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AncientIndiaCulture
Friday,July42014,3:58PM

IndusValleyCivilization
Science&Technology
Astronomy
They were aware of directions given they had trade routes, their dead were buried in NS directions, their town planning made use of directions etc. So they must
haveusedastronomicalbodiestogaugedirection.
RecentlyobservatorieswereexcavatedfromLothalandDholavira.
MedicalScience
TheywereawareofsurgeryasevidenceofskullsurgeryhasbeenfoundfromKalibanganandLothal.
ChemicalScience
Theyuseddifferentcolorsontheirpots.
Mathematics
Weightsandmeasuresofspecificstandardswereused.
Thebrisktradeindicatessomeknowledgeofbasicmathematics.
Metallurgy
Bronzeworking+copper,gold,silverandtinworking.
CivilEngineering
Theyconstructedpublicbuildings,embankments,drains,usedburntbricks.
Theyknewthetechniqueofwaterproofing.
Arts&CraftsTechniques
Industry:Sealmaking,preciousstoneworking,beadmakingandterracottamakingwerequiteadvanced.
Agriculture: They used to plough their fields with wooden ploughs as is evident from terracotta plough figurines from Banwali. Plough furrows discovered in
Kalibangan.Theyalsohadirrigationandwaterconduits(undergroundinsomeareas)andsmallscaleinundationcanals(toleadthewaterwheredesired)havebeen
found.
Architecture(READFROMNCERTALSO)
Features
Used permanent material on a large scale: In villages mud bricks were used with stone being used in foundations and drains. In cities, burnt bricks were used. In
Kutch,stoneswereusedonalargescale.
Planned:ThebrickswerelaidinEnglishbondstyle.Thebrickshadstandardratio.Thereisnocorrelationbetweenplanningandsizeofthesettlement.

Technical knowhow: They knew the technique of waterproofing. Houses had separate bathrooms near the well and the bathing area was sloping towards the drain
andwaterproof.
Secular.
House structure: Houses sizes differ from large to small ones. People generally lived in houses with a central courtyard and rooms surrounding it. Doors and
windowsopenedinsidestreetsnotthemainstreet.Thereweredoublestoriedhousesandstaircasesaswell.Doorsweresometimespaintedorcarved.
Monuments
Citieswerefortified.Theyhadwelllaidoutroadsanddrains.
Greatbath,assemblyhall,granaries.
Pillars
RemainsofstonepillarshavebeenfoundfromDholavira.
Paintings
Theyusedtopainttheoutersideoftheirpotswithgeometricaldesigns,birds,animalsetc.The outer surface of their pots used to be red on which paintings were
madeinblack.
Sculpture
Theymadeuseofmetal,alloys,stonesandterracottafigurines.Terracottamasksandfaiencebangleswerealsomade.
The images were both secular and religious in nature. Examples are numerous terracotta figurines of mother goddess, animals etc., the bearded priest, the bronze
dancinggirl,theredtorsoetc.
Music&Dance
Thestatueofdancinggirlshowstheywereawareofmusicanddance.
Imagesofastringedmusicalinstrumenttoohavebeenfoundonsomepots.
Pottery
Thepotterywasblackonredwarewherebothinnerandoutersurfaceswerered.Ontheouterredsurface,designsofbirds,animals,geometrywerepaintedinblack
color.
Therimsofthepotsarestrongtohelpinliftingthemandmovingaround.Thebottomportionhasadditionalclayaswell.
VedicAge
Science&Technology
Astronomy
Variousastronomicalbodieslikesun,moon,jupiter,venus,mars,saturnarementionedinVedasbutperhapstheirastronomicalsignificancewasmissingandthey
weremoreforastrological/religioususe.
MedicalScience
ThesystemofAyurvedaemergedinthisage.
ChemicalScience
Theyknewfermentationtechniquesandmadesomaras.
Theyknewtanningofleather.
Theyuseddifferentcolorsonpots.
Mathematics
Firealtars.
Metallurgy
Techniqueofbronzemakingandlaterironmakingwerepresent.
Arts&CraftsTechniques
Industry:Carpentryandchariotmakingwereadvancedprofessions.
Architecture
Monuments
Vedictextscontainreferencesofhugepalacesofkingsbutnosuchimposingstructureshavebeenfound.
Wood,mudbricksandthatchedroofswereused.
Stupas
ThetermstupahasbeenreferredtoinRigVedabutnotinthecontextasweknowit.Thetermthenreferredtothefirecomingoutofthesacrificialaltar.
Paintings
Theyusedtopainttheirpots.Theoutersurfaceofthepotswasgreyonwhichtheypaintedfloralandgeometricaldesigns.
Onthegreysurface,bluecolorwasusedtomakethedesigns.
Dance&Music
MusicwitnessedprogressintheformofthehymnsofSamVeda.
Pottery
PGWwasthedistinctivepottery.Itwascoarsewithmediumfabric.Theoutsidesurfacewasgreyonwhichbluefloralandgeometricaldesignsweremade.
PreMauryanAge
Science&Technology
Astronomy
Astrologicalchartsetc.wereprepared.
MedicalScience

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Taxilawasafamouscentreofmedicalscience.Aitrayawasafamousteacherthere.
Bimbisara'spersonaldoctorDhanvantriwasafamousdoctor.
ChemicalScience
ThepolishofNBPWwasveryglossy.Themethodtomakethispolishisalsodescribedindetailincontemporaryworks.
Mathematics
Sulvasutraisatextongeometry.Ittalksaboutcircles,triangles,squaresandrectangles.Ittellshowtomakeacircleequalinareatoasquareorarectangle.
CivilEngineering
Wefindevidencesoffortificationsandembankments.
Arts&CraftsTechniques
Agriculture&industry:Theuseofironbecamewidespread.
Trade:Punchedmarkedcoinscameintoexistence.TheyalongwithNBPWdistributionhelpusintrackingthetraderoutesoftheage.
Architecture
Features
Wood,mudbricks,thatchedroofsetc.wereused.
Stonefortificationswerealsoused.
Monuments
WefindevidencesofwoodenpalisadeinPP.StonefortificationsexistedinRajgirandLicchavirepublic.
Dance&Music
Theywerepatronizedbythecourtwhichmaintainedcourtesans.AmrapaliwasafamouscourtesaninLicchavi.
Sculpture
ThereisareferenceinKingKharvela'sHathigumphainscriptionthatNandakingtookawayajinaimagewhenheconqueredKalinga.
Pottery
ThedistinctivepotteryoftheagewasNBPW.Itwashighlyglossy,mediumtofinefabricandwouldhavebeenusedbyrich.
MauryanAge
Architecture
SEETHETRIANGLESINTHISMAPMAJORROCKEDICTS

Features
Stonemasonryreachednewheights.
ShiningpolishofNBPWwasalsoappliedtothestonepillars.
Permanent material like burnt bricks, stone began to be used again along with wood. It enabled them to construct larger and durable structure which made denser
habitationspossibleandhencegrowthoftownsandspreadofMauryanculture.
Ring wells were another distinct feature. Water could be stored in these and also they could be used for sanitation. Hence it became possible to have denser
habitationsfartherawayfromtherivers.
Itwasbothreligiousandsecularincharacter.
ItwaspanIndianincharacter.
Artandarchitecturereceivedcourtpatronage.Privatemerchantsadcraftsmenalsodonatedforreligiouscauses.
Largemonumentsshowthatarchitecturewastechnologicallyadvanced.
Foreign(Iranian)InfluenceonMauryanArchitecture

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(a)Similarities
TherearesimilaritiesbetweenCGM'spalaceandDarius'.
BothAsokanandArchimideanpillarsusestone,glossypolishandhaveabellshapedpart.BecausetheArchimideanpillarswereolder,theconceptofpillarsitself
wasborrowedbyAsokafromIran.
(b)Differences
CGM'spalacewasmadeofwoodbutDarius'palacewasmadeofstone.
Inpillars,theshaftofAsokanpillarsismonolithicwhereastheArchimideanpillarshavejoints.
TheshaftofAsokanpillarstapersfrombottomtotopwhereasArchimideanpillarsarecylindrical.
TheshaftofAsokanpillarsissmoothwhereasthatofArchimideanpillarshasgotgrooves.
AsokanpillarsareerectedwithoutanysupportbasewhereasArchimideanpillarshaveasupportbase.
ThebellshapedpartofAsokanpillarsisattopwhilethatinArchimideanpillarsisatbottom.Inreality,thesocalledbellshapedpartofAsokanpillarsisaninverted
lotus.
The Asokan pillars were not a part of any other structure. The purpose behind their construction was to engrave instructions and carry them fat. But Archimidean
pillarswerepartofpalaceandtheirjobwastosupporttheroof.
The Asokan pillars have capitals which have sculptures of lions, elephants and bulls. But the Archimidean pillars have no capitals and only images of humans are
engravedontheirshafts.
TheglosspolishwasknowntoIndiansfromNBPWindependentofIran.
Monuments
Stonemasonrywasintroducedonawidescale.ThepalaceofCGMatKumrahar(Patna)had80stonepillars.
DuringAsokantime,thetraditionofwoodenarchgavewaytostonearch.
Pillars
AsokanpillarsmadeuseofwhitespottedredsandstoneinMathuraandgreycoloredsandstoneinChunarandweremonolithinstyle.Onlytheircapitalsinformof
lions,elephantsandbullswerejoinedfromthetop.StonepolishingwasasshinyasNBPW.
Caves
ThepracticeofcuttingcavesintorocksbeganwiththeLomarishicavesinBarabarhillsandalsoNagarjuniHillswhichweredonatedtoAjivikasect.Thesecaves,
however,weresimpleandwithoutmuchornamentation.Buttheirgateswerecarvedoutasifwooden.
Stupas
InitiallystupaswereBuddha'srelicplaces.Thenitgotextendedtohisfollowersaswellandgraduallystupaitselfbecameanobjectofworship.AccordingtoBuddhist
tradition,Asokabuilt84Kstupas.

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SomestupashavebeenfoundinSanchi,Sarnath,Deorkothar,Lumbini.HuenTsangmentionsseeingstupasatTamralipti,Karnasuvarna,Samtata.
Painting
63rocksheltershavebeenfoundinDeorkothar(Rewa,MP)withpaintings.Oneofthemhadapaintingofstupaandatreetogetherenclosedinarailing.
Dance&Music
Itwaspatronizedbythecourtandcourtesansweremaintainedbythecourt.
Nuts,acrobats,singers,musicians,dancerslivedinthesocietyandentertainedthepublicspeciallyonfairsandfestivals.
Sculpture
MultipleimagesofthefolkdeitiessuchasyakshaandyakshiniandanimalssuchaselephantshavebeenfoundfromParkham(Mathura)andPP.
ThecapitalsofAsokanpillarswerebeautifulcarvedimagesandwereaddedlatertothetopofthepillars.
FromDhauli(Odisha),rocksculptureoffrontpartofanelephanthasbeenmade.Itlooksliketheelephantisinforwardmotionandiscomingoutoftherock.
AnakedandheadlesstorsoofajinatirthankarahasbeenrecoveredfromLohanipur(Patna).ThisistheearliestJainaimagefound.
Pottery
NBPWcontinued.
TheLeisurelyActivities
Fairsandfestivalswereorganizedwheremagicians,acrobats,dancers,musiciansandactorsperformed.
Bullfights,chariotraces,horseracesandelephantfights,huntingwerepopularsport.
Bothmenandwomenworeornaments.
Courtesansweremaintainedintheroyalcourt.
Science&Technology
ChemicalScience
TheglossypolishofNBPWcontinued.Inaddition,theglossypolishappearedonAsokanpillars.
CivilEngineering
Useofburntbricksandringwells.
Stonemasonryreachednewheights.
Palaceswereconstructed.Sudarshanlakewasbuilt.
Arts&CraftsTechniques
Trade:TherewasgreatdevelopmentinmeansoftransportasisevidentfromthetransportationofAsokanpillars.
PostMauryanAge(NorthIndia)
Architecture
Features
Burntbrickswerenowusedforflooringandtilesforbothflooringandroofing.Thiswasofindigenousorigin.
Temples
Hindu temples followed 3 main architectural designs oblong, apsidal or square. Examples of oblong are Vishnu temple @ Besnagar, Siva and Vishnu temples @
Dangwada,Vishnutemple@Nagari.ExamplesofapsidalareLakshmitemple@Atiranjikhera,MatrikasandNagatemples@Sonkh.Exampleofsquaretempleis
Sivatemple@Gudimallam.Nagarjunkondacontainstemplesofallthreetypes.
In the oblong temples, there were 2 ellipse. The main shrine was in the inner ellipse which was separated from the outer ellipse by a gap which usually was the
circumambulatorypath.Theouterellipsehadrectangularprojectionleadingouttotheentrance.Thetempleusuallyhadaplinthmadeofbricksormudorstonesand
thesuperstructurewasmadeofwoodandmud.Thetempleswereusuallyeastfacing.
Theapsidaltempleshadapsidalrooms,plinthsofbrickormudorstoneandsuperstructureofwoodandmud.
The Nagarjunkonda temples apart from having all three designs, sometimes had multiple shrines in which case each shrine had a mandapa (pillared hall) too. The
pillarsweremadeofstoneandbrickwasusedforthetemplesuperstructure.
Caves
(a)EvolutionofBuddhistCaveArchitecture
Phase1:ItbeganwiththeconstructionofLomarishiandSudamacavesinBarabarHillsbyAsoka.Theseweresimplecavesandthecaveranparalleltotherock
faceafterentry.Therewasonelargerectangularroomfollowedbyasmallercircularroom.
Phase 2: The second stage (100 BC) showed up at Konditve. The cave was cut perpendicular to the rock face and the inner room now contained a stupa and a
circumambulatorypatharoundit.
Phase3:Thenextstagewaswhenrowsofpillarswerebuiltparalleltothewallscreatingacircumambulatorypassagerightafterentering.Thecentralroofwashigh,
vaultedandsideroofwaslowandhalfvaulted.Bhaja,Pitalkhora,Bedsacavesareexamples.Sometimescells,rockcutbedswerecutaroundthecentralhall.An
exampleisBedsacaves.
Phase 4: During the KshatrapSatvahna kings, caves got royal patronage and became more elaborate and ornamented. The basic features of previous
phase continued. A variety of mithun couples were carved on the gates, the pillars came to have elaborate capitals, the side roof became flat. Multistoried caves
cameup.DoublestoriedviharascameupatKarleandtriplestoriedatAjanta.OtherexamplesareNasikcaves,Junnar,Kanhericaves,Pitalkhora.
(b)JainaCavesvsBuddhistCaves
Jainacaveswerecutinsandstonewhichiseasytocutbutnotgoodforsculpting.ButBuddhistcaveswerecutintohardrocksandwerebetterforsculpting.
The Jaina caves had no congregation halls or rock cut shrines. Later, however, some cells were enlarged into shrines. The Buddhist caves on the other hand had
clearhallsandtheshrinearea.
TheJainacavecellswerecutwherevertherockpermitted.Therewasnoplanning.TheBuddhistcavestructureontheotherhandwaswelllaidout.
The Jaina caves were simple and reflected the asceticism of jina monks. The cells were tiny (not tall enough to stand, not long enough to stretch while sleeping,
smallentrancessoastobendverylow).Theonlyluxurywasoccasionalshelvescutintorocksandslopingflooractingasapillowbutactuallydesignedtokeepof
waterfromaccumulating.Onlytheouterportionswerecarvedsometimes.TheBuddhistcavesontheotherhandwereanelaborateandspaciousaffair.
TheJinacavesareoftwotypesthosewithoutpillarsinverandahorthosewithpillars.Withoutpillarshadcellscutalongthreesidesoftheverandah.Pillarswere
squareattopandbottomandoctagonalatmiddle.
In terms of similarities, the sculptures use similar motifs like animals, plants. The honeysuckle style is similar too. Examples of such caves are Khandgiri and
UdaigiriinPuri.
Stupas
Newlargestupaswerebuilt.Thenewstupashadacircumambulatorypath,astonerailingaroundit,twostaircasesleadinguptoit,thesummitandastoneumbrella
over it. The entire structure was enclosed in stone railings and torandwars on all four sides. Sculpture decoration was found on the railings and the gateways.
ExamplesarethestupasatSanchi,Bharhut,Nagarjunkonda,Amrawati.
Mostearlierstupasusedtohaveasolidcore.However,atransitionwasmadetowardshavingaspokewheelplanatthecentremadeofbricksandthespacesfilled
withmud.SpokedwheelisasymbolofBuddha'sfirstsermon.Bhattiprolustupa(200BC)isfromintermediatephasehavingcentralwheelplan(nospokes).
In AP stupas, at the 4 cardinal points of the raised platform, 5 free standing pillars were erected. These represent the 5 important events in Buddha's life birth,
renunciation,enlightenment,firstsermon,death.
JainastupaisalsofoundinKankali@MathurawhichiscalledDevanirmitStupa.
Pillars
TheBesnagarpillarerectedbytheGreekambassadorHeliodorusisanexample.HewasanambassadortotheSungaking.Itsshaftcontains4partsandithasan
invertedlotusandacapital.
Pottery
Thepotterywasredware,bothplainandpolishedwithfineandmediumfabric.TheredpotterywasofCentralAsianorigin.
Sprinklersandspoutedchannelsarethedistinctivepotsofthisage.
Sculpture
ImageWorship
Thetraditionofimageworshipbecamepopularandnumerousidolsweremade.ImagesofyakshahavebeenfoundfromPawaya,BesnagarwhichrepresentsKuber.
Colossal images of yakshas and yakshis were built in Mathura which disappeared later as the religion got absorbed into the dominant religion. Naga images have
beenfoundatMathuraandKarimnagar.GajaLakshmistoneplaquefromAtiranjikheraandmukhalingafromGudimallamareanotherexamples.InBuddhism,earlier
thetraditionofimageworshipwasabsentandinsteadsymbolsofBuddhawereworshippedalongwiththestupa.Nowimagesbegantobebuilt.
TerracottaimagesweremadeandChandraketugarh,Mathuraemergedasgreatcenters.
BuddhistReliefSculpture
TherailingsandgatewaysofBuddhiststructureswereelaboratelyworkedupon.Humanbodiesalongwithanimals,birdsandotherscameup.Thelandscapedidn't
formabackgroundbutwasverymuchapartofthesculpture.
ThesculpturewasmainlymeanttobeseenfromonesideasagainsttheMauryansculpturewhichwassameasviewedfromanyside.
The sculpture was narratory in nature. It narrated incidents from Buddha's life and Jatak stories. Sometimes these narrations were just one single screenshot of a
storyorsometimesitwasacontinuousnarrationofasequenceofeventswithonescenemergingseamlesslyintothenext.

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Itmadeuseofsymbolstotellthestories.Example,wheelforfirstsermon,birthofbuddhaasMayasittingonalotus,enlightenmentasbodhitree.
TheBuddhistsculpturealsodrewheavilyfromotherreligioustraditions.Forexample,anthromorphs(ofcopperhoards),yaksha,yakshis,nagas,pipal,animalsetc.
TheGandharaSchool
Thisschoolemergedfrom1centBConwards.ItwasnotpatronizedbyIndoGreeksbutbySakasandKushanas.HaddaandBamiyanweremaincenters.
This was a fusion of Greek and Indian styles from the very beginning. The subjects were Indians and the style was GrecoRoman. Thus the mother of Buddha
resembledaGreekgoddesswhileBuddhahimselftoohadanApollolikeface.GreekgodsweredepictedaspayingobeisancetoBuddha.
TheBuddhaofthisschoolisdepictedwithfocusonbodilyfeaturessuchasmuscularbody,curlyhairandsemitransparentclothes.
Initiallytheyusedsoftmaterialsuchaswoodandstucco.Latertheybegantousebluegreystone.
TheMathuraSchool
Itwastheoldestandflourishedfrom2centBConwards.Itwasindigenousinoriginandwaspatronizedbylocalrulers.ButlaterwiththeadventofKushanas,foreign
influencewasvisibleclearly.
InitialsubjectswereBuddha,MahaviraandKanishka.KrishnawasignoredbeforetheGuptaperiod.BeautifulimagesofSivaasardhnariishwarwerebuilt.Krishna,
balramandSuryatoowereitssubjects.
The images have a deep spiritual outlook. Buddha is shown in meditation mode. Focus is not on highlighting the bodily features of Buddha but on his spiritualistic
aura and content on face. Popular depictions of Buddha are in the Padmasanamudra (sitting crossed legged and meditating) and DharmaChakraParivartana
Mudra(givingsermons).
Theyusedwhitespottedredsandstone.
TheAmrawati/VengiSchool
Itflourishedfrom1centBConwardsinVengi,Nagarjunkonda,KurnoolandKrishnaGodavariregion.
ItwasindigenousthroughoutandwaspatronizedbySatvahnas,IkshavakusandlaterVakatakas.
ItmadeimagesofBuddhaandbrahmanicaldeities.
Theseimagesarefamousfortheirfemininebeautyandsensuousappeal.
Theyusedwhitemarbleintheirimages.
Drama
TheGreeksintroducedthecurtaininIndiandrama.
Painting
ThecavepaintingsofAjantabeganinthisperiod.TheywereBuddhistincharacter.
Science&Technology
Astronomy
IndianastronomyandastrologydrewagreatdealfromtheGreeksincludingthetermhorasastra(astrologyinSanskrit)itselffromGreektermhoroscope.Thenames
ofsevendaysandthezodiacsignsallcomefromGreeks.
MedicalScience
CharakbelongedtothisperiodandwasassociatedwithTaxillaschoolofmedicine.
We find many brahmanical texts on medicine written which could have obviously been written by those who had a formal education and yet brahmanical literature
placesmedicalpractitionersatlowlevel.Thusdespitethetheoreticallylowlevelthesocialutilityofsuchprofessionswashighenoughtowarrantformaleducation
andmedicalpractice.Veterinarysciencesdevelopedandbooksonhorsesandelephantswerewritten(obviouslydrivenbymilitaryneeds).
Arts&CraftsTechniques
Industry:Leathershoes,glassmaking(duetocontactwithRomans).
Trade:TheGreekcoinswereagreatimprovementovertheilldesignedpunchmarkedcoins.PlinytellsusthatIndianshipswere75tonnesandsomeothersources
tellustheycouldcarry700persons.
Agriculture:AhydrauliclifthasbeenfoundinSringverapurawhichmaynothavebeenusedforirrigationpersebutthetechnologyformovingwaterbyvaryingthe
water levels may have been derived from or influenced irrigation. We also find the use of wheel to draw water from the well. The literature as well as inscription
provideampleevidenceoftanks,wellsandembankments.
Metallurgy
IndianironandsteeltechnologiesmaderapidadvancementsandlargenumberofironimplementsweremadewhichwereevenexportedtoAbyssinianports.
CivilEngineering
TheSudarshanlakewasrepairedbyRudradaman.
Cavearchitectureprogressed,highlyornamentedmultistoriedviharaswerebuilt.
PostMauryanAge(Satvahnas)
Architecture
UseofBurntBricksandTiles
FromPeddabankur(Karimnagar),wehavefounduseofflatbakedbricks,perforatedrooftilesand22brickwells.Thisfacilitateddensehabitationasitaddressedthe
issuesofsanitation,drinkingwateranddurabilityofstructures.
Fortifications
TheSatvahnatownswerefortified.Plinytalksofover30walledtowns.
Caves
ThetraditionofcuttingintorocksreachednewheightsunderSatvahnas.ItbecameassociatedwitBuddhismandmanychaityas(shrines)andviharas (monasteries)
werecutoutinrocks.FamouschaityaisatKarleandviharasatNasik.Chaityawasalargehallwithanumberofpillars.Viharawasalargehallwhichwasenteredby
adoorwhichseparateditfromtheverandahinfront.
Stupas
FamousstupasareatAmaravatiandNagarjunkonda.
SangamStatesinTamilLand
Literature
TheSangamtextsarethemostimportantpiecesofwork.TheywerecomposedbybrahmansofPrakritSanskritlearning.
Tamil text Tolkkapiyam deals with grammar and poetics and Tirukkal with philosophy. Then there are epics Silappadikaran and Manimekalai. Silappadikaran was
writtenbyaJainascholarandisalovestoryofadignitarypreferringacourtesanoverhiswife.Manimekalaiistheadventurestoryofhisdaughter.Theseepicsthrow
lightonthesocioeconomiclifeoftheSangamage.
GuptaAge
ReligiousPractices
Idolworshipreacheditstruepopularityinthisage.Theagriculturalfestivalswerealsogivenmuchoftheirreligiouscolorandfanfareinthisage.
Paintings
ThegreatestspecimenofBuddhistartinGuptatimesistheAjantacavepaintings.Theywerebuiltfromaperiodspanningfrom1centto7centAD.Butmostwork
was done in Gupta age. They depict various scenes from the life of Buddha and his previous births. They are life
like,naturalandhavebrilliantcolorsevenafterallthesecenturies.Ajantapaintingsweredominatedbybuddha,bodhistava,jatakstories,naturalscenery,animals
etc.ButitcannotbesaidthatGuptaspatronizedthesepaintings.
Eventhoughthethemeisreligiousinmostpaintings,wealsofindaglimpseofthelivesoftheprinces,kings,samantasetc.inthem.Butthereisnoreflectionofthe
commonman'slifeinthesepaintings.Inthiswaytheyreflectthecontemporarysocietyanditsvaluesaswell.
Bagha paintings have a materialistic theme and tell us about the contemporary clothing style, hair styles, makeup, ornaments etc. Bagha paintings were made in
GuptaperiodonlyasagainsttheAjantapaintingswhichwerespreadovermultipleperiods.Sotheyhavemoreuniformity.Theyalsohavemoresecularthemeand
scenesandthusaremorevaluableasahistoricalsource.
Boththefrescoandthetemperastyleswereused.Thefrescostylepaintingsaremadeonwetplasterandthetemperastylepaintingsaremadeondryplaster.
Kamasutratellsusthatpaintingwasanestablishedformofartandwasstudiedinasystematicway.
Sculpture
TheMathura,theGandharaandtheAmaravatischoolscontinuedandnewschooldevelopedatBenaras/Sarnath.PPalsobecameanimportantcenter.
Statuesweremadeofbothstoneandmetalsandcarvedoncaves,templesorfreestanding.Thereliefsculptureshowedscenesfromreligionaswellaseveryday
life.
StatuesofBuddhawerebuiltatMathuraandSarnath.Buddhaimagesnowhadmoremudrasandworetransparentclothes.OnebronzeimageofBuddhahasbeen
foundfromSultanganj.TheBuddhaimagesfromeastUPandBiharshowBuddhainaserenespiritualform(asagainsttheemphasisonthebodyasintheGandhara
form).TheimageshadalargeandclearprabhamandalasagainsttheGandharaimageswheresuchafeaturewasnotprominent.TheBuddhistreliefsculpturemade
anattempttoabsorbtheyaksha,gandharva,apsaratraditionsbydepictingthemontheirreliefsculpture.
ImagesofJinatirthankaraswerealsosculpted.InscriptionsatUdayagiri(Vidisha)andKahaum(Gorakhpur)talkaboutestablishingtirthankaraimages.
ForthefirsttimeimagesofHindugodswerebuilt.Sometimestheseimagesweresoloandsometimestheimageofthemaingodwasaccompaniedwithotherminor
gods.Vishnuimagesinhuman,varahaswellasanthromorphicforms.Shivaimagescameupinlingaandanthromorphicforms.Imageswereoftenmoresymbolic

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thanrepresentationalthusthegodsandgoddessesmayhavemultiplehandseachholdingasymbol.
Architecture
Features
Bothreligiousandsecularcharacterwasvisiblethoughreligiouswasmoreprominent.
Templearchitecturecameup.Thefirststylewasthenagarastyle.
Therewasincreasinguseofreusedorbrokenbricks.Eg.BhitainAllahbad.
Guptaperiodcanbecalledthegoldenageofsculptureandimagemaking.Butthesamecan'tbesaidforarchitecturebecausethetemplearchitectureform(nagara)
justemergedinthisphaseandyetitpeakedonlyinthepostGuptaage.ThuswhileimpressivebuddhistviharasandchaityascanbeseenfromtheGuptaage,we
havetowaituntilthe8thcenturytoseeimpressivetemples.
Monuments
TheBuddhistuniversityofNalandacameupinthisage(5centAD).Itsearlieststructuresweremadeofbricksinthisage.
JinatempleswereconstructedmostlyinSIndiabyKadambas.TheHoskote(Bangalore)andBanavasiinscriptionareexampleswhichmentionoflandgrantstosuch
temples.
Temples
Thefirstbrickandstonetempleswerebuiltinthisage.TheywereofNagarastyle.

Theearlytemplewasbuiltonaraisedplatform.Therewasamaindeityroomcalledgarbhagrihathentworowsofpillarsleadingtoasmallerroominthefrontofthe
garbhagrihacalledthemandapa.Themandapawasusedtohousethedevotees.Thegarbhagrihahadaflatroofandapoleontop.Theentirecompoundwaslike
andenclosedcourtyardandwalledwithgatesforentryandexit.Templewallswereplainbutthedoorwayswereprofuselycarved.Templesweregenerallybuiltfrom
rock.
Examples of such brick temples are Bhitargaon (Kanpur), Paharpur (Rajshahi, Bangladesh), Sirpur (Raipur, Chattisgarh), Vishnu temple @ Deogarh and Tighwa,
Shivatemple@BhumraandKoh,Parvatitemple@Nachna.ThereareremainsofatemplefromDahParbatiainAssam.
LatertheinfluenceofDravidianstylealsobecamevisible.Thetemplehadaplinthandashikhara.Thepillarsofthesetempleshavecapitalsintheformofkalash.
Deogarhtempleisonesuchexamplewithavimanaontop.
Caves
TheBuddhistcavesincludeBaghacaves,MandargiriandUdaigiri.Thepillarswererichlycarvedandonthestupa,aBuddhawascarved.Intheviharas,ashrine
roomwasnowintroduced.
ShivacaveswerebuiltinElephanta.
Pillars
TheMehrauliironpillar.
TheBhitaristonepillarinscriptionofSkandagupta.
Stupas
The independent stupa building activity lost momentum. Few examples are Dhamekh stupa @ Sarnath, Charsada, Taxila. However, the stupa building in Buddhist
cavescontinued.
Drama
Two things are evident from plays of this age. First, the higher classes speak Sanskrit whereas shudras and women speak Prakrit. Second, none of them are
tragedies.
TheSanskritdramaMrichchakatika(bySudrak)wascomposedinthisage.Itwasthelovestoryofabrahmaninlovewiththedaughterofacourtesan.
13playswerewrittenbyBhasa.
Literature
AdifferentornatestyleofSanskritwasdevelopedduringthisperiodwhichwasdifferentfromtheoldsimpleSanskrit.Greateremphasiswaslaidonkavya than on
prose. The audience of the kavya literature was mainly an urbanite and it was played in goshtis and festivals. This literature was not for religious purposes but
focusedonurbanlife.
ThetransitionfromPrakrittoSanskritinroyalinscriptionswascomplete.
Patanjali composed Mahabhashya and Panini composed Ashthadhyayi. Amarsimha composed Amarkosha. Kamandak wrote Nitisara and Vatsayan wrote
Kamasutra.

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Theepics,thesutrasetc.werecompiledinthisage.PanchatantratoowaswrittenunderVakatakas.Variouscommentariesonphilosophicalschoolswerewrittenin
thisperiod.
Playswereromanticcomediesandtragedywasavoided.MrichchhakatikawaswrittenbyShudrakandgivesadescriptionofurbanlife.Mudrarakshashawaswritten
byVishakhadutta.
Dance&Music
Guptarulerspatronizedmusicanddanceandsomerulersthemselveswereindulgedinit.Samudraguptaisdepictedasplayingveenainsomeofhiscoins.
Thegrowthoftemplesledtogrowthofdanceandmusicaswell.Theinstitutionofdevdasisbegan.
Science&Technology
Metallurgy
BronzeandirontechnologiesadvancedfurtherasevidentfromtheMehraulipillarandBuddha'sbronzestatues.
Astronomy
AryabhattacameupwithAryabhattikain5centAD.Healsogavetruereasonfortheoccurrenceofeclipsesandmeasuredthecircumferenceofearth.Hebelieved
thatearthwassphericalandrotatedonitsownaxis.
Varhamirain6centADexplainedthemovementofsomeheavenlybodiesinhisbookBrihadSamhita.
Previously the year was divided into 3 units of 4 months each. Now it came to be divided into 12 equal lunar
months.Thiswasusefulforagriculturaloperations.(MatharasofOdisha)
Mathematics
Aryabhattacameupwithzero,threevariableequations,conceptofplacevalueandthedecimalsystem.
MedicalScience
Benarasschoolwasafamousschoolofsurgery.Sushrutacamefromthere.
DhanvantriwasagreatphysicianandinthecourtofCGV.
PalkapyawroteHastiAyurveda.SialhotrawroteAsvaShastra.
Nagarjunadiscoveredmedicinalpropertiesofcertainmetalsandherbaljuices.
ChemicalScience
VarhamiraandKalidasaintheirrespectiveworkstalkaboutthemethodofpreparingvariouscoloredpastes.
ThepaintingsincavesofAjantaandBaghauserichcolors.
CivilEngineering
BricktemplesbegantobeconstructedintheNagarastyle.
Arts&CraftsTechniques
Trade:Shipbuildingindustryflourished.Largeshipscapableofcarrying500personswerebuilt.
AnEstimateofGuptaAge
Aryabhatta'sandVarahmihira'sprincipleswerenotallindigenous.THeyhadalsoborrowedfromtheRomansandtheGreeks.
Kalidasa'sworkarenotasymbolofanyHinduintellectualrenaissancebuttheyaremerelyadevelopedformofanolderstyleofwriting.Evenpuranasandepicswere
composedinearlierage,Guptascholarsmerelycompiledthem.
BhaktimovementinVishnuandSivasectswasnotanewphenomenon.Itwasamerecontinuationandstrengtheningofanolderstrand.
PostGuptaAge
Thegrowingfeudalorderinthesocietylimitedinterregionalmobilityandgaveaboosttothedevelopmentofregionalculturalstrands.Eventheinscriptionsareinall
differentscriptssuchthatevenifweknowGuptabrahmiscript,itwouldbedifficulttoreadvariousregionalinscriptions.
Science&Technology
Astronomy
Brahmaguptain7centADinhisbookBrahmaSphutiSiddhantatalkedaboutvariousastronomicalinstrumentsandsuggestsobservationbasedastronomy.
Bhaskaracharyain12centADinhisbookSiddhantaShiromaniexplainedthemotionofheavenlybodies.
MedicalScience
Vaghavattain8centADwroteAshtangaHridayawhichexplainedthefunctioningofdifferentpartsofheart.DhanvantriwroteNighantu.
ChemicalScience
Indianchemistsmadegreatprogressinalchemy(duetotantricandmagicinfluence).Theyweretryingtoconvertmetalslikeiron,copperetc.intogold.Obviously
theydidn'tsucceedinthatbutintheprocesstheymademanyacidsandbases.
Mathematics
Bhaskaracharya'sbookhadanelaboratechapteronmathematicscalledLeelavati.
Brahmaguptadevelopedtheconceptofcyclicalquadrilaterali.e.sumofthetheoppositeanglesofaquadrilateralis180ifallitsverticeslieonacircle.
Metallurgy
Largeumberoffinebronzesculpturesweremadespeciallyofthenatrajatheme.
CivilEngineering
Largeembankments,canalsetc.werebuiltinthisperiodforirrigationalpurposes.
Hugetempleswerealsobuilt.
Arts&CraftsTechniques
AgricultureTechnology:Irrigationincreased,useofanimalsforthreshingandmillingsugarandoil,persianwheel,anduseofonehumpedcamelindryareas.
ManufacturingTechnology:Cottongincameupinweaving.
MilitaryTechnology:Leatherandwoodenstirrupsweretherebutironstirrups,concavesaddlesandironhorseshoewereabsent.Horsearcherywasalsoabsent.Use
offirearmsandmangonelswasabsentaswell.
Architecture
Features
Religious.
Courtpatronage.
Rockcut,shapedoruseofpermanentmaterial.
Theydidn'tusearch,vault,domeandmortar.Sowhentheybegantoconstructhugebuildingstherewasnowayotherthanconstructingtaperingpyramidicaltopsor
toinstallthickpillarstosupportheavybeams.Solargerandlargerstoneshadtobeusedandthisnecessitatedtheneedforsculptingthemforaestheticappeal.
Highlyornamented,elaborate,massiveandadvancedtechnology.
Multidimensionali.e.manyformsofarchitecturewerepursued.
Indigenous.
The notion that the architect must remain anonymous was belied in the temples of this age and the most famous architect was Kokasa. Individual enterprise and
style was encouraged but at the same time texts were written on architecture (vastusastra) which led to some standardization. It also proves that despite the
brahmanical literary rhetoric, architect caste was not held in low esteem in reality (otherwise why a brahman would study architecture and write a text on it).
Similarly shilpashastras were written on sculpture. The sutradhara was an exalted position and he supervised the construction activity while the stapathi was the
masterbuilder.Someofthemevenreceivedlandgrantsandwereheldasbelongingtothevisvakarmalineage.
Styles
The dravida style temples: It was prevalent in the south of Krishna river. In the phase 1, the main feature was building pyramidical shikhara above
the garbhgriha (chief deity room). The shikhara had a dome at the top and this entire structure was called vimana. Later in phase 2, in front of the vimana was a
pillared hall with elaborately cared pillars and flat roof called mandapa. A circumambulatory path was provided around the garbhgriha and images of multiple gods
werecarvedalongthispassage.Theentirestructurewaswalledandhadloftygatescalledgopuram.Inphase3,additionalstructuresbegantocomeupinthetemple
complexandtheygrewhorizontallyandbecamemoremassive.AjantaandElloraareexamplesaswell.
The nagara style was prevalent north of Vindhyas. It consists of (a) a square elevated platform with a number of projections in the middle of each side giving it a
cruciformshape,and(b)inthelateragetheflatroofedtemplesgavewaytoashikhara(whichreflectedthetemple'splan)onthemainshrineandsmallershikharas
onthesecondaryshrines.
Therathtemplestyle:Intherathtemples,entirerockwascutandshapedfromoutsidetogiveittheshapeofatemple.Beautifulimageswerethencarvedonit.
The Chalukyas of Badami patronized the vesara style (prevalent between the Krishna and the Vindhyas) which was a fusion of the dravidian style and the nagara
style.Suchexamplesarefound@AiholeandPattadakal.ItwasprevalentfromVindhyastoKrishna.Likedravidianstyleithadavimana,amandapaandinsome
casesanadditionalopenmandapa.Likenagarstylethevimanawasheavilysculpted.Likenagarastyleitscircumambulatorypathwasopen.Likenagarastylethe
outerwallshadchariotscarvedoutonthem.OtherexamplesareJainatemplesinDharwadandKalleshwartempleinKukanoor(Hyderabad).
Caves
ThePallavas:Theybuiltthecavetemplesof4thgenerationwithelaboratepillarsandornamentedentries.ThiswasundertheMahindrastyle(64074AD)andthe
Mamallastyle(64074AD).Thecavepillarsaresquarefrombottomandtopandoctagonalinthemiddle.Thesecavesarelesscomplexthanthose@Ajantaand
Ellora.

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TheChalukyasofBadami:Theytoopatronizedcavearchitecture.4thgenerationcaveswerecut.
ElloraCaves
PoliticalDimension:Theyrepresentdifferentdynasties.ThefamousKailashnathtemplewasbuiltbyRashtrakutas.
ReligiousDimension: They represent different different religions. Caves are there from Jaina, Buddhist and Hindu traditions. Even in Hindu tradition, they represent
multiplegodsandmultipleformsofthesamegodaswell.TheBuddhistcagesrepresentthelastinthetraditionofBuddhistcavecutting.Itshowsadevelopment
overpreviousstyles.Theyaremultistoreyedandhighlyornamented.TheKailashnathtemplecontainsimagesofShivapantheonaswellasVishnu.
ArchitecturalFeaturesDimension:Theyrepresentmultiplestylesofarchitecture.ThefamousKailashnathtemplehasasuperstructureinDravidianstyle.Itismulti
storeyedandhighlyornamented.
Temples
The Ganga rulers of Odisha: They patronized temples between 812 cent AD. The Lingaraja temple @ Bhubneswar, Jagannath temple @ Puri and Sun temple @
Konark were all built during this period. The Odisha temples have pyramidical shikharas on their mandaps as well. They also typically have chariots carved out on
theirouterwalls.Moreoverthemainshikharahasmultiplesmallershikharasatthetop.Thereisagateineachdirection.ThesculptureoftheKonarktempleshows
clearevidenceoftantricinfluencelikethetemplesofKhajuraho.
TheSolankirulersofGujarat:TheypatronizedmanytemplesinMt.Abu.TheDilawaraandTejpalatemplesaremostfamousAbutemples.Whitemarblewasusedin
construction.TheyalsobuilttheKarnamerutemple@AnhilwaraandRudramallahtemple@Siddhpur.ThetemplesofGujaratareimmenselyrichandwerestudded
withsemipreciousandpreciousstones.Suchalavishtemplebuildingwaspossibleonlyduetoimmenseprosperitybroughtbythetrade.Italsoreflectedthehigh
levelofskillsmasteredbytheguildsofsculptorsinGujarat.Acharacteristicfeatureofthisstylewasthepresentofbawrisinthebasementforwaterstorage.
TheChandelarulersofBundelkhand:TheypatronizedtheKhajurahotemples.Thesetemplesarebuiltofgraniteandredsandstone.Kanderiyatemple@Khajurahois
the only temple in Khajurao to have shikhara (reflecting Dravidian influence). The central Indian temples are known for their extensive use of richly carved pillars.
Eachmandapahasthinshikharas.Thekhajuraotemplesareinpanchyatanstylei.e.therearesmallertemplesonthe4cornersoftheplinth.Alltemplesarebuilton
aplinth.Thesetemplesclearlyshowtheinfluenceoftantricism.
The Pallavas: Their architecture was divided into the Mahindra style (61040 AD), the Mamalla style (64074 AD), the Rajsimha style (674800 AD) and the
Nandivarmanstyle(800875AD).CavetemplescalledmandapswerecutinMahindrastyle.Theywereessentiallychaityasandviharasof4thgeneration.Examples
are @ Pallavaram and Mahendrabad. In the Mamalla style, rath temples were cut in addition to the cave temples which became more ornamented. There are 5
Pandavarathas.Examplesofbothstylesare@Mahabalipuram.IntheRajsimhastyle,caveandrathatempleswerediscontinuedandindependentdravidianstyle
temples emerged. Examples are the Shore temple @ Mahabalipuram and Kanchi. In the Nandivarman style, the Pallava power was on a decline and this was
reflectedinthetemplesaswellwhichbecamesmallerandlesselaborate.Examplesare@KanchiandGudimallam.
The Cholas: They picked up on the the dravidian style and took it to new heights. The early Chola temples were relatively small and superb in simplicity. One
example is the Narttamalai temple of 9th cent a free standing temple facing some rock cut caves. From 11th cent AD the vimanas (pyramidical shaped) and
gopurams (which gradually overwhelmed the shikharas) became massive. The garbhgriha was entered by one or more massive mandaps with multiple pillars. The
balancedproportionofthestructuregaveitaestheticquality.Thetemplecomplexgrewhorizontallyasnumeroussmallerstructurescameup.Thiswaslinkedtothe
militaryvictoriesoftheCholakings.Examplesare@Padupattu&Tanjore.Aftertheredeclinewecanseethatnoattemptwasmadetomaintainthegrandeurofthe
templesandthisisareflectionoftheeconomicdeclinewhichhadsetin.
Kerala: Here the temples were made of wood instead of stone and many temples were circular in form the circular sanctum being surrounded by concentrically
arrangedareas.
The Chalukyas of Badami: The Chalukyan temples evolved from Gupta style and their architecture developed into the Vesara style which is a fusion of dravidian
style and nagara style. Examples are some temples @ Aihole & Patdakal. The Durga temple @ Aihole is a continuation of the Buddhist chaitya plan. Aihole had
megalithicstoneworshipcentersinthevicinityandthusemergedasasacredtown.Cavetemplesarelocated@Badami.TheLadkhantemple@Aiholehasaflat
roofandapillaredmandapa.ThecomparisonofplansofLadkhantempleandtheVirupakshatempleshowustherapidityofthechangeinarchitecturalstyles.
TheHosyals:TheybuiltelaboratetemplesinHalebid,SomnathpuraandBelur.Theirtemplesareknownforexcellenceinreliefsculpture.Earliertheyjustpickedup
fromtheChalukyastyle.Graduallytheybecamemoreornate(theybegantousesoapstoneratherthansandstonewhichissofter).Thegroundplanofthesetemples
wasnolongerrectanglebutstarshapedorpolygonalandthewholecomplexwasbuiltonaraisedplatform.Therewasnotsomuchemphasis(asinCholatemples)
on shikharas and gopurams and thus the overall temples appear 'flat'. On the temple walls elaborate sculpting is done using animal and floral motifs, musicians,
dancers,battlescenes,andreligiousliteratureevents.Thestarshapedplanprovidedmorespaceforsculpting.Thewide,circularpillarsareadistinctivefeature.
Sculpture
TempleRelief
Thetemplewallswerecarvedwithimagesofgodsandgoddessesandtheirattendants,yakshaandyakshis,kingsandqueensetc.
Theyshowscenesofwars,love,danceandmusic.TheTiruparantikformofDivaispopularintheBrihadeshwaratemple@Tanjore.
In N India the sculpture @ Khajurao, Odisha shows clear tantric influences. The sculptures are exquisitely materialistic in appearance an reflect the contemporary
society.Wecanseethecosmetics,clothingstyle,hairstylesetc.ofwomeninthesociety.
ThePallavasculpturewasinspiredmorefromtheBuddhisttraditionofAmaravatischoolandremainedlinearandavoidedoverornamentationsomethingwhichwas
presentintheChalukyansculpture.
IndependentSculpture
The bronze dancing figure of Shiva i.e. Natraja became a popular theme under Cholas and Rashtrakutas. The dancing Siva has 2 types angry and pacific
symbolizingthecreationanddestructionofuniverse.ThesnakeistheornamentandGangainhishairlocks.Twobackhandsholdaflameandadrumwhilethefront
handsareinabhayamudraandonepointsdowntowardsfeet.
Thebronzeimagesusedlostwaxtechnique.ThesefiguresweresolidfrominsideunliketheNIndiansculpturewhichwashollowfrominside.
Imagesofkingsandqueenswerealsobuiltinthisperiodandplacedinthetemples.
World'slargestmonolithicstatueistheJinastatueofGomteswarispresentatSravanaBelgola(Hassan,Karnataka).
InSIndia,therewasatraditionofherostonesorviragals.Theyholdaswordinrighthand,bow/shieldinleftandarrowsonshoulder.Usuallythereisaninscription
recordingthedeedsofthehero.
InNIndiatheimageslackthegrandeuroftheGuptaageprobablybecausenowtheyweremostlyofgodsandgoddessestobeusedmostlyforworship.
Painting
TheChalukyasofBadami:ThecavepaintingsofElloraandElephantabelongtothisperiodandcontainthemesofsecularnature,brahmanicalreligion,Buddhismas
wellasJainism(Ellora).OnecavepaintingshowsPulakesinIIreceivingaPersianambassador.
TheRashtrakutas:TheycontinuedtheElloraandElephantacavepaintings.KailashtemplewasbuiltbyKrishnaI.
Dance&Music
Templesplayedavitalrolethroughtheinstitutionofdevdasis,employingdancers,musicians,singersetc.andalsothroughmultiplefestivalsfromthePallavaperiod
onwards.Thedevdasisinitiallyalsocomposedpoemsandperformedsometempleritualswhichwererelatedtotheideaofthespecialpowerembeddedinwomen(a
S Indian original concept) and rituals and dance were an expression of it. But gradually this was later misused to providing entertainment to influential priests and
persons.
Firstbooksonmusicbegantocomeup.NaradwroteSangeetamKaranand,SomeshwarwroteManollas.
Literature
WhileSanskritwasthelanguageoftheelites,aremarkablefeaturewasthegrowthinliteratureofregionallanguages.Bytheendofthisage,regionallanguageshad
overtakensanskrit.
Theliteratureofthisagealsomentionsbrahmanicalritualslessfrequentlyindicatinggrowthofbhakti.Eroticmysticismalsofindsitswayintotheliteratureoftheage
reflectingtheinfluenceofbhakti.Bilhana'sChaurpanchasikaandJayadeva'sGeetGovindaareexamples.
MediumofinstructionofformallanguagewasSanskritwhichshowsitsgrowingdistancefromdaytodaylife.Professionaleducationwasprovidedbytheguilds.But
insomeprofessionswedofindsanskritworksbeingwrittenindicatingsomeconfluence.
JainaLiterature
SanskritalsobegantobewidelyusedbyJainasandBuddhistsbythistime.Thejainaswereprolificinwritingbiographies,chroniclesofkingsandcourtsandtexts
onreligion.Hemchandra(12thcent)andMerutunga(14thcent)werefamousscholars.AninterestingaspectwaswritingstoriesonRamafromajainaperspective.
Thejainsinsistedonliteracyandthuspreservedandrecopiedtheirtextsasatreasuryinthejainatemples.Thesedevelopedintoimpressivelibraries.Bynowanew
shardascriptwasusedwhichwasclosertodevanagarithanbrahmi.
Sanskrit
In most sanskrit works of the age we find lack of original and innovative thinking. They were merely commentaries on old subjects from epics etc. This age also
lacksimportanttextsonpoliticslikeArthasastraandNitisara.Focuswasmoreonlinguisticproficiency.ThespreadofSanskritgrewinSIndiaalongwiththespread
ofBrahmansandbecauseoftheproximitytokingsmuchoftheliteraturehaspoliticalmotives.
TherewasatrendofgrowingornatestyleinSanskritchampionedbyBanabhatta.Thiswasspeciallybecauseoftheroyalpatronagescholarsusedtoreceive.This
periodwitnessedthegrowthofkavyaaswellasgrammar.
TherewasagrowingtrendofwritinghistriographieslikeKalhanaandBilhana(Vikramankdevcharitahistoricalepicbutwrittentopleaseakingwhohadusurpedthe
thronefromhiselderbrother).Attemptsweremadetoprovidevanshavaliswheredescentwastracedfrommythologicallines.
Anewstyleknownas"shleshastyle"emerged.AnexampleisShrutikirti'sDwisandhanwhichwhenreadfromlefttorighttellsthestoryofRamaandwhenreadfrom

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righttolefttellsthestoryofKauravs.
Brahmagupta,Bhaskaracharya,VaghavattaandKalhanawroteinthisage.SanskritdictionarywascomposedinthiserabyAmarsimha(Amarkosha).Importantplays
wereMudrarakshahbyVishakhdatta,BalRamayanandBalBharatbyRajshekhar.
Sanskrittextsonvariousprofessionslikekrishiparashar,shilpashastras,vastushastras,veterinarysciencesetc.werewrittenreflectingsocialpriorities.
RegionalLanguages
Prakrit:ItgraduallybecameveryheavyandlostouttoPaliandSanskritandevenJainascholarsbegantowriteinSanskritwhilebuddhistscholarsinPali.
Tamil>AlvarsandNaynarsaintspopularizeditfrom69AD.Theirwritingswerecollectivelycompiledin12thcentandcalledTirumurais.Tamilliteraturewitnessed
great development. Sometime the subjects were taken from Sanskrit works like Kamban wrote Ramayna in Chola period but it was not merely a translation of the
Valmiki ramayna as the style, treatment of gender and even the narrative was varied according to the local tradition. Thus he treats Ravan in a much more
sympathetic way than Valmiki. In the Pallava age the tamil poems contain rich description of general country life as well as the town life in Kaveripattnam.
ConfidenceinTamilcanbeseeninitsusealongwithSanskritininscriptions.
Kannada>Amoghavarsha(Rashtrakutaking)wrotethefirstworkinKannadapoetry.ItwaspatronizedbyRashtrakutas,ChalukyasandHosyals.Pampa,Ponnaand
Ranna(the3Kannadajewels)wroteinthisage.
Apbhramsha > The Rashtrakutas patronized it and many poets in this language lived in their courts. The doha style of writing began to come up in this age and
speciallypopularizedbythebhaktimovement.ThebhaktisaintsalsopopularizedotherlanguageslikeOdiya,Bengali.
Telugu>ItwaspatronizedbyRashtrakutas,ChalukyasandHosyals.MahabharatawaswrittenunderChalukyankings.
Vijaynagar
Architecture
Features
Religiousaswellassecular.
Courtpatronage.
Rockcut,shapedoruseofpermanentmaterial.
Highlyornamented,elaborate,massiveandadvancedtechnology.
Multidimensionali.e.manyformsofarchitecturewerepursued.
Inthe14thcentury,itwasinfluencedbydeccanistyleofChalukyasandRashtrakutas.During15thcentury,atypicalVijaynagarstylecalledprovidastyleemerged.
Basicallyitwasanadvancedversionofthedravidianstyle.In17thcent,thenayakstyleemerged(nayakswerethefeudatoriesofVijaynagarkings).
Temples
In the provida style, the structures of the chief god and goddess were separated and the goddess structure was called shrine of the "Amma". A new structure
calledkalyanmandapcameupwhichwasusedfortheceremonialunionofthechiefgodandthegoddess.Athousandpillarhallwascreatedinthetemplecomplex
forthedevotees.Thegopuramsbecamebiggerandmoreornamented.
ExamplesareViruprakashtempleandHazaraswamitemple@Hampi.
Thenayakstyletempleswerebiggerandmoreornamented.ExampleisMeenakshitemple@Madurai.
Monuments
Palaces,queens'baths,stablesetc.wereconstructed.ExampleisLotuspalaceofKrishnadevrai.
Sculpture
Secularsculpturedevelopedwithbronzeimagesmadeofkingsandqueens.

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