of electric field polarization with respect to the
earth.
Gain: a figure of merit used to quantify the signal capturing ability of the
antenna. It is closely related to directivity and beamwidth.
Effective area: a measure of the antennas ability to collect energy. It is
related to gain by the expression: A = G2/4.
Input impedance: The impedance, which is necessary in the receiver for
maximum power transfer to occur.
Radiation resistance: the ratio of the power driving the antenna to the
square of the current driving its terminals.
Bandwidth: the usable frequency band associated with the antenna.
Before any antenna can be selected, the center frequency and operating
bandwidth must be known. In general, the higher the operating frequency, the
smaller the antenna.
Antenna gain is always measured against a known reference such as an
isotropic source (dBi) or a half wave dipole (dBd).

Wireless Communications Systems

5-1

_____ Notes _____

Antennas
Antenna Type
Dipole
Omni
Gain Omni
Mobile Whip
Corner Reflector
Log Periodic
Horn
Helix
Microstrip Patch
Yagi
Panel
Parabolic Dish

Typical Gain
[dBd]
0
0
3 12
-0.6 to + 5.5
4 10
38
5 12
5 12
3 15
3 20
5 20
10 - 30

Increasing antenna gain by 3 dB generally requires increasing the size by a

factor of 2-3 or by reducing the beamwidth.
Vertical omni directional antennas and collinear arrays are used for line-ofsight communications with ground based mobile units. Sectoring can be
accomplished by panel antennas. Fixed point-to-point links generally use a
yagi or parabolic dish.
Polarization
Polarization by US Navy
Most wireless systems use vertical, horizontal, or elliptical polarization.
Elliptical polarization can be either RHC or LHC. Circular or elliptical
polarization is used for in-building applications since handheld devices often
point off-axis. Polarization can provide 20-dB isolation between adjacent
systems.

6.2

Antennas

Antennas exhibit reciprocity, which means they have the same gain whether
used for transmitting or receiving.
The relevant electric fields associated with an antenna are extremely complex
and have the general form1:

6-2

Right Hand Circular

Left Hand Circular

Antenna Engineering Handbook, Johnson & Jasik

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Antennas

radiated
field

E = j 30 2 Idz

inductive
field

j
1
+

r
(r )2

_____ Notes _____

electrostatic
field

( r ) 3

sin e jr

where Idz = moment of differential current element in rms amp meters

2
=

r = distance in meters
The near field or Fresnel region consists of all three fields. The electrostatic
and inductive fields fall off in intensity quite quickly. The far field or
Fraunhoffer region consists entirely of the radiated field.
Antenna Near Field Characteristics
Antenna Near Field by US Navy
Phase & Frequency Effects by US Navy
Radiation Patterns by US Navy

6.2.1

Marconi Antennas

Current

Voltage

Marconi antennas are usually 1/4 wavelength long and require a path to
ground. The ground plane itself acts as a reflector of energy, and combines
with the directly radiated wave to create the overall radiation pattern. If the
ground is dry or otherwise a poor conductor, a copper grid is generally laid out
on the ground. The impedance of a 1/4 Marconi antenna is 36.6 .

Increasing the antenna length has a significant impact on the radiation pattern:

Wireless Communications Systems

6-3

_____ Notes _____

Antennas

/2
/4

Launches a large ground wave

Launches a sky wave

6.2.2

Hertzian Antennas

Hertzian antennas do not require a path to either ground or a ground plane.

The simplest antenna of this type is the elementary doublet. It is a hypothetical
antenna where the instantaneous current magnitude is constant along its length.
Capacitive
Loading

L
L <<

The radiation pattern for this antenna is donut shaped, with the antenna rod
running through the hole. The bulk of the energy is radiated at right angles to
the rod and nothing off the ends.
Elementary Dipole Radiation Pattern

Broadside View

End View

This antenna is often used as a reference instead of an isotropic radiator, since

close approximations of it can be constructed. Other antennas can be
considered as being composed of a series of doublets.
The field strength at any distance and angle can be calculated from:

6-4

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Antennas

_____ Notes _____

60LI
sin volts/meter
r
L = doublet length in meters

E=

= wavelength in meters
I = current in amps (rms)
r = distance in meters

6.2.3

Dipole Antenna

A dipole is sometimes referred to as a Hertzian dipole. Since it has a relatively

simple construction and its radiation characteristics are well defined, it is
often used as the standard to which all other antennas are compared.
The dipole radiation pattern is shaped like a slightly flattened donut.

The simplest antenna is the dipole. The relationship between antenna current
and electric field is given by:2

Antenna Theory & Design, Stutzmann & Thiele, eq. 5-6

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6-5

_____ Notes _____

Antennas

e jr
E = j
I
2 r

cos

L cos
L
cos
2
2
sin

where E = electric field strength

= angle from antenna axis (radians)
I = antenna current (rms)
= intrinsic impedance (377)
L = antenna length
r = distance
A dipole has an impedance of about 70 . To increase this impedance
and more closely match the characteristics of a twin lead cable, the dipole may
be folded. A folded dipole has an input impedance of about 280 , and is
used as the driving element in many other types of antennas.
Most TV receivers are equipped with two indoor antennas, one to cover the
VHF band and the other the UHF band.
The most common VHF antennas are the extendible monopole and vee dipole
colloquially known as the rabbit ears. These are available with either a 75
or 300 impedance and have a typical gain of -4 dB with respect to a
dipole. The vee dipole has a lower input impedance than a straight dipole of
the same length, but under some conditions, it can exhibit a higher directivity
due to the reduction of sidelobes.
The common UHF antennas are the circular loop and triangular dipole. They
typically have a 300 impedance. The dipole version sometimes has a
reflecting screen to improve the gain and directivity.

6.2.4

Halfwave Dipole

The radiation pattern of the half wave dipole is very much like a donut.

The distribution of voltage, current, and impedance resemble:

6-6

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Antennas

_____ Notes _____

2300

Impedance
73

Voltage

Current
Half Wave Dipole

By increasing the length of the dipole, the donut tends to flatten out and then
explodes into complex multi lobed shapes.

Short Wave Antenna

6.2.4.1 Loop Antenna
The entire UHF band can be received on a single 20.3 cm diameter loop. The
circumference varies from one wavelength at 470 MHz to 1.7 wavelengths at
806 MHz. The directivity is about 3.5 dB. The mid band gain is 3 dB higher
than a dipole, but falls off to about 1 dB at either end.

20.3 cm

Loop antennas that are much smaller than wavelength they are attempting to
catch, exhibit a null in the direction of the loop axis. This makes it suitable for
radio direction finding equipment. If the loop size is increased, it begins to
generate a lobe across the axis and in line with the feed.

Wireless Communications Systems

6-7

_____ Notes _____

Antennas
6.2.4.2 Triangular Dipole [Bowtie]

The bowtie antenna is formed of two triangular sheets connected to a

transmission line and provides a 3 dB gain over a simple dipole. It can also be
constructed of a wire mesh if the spacing is less than 1/10 wavelength. The
input impedance is a function of length and flare angle. For television
applications, the flare angle is between 60o and 80o. If the antenna is
mounted in front of a reflecting surface, the gain increases to
approximately 9 dB. Stacking two of them vertically one wavelength apart,
increases the overall gain to about 12 dB.
If the receiver is located at a great distance from the broadcast tower, it is
often necessary to use an outdoor antenna. These often have a gain of 15 dB.
Placing the antenna on a tall mast also increases the received signal strength
by as much as an additional 14 dB. A further improvement occurs because
these antennas have a greater immunity to interference, due to their complex
structure.
Most outdoor antennas are a combination of two antennas [UHF and VHF] in
a single structure. The VHF antenna is generally a log-periodic dipole array.
The UHF antenna may be an LPDA, Yagi-Uda, corner reflector, parabolic
reflector, or triangular dipole array with reflecting screen.
6.2.4.3 Log Periodic Dipole Array [LPDA]
This antenna is called a log periodic array because the impedance variations
across the usable band are periodic functions of frequency. The high
impedance version is mounted on an insulated boom and feed by a balanced
cable. The average domestic antenna of this type has a gain of about 4.5 dB in
the low VHF band, rising to 7 dB in the high VHF band.
Beam Direction
Transmission Line

s
Xn
Xn+1
Balanced Feed

6-8

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Antennas

_____ Notes _____

Basic Design Formulas

Xn
L
s
d
= n = n = n
X n +1 Ln +1 s n +1 d n +1
typically .7 .95

= tan 1

1
4

typically 10 o 45 o

Bandwidth = B =

dn
2 Ln

f high
f low

[1 + 7.7(1 )

Number of dipoles = N = 1 +

cot

ln B
1
ln

Most CATV applications use a 75 unbalanced configuration, because it is

more compatible with their cable feeds and equipment.

Unbalanced Coax Feed

Two parallel conducting booms form a low impedance transmission line.

Phase reversal between dipoles is obtained by alternate attachment to the
booms.
An UHF LPDA can be constructed from V-shaped dipoles. The dipoles are
used in their and 3/2 modes and eliminate the need for higher frequency
dipoles.

Wireless Communications Systems

6-9

_____ Notes _____

Antennas
6.2.4.4 Yagi Uda Antenna

Dipole

Reflector

Directors
Transmission Line

The dipole is typically 0.45 to 0.49 wavelengths long. The reflector is

normally 0.55 wavelengths long and placed anywhere from 0.1 to 0.25
wavelengths behind the dipole. The reflector spacing has no affect on the
forward gain, but does influence the front to back ratio and input impedance.
The directors are normally 0.4 to 0.45 wavelengths long and are spaced at 0.3
to 0.4 wavelengths in front of the dipole. An antenna will usually have 6 to 12
directors.
6.2.4.5 Parabolic Antenna
Parabolic Antennas and Their Feeds
http://www.pinnaclecomm.com/parabolic.html
http://www.afcsat.com/profile.html
http://www.mlesat.com/antennas.html
http://deepspace.jpl.nasa.gov/dsn/antennas/index.html
Arecibo, with a diameter of 305 meters, is the worlds largest parabolic
reflector.

6 - 10

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Antennas

_____ Notes _____

The NASA Deep Space Network uses a number of parabolic antennas

including 34-meter beam waveguide antennas.
The 70-meter antenna is the largest, and most sensitive, in the DSN. The
reflector must remain accurate within a fraction of the signal wavelength [one
centimeter].
Antenna Coupling
RF Balun Transformers by MiaCom
Many low power antenna transmission lines are be either 75 unbalanced or
300 balanced cables. A baluns transformer is needed to match to a 75
cable to a 300 input. They have an insertion loss of about 1 or 2 dB.

Many home use radio receivers have two inputs; one accepts a 300 twin
lead cable on a screw terminal and the other accepts a 75 coax cable on a
type F connector.
Most higher power radio systems are designed to operate over a 50
transmission line.
VSWR
http://www.antennex.com/preview/vswr.htm
http://www.l0pht.com/~oblivion/radionet/reference/quick_ref/vswr.html
http://home.epix.net/~donaldso/E_Tools/VSWR.html

Wireless Communications Systems

6 - 11

_____ Notes _____

Antennas
The VSWR is a measure of how well the radio system is impedance matched
to the antenna. If VSWR is too high, transmission efficiency is reduced.
The typical value for VSWR is 1.5. This means that the antenna impedance
must be between 37.5 and 75 .
In general, a VSWR of >2.0 is undesirable since it represents increased
transmission loss. Reducing VSWR below 1.5 increases expense with little
improvement in performance.
Smith Chart
http://www.educatorscorner.com/experiments/spectral/SpecAn9.html
http://sss-mag.com/smith.html
http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/D.Jefferies/smith.html
http://fbox.vt.edu:10021/B/brindlec/smith/smith.html
Simplified Smith Chart

The Smith Chart is a graphical tool that is used to examine the performance of
radio transmission lines.
The tangential circles represent axis of constant resistance. The curved lines
radiating up and down represent constant reactance. The intersection of any
two lines therefore represents a complex impedance. In order to increase the
utility of the chart, the impedances are normalized. Therefore, the center
represents the ideal or matched impedance regardless of the system being
examined.

6 - 12

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Antennas

_____ Notes _____

In most systems, the actual impedance is a function of frequency. It can also

be a function of position with respect to the source or load. Since the degree of
impedance mismatch is related to VSWR, the Smith chart also has several
scales plotted below and around the actual chart.

6.2.5 Antenna Arrays

Flat Panel Arrays by Harris
Smart Antenna Tutorial
http://server5550.itd.nrl.navy.mil/projects/HAARP/ant3.html
By combining several radiating elements together, the overall radiation pattern
can be modified to suit a particular application.
The array factor is the increase in field strength in an array when compared to
a single element radiating the same power:
s

Array Axis

Side View of Radiating Array

n
2

n sin
2

sin
AF =

AFmax = n

s cos() +

= phase difference between radiated fields from adjacent

n = elements
number of elements

s = element spacing in wavelengths

= current phase shift between elements
= angle from array axis
The array factor AF, is a maximum when = 0
o
= 90 .

and a minimum when

HAARP Array
http://server5550.itd.nrl.navy.mil/projects/haarp/index.html
Photo of HAARP Array
The HAARP Ionospheric facility conducts upper atmospheric research in
Alaska. It broadcasts 3.6 Mw into a rectangular array of 180 crossed dipoles
operating in the HF band.

Wireless Communications Systems

6 - 13

_____ Notes _____

Antennas
SETI
http://www.seti-inst.edu/
The ATA array, managed by SETI is expected to consist of 700 4 m diameter
antennas. It will operate in the 1 10 GHz range.

6.2.5.1 Broadside Array

If all of the elements are fed in-phase, there will always be a broadside
radiation pattern. However, depending on the relative spacing, an end fire
pattern can also be created.
Combined Wavefront
= 90

All elements radiating in-phase

The radiating elements in the above illustration can be placed such that they
reinforce one another along the array axis, or not. An end fire pattern is
recreated when they reinforce.
By varying the space or phase shift between the elements, the size and
direction of the side lobes can be adjusted between these two extremes.
Increasing the number of radiating elements increases the overall array gain.

All elements radiating out of phase

Determining the array factor is sometimes relatively straightforward. By
definition, the signal strength for a broadside array is a maximum when
= 90o and a minimum when = 0 o

6 - 14

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Antennas

Since the array factor is a maximum when

= 0o

_____ Notes _____

we can determine the

current phase shift , required to create a broadside radiation pattern for a

given frequency or element spacing:

s cos( ) +

0=
s cos
+

2
=0

Therefore the array factor for a broadside array is:

sin
AF =

n
2

n sin
generally s =

where =

s cos( )

therefor = 2cos( )

Varying the spacing in a 6-element array produces the following patterns:

s=

s = 3/4

Wireless Communications Systems

s = /2

s = /4

6 - 15

_____ Notes _____

Antennas
Each element may have its own feed or there may be a single feed:
/2
Power
Spliters

Input Feed

/2

This form of antenna is often deployed in vertical stacks, with a reflector

spaced 1/4 wavelength behind the curtain. This broadband dipole curtain array
is the standard antenna for 100 to 500 kW short-wave broadcasting stations.

Front View

Side View

CBC Radio International operates eight curtain arrays at Sackville NB. Three
have an output power of 100 kW and five have an output of 250 kW. They are
tunable over the range of 4.9 to 21.7 MHz. Signals are beamed to Africa,
Europe, Latin America, The Caribbean, the USA, and Mexico.
6.2.5.2 End-fire Array
If all of the elements are positioned in such a way that the combined wave
fronts reinforce along the array axis.

Combined
Wavefronts
=0

Calculate the array factor is relatively straightforward. The signal strength is a

o
o
maximum when = 0 and a minimum when = 90

6 - 16

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Antennas

_____ Notes _____

Since the array factor is a maximum when = 0 we can determine the value
of :

s cos( ) +

2
0=
s cos(0) +

2
=
s

Therefore the array factor for an end-fire array is:

sin
AF =

n
2

n sin
generally s =

where =

s (cos( ) 1)

therefor =

(cos( ) 1)

Varying the spacing for a 6-element array produced the following patterns:

s=

s = 3/4

s = /2

s = /4

6.2.5.4 Phased Array

By varying the phase shift between elements, a beam or multiple beams can be
pointed towards a given direction. This forms the basis of the large
electronically steered radar system currently being deployed. Collectively
theses systems are known as phased arrays.

Wireless Communications Systems

6 - 17

_____ Notes _____

Antennas

Wa
vef

ron

The overall radiation pattern may resemble:

90
120

60
0.8
0.6

150

30

0.4
0.2
G( )

180

210

6.71110

330

240

300
270

180

The PAVE PAWS3 early warning radar for example has 1792 active crossed
dipole antennas on a 102-foot face. Each face can scan 120o in azimuth and
80o in elevation. The array has a range of 300 miles and can produce multiple
beams, which can be redirected in milliseconds.

6 - 18

Scientific American, February 1985

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Antennas

_____ Notes _____

http://www.spacecom.af.mil/hqafspc/library/facts/pavepaws.htm

Smart Antennas

6.3 TV Broadcast Antennas

In order to minimize interference between various broadcasting stations, the
FCC has established maximum limits on antenna height and horizontally
polarized ERP.
Channel
2-6
7 - 13
14 - 83

ERP [kW]
100
316
5000

Max Height [ft]

1000
2000
2000

This is a lot of power, which must be transported to the antenna. The feed
arrangement generally consists of two coaxial copper tubes, with a
characteristic impedance of 51.5 or 75 . The impedance is largely
determined by the diameter of the two pipes. The upper UHF channels do not
use a center conductor, and the signal is feed over a waveguide.
Although most antennas may be regarded as a bent piece of wire, they are very
complex structures. Some of their more important characteristics include:
horizontal and vertical directivity and gain, impedance, bandwidth, and power
rating.
TV antennas can be either horizontally or elliptically polarized. Elliptically
polarized signals have a decided advantage since the orientation of the
receiving antenna is not as important, and ghosting is reduced. Furthermore,
the total output power can twice as large since the regulations permit a
broadcaster to transmit as much power in the other orientations as in the
horizontal one.
To make certain that the main lobe of the radiation pattern actually strikes the
earth, TV antennas are generally given a slight downward tilt of 1o or 2o.
Normally this would also produce sharp nulls in the broadcast area. The
radiation pattern is therefor adjusted to prevent this through a process called
null fill.

Wireless Communications Systems

6 - 19

_____ Notes _____

Antennas

6.3.1 Superturnstile or Batwing

This is the first antenna developed for commercial broadcast applications.
Each radiator is a modified dipole. Four of them are evenly spaced around a
central support to form a section. Dipole pairs are feed in phase quadrature
and thus produce a horizontal polarization pattern.

Sections are stacked one wavelength apart to obtain a gain of anywhere from 3
to 12 for the low VHF channels, and 6 to 18 for the high VHF channels. This
provides for a nearly circular pattern in the horizontal plane.
The batwing is a broadband antenna, since it is formed not simply by a rod,
but by means of a partially filled plane surface. Consequently, it can be used to
carry two channels simultaneously.

6.3.2 Panel Antennas

Flat Panel Array
These antennas come in a wide variety of shapes. The radiating elements are
often a rhombus [H-panel] or delta [butterfly] shape. Each panel is comprised
of two dipoles or a variation, with a wideband characteristic capable of
carrying two simultaneous channels.

6.3.3 Circularly Polarized Antennas

One way to create a circularly polarized signal is to feed crossed dipoles in
quadrature.

6.3.4 Helical Antennas

This antenna consists of two helixes wrapped in opposite directions around a
central support. In this arrangement, the vertical components from each
antenna tend to cancel out, but the horizontal ones reinforce.

6 - 20

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Antennas

_____ Notes _____

6.3.5 Slot Antenna4

The traveling wave or slot antennas consist of an inner and outer conductor
where pairs of slots are cut in the outer conductor. These are spaced at 1/4
wavelength intervals. Probes are placed from the slot center inward. These
distort the internal fields and induce voltages across the slot forcing it to act as
a radiator.

John Hancock Center, Chicago5

Television Engineering Handbook, K. Blair Benson, 1986, FIG 8-4

Television Engineering Handbook, K. Blair Benson, 1986, FIG 8-2

Wireless Communications Systems

6 - 21

_____ Notes _____

Antennas
Mt. Sutro, San Francisco6

World Trade Center, New York7

Co-Sited FM Transmission Systems by Harris

6 - 22

Television Engineering Handbook, K. Blair Benson, 1986, FIG 8-3

Television Engineering Handbook, K. Blair Benson, 1986, FIG 8-1

Wireless Communications Systems

Antennas

_____ Notes _____

Assignment Questions
Quick Quiz
1.

The impedance of a 1/4 Marconi antenna is [36.6, 73, 292]

2.

The [Hertzian, Marconi] antenna requires a path to ground.

3.

The impedance of a vacuum to an electromagnetic field is [0, 377, ]

4.

Antenna reflectors are short parasitic elements. [True, False]

5.

Antenna radiation patterns can be enhanced by adding several [reflectors,

directors] along the antenna axis.

6.

Hertzian antennas [can, cannot] be arranged to form an array.

7.

The optical horizon is farther than the radio horizon. [True, False]

8.

A broadside array can be turned into an end-fire array by adjusting the

phase shift between elements. [True, False]

9.

Array factor is the increase in field strength in an array when compared to

an isotropic source. [True, False]

10. A turnstile antenna has a nearly circular radiation pattern. [True, False]
11. A helical antenna produces [vertically, horizontally, circularly] polarized
waves.
12. The [impedance, element spacing] is a function of the log of the
frequency in a log periodic antenna.
13. A [Marconi, Hertzian] antenna often needs a counterpoise.

Analytical Questions
1.

Assuming that the ideal matching impedance is 50 , plot the position of

the following impedances on a Smith Chart, and determine the reflection
coefficient and VSWR:
a) 75
b) 40 + 20 j
c) 20 - 60 j

Composition Questions
1.

Suggest two applications for the following types of antennas:

a) curtain array
b) phase array
c) slot antennas

Wireless Communications Systems

6 - 23

_____ Notes _____

Antennas
4.

Sketch the following for a half wave dipole antenna:

a) radiation pattern
b) voltage distribution along the antenna
c) current distribution along the antenna
d) impedance distribution along the antenna
e) show how the directivity can be improved by the use of parasitic
elements

6 - 24

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Antennas

_____ Notes _____

For Further Research

http://www.lingoinc.com/antenna.htm
http://www.jampro.com/jtvidx.html
HTTP://www-ncce.ceg.uiuc.edu/~singh/javahtml/Antenna/ant.html
http://wkweb4.cableinet.co.uk/simon.collings/Propagation/Propagation.htm
http://www.webproforum.com/arraycomm/
http://www.ac6v.com/pageant.html
http://www.borg.com/~warrend/guru.html
http://www.ac6v.com/pageans.html
http://www.bsoftware.com/v2/a19c72p2.htm
http://news.wirelessdesignonline.com/content/hubs/dir.asp?hub=news

Packet Radio
http://www.packetradio.com/

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